Chapter III: Part 3

=Symbols of God the Son.=[3] The symbols of Christ are the glory, aureole, or nimbus, the cross, lamb, and lion. However, from the beginning of Christian art, Christ has been represented by portraits rather than symbols, and these portraits are always unmistakable.

Photo. Alinari

THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST BY ST. JOHN.—VERROCCHIO

(Academy, Florence.)]

=Symbols of the Holy Ghost.= From the sixth century the dove has been the universal symbol of the Holy Ghost. The representation of the Saviour surrounded by seven doves is highly symbolical. They are emblems of the seven gifts of the spirit with which He was endowed—wisdom, understanding, counsel, strength, knowledge, piety, and fear (Is. xi). During the Middle Ages seven was considered a mystic number. There were seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; seven planets; seven days of the week; seven branches on the candlestick of Moses; seven sacraments; seven stars; seven liberal arts; seven symbolic trumpets; seven churches of Asia; seven mysterious seals; seven heads of the Dragon; seven penitential psalms; seven joys and seven sorrows of the Virgin; seven deadly sins; seven canonical hours.

=Symbols of the Trinity.= In early art the Divine Three in One was symbolised by the combination of three triangles, three circles, three fishes, and in later art by three human figures, each with its peculiar attribute. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the dove was often represented hovering between the first and second persons of the Trinity with the tips of the wings touching the lips of each.

FOOTNOTES:

[3] See Appendix.

VII.—ARCHANGELS[4]

The seven archangels who stood in the presence of God are frequently referred to in Scripture. These are: _Michael_, _Gabriel_, _Raphael_, _Uriel_, _Chamuel_, _Jophiel_, _Zadkiel_.

From the standpoint of art, however, it is necessary to consider only the characteristics of the first three, who are venerated as saints in the Catholic Church. These, by their majestic and gracious beauty, and their accredited mission as counsellor, messenger, and healer to mankind, have inspired some of the most poetical and beautiful works of art.

=St. Michael.= _Lat._ Sanctus Michael Angelus. _Ital._ San Michele, Sanmichele. _Fr._ Monseigneur Saint Michel.

Poetry and art have united in giving St. Michael pre-eminence over all created spirits. All the glory of princedoms, powers, virtues, dominations, and thrones radiate from him, and God manifested His glory in him when He made him victor over the power of sin and over the “great dragon that deceived the world.”

The worship of St. Michael became general in France from the ninth century, and he was made the patron saint of France, and of the military order instituted in his honour by Louis XI., in 1469. This worship extended to England after the Norman Conquest, and churches dedicated to St. Michael are found in all the towns and cities along the southern and eastern shores.

St. Michael is also the angel of good counsel.

Photo. Alinari

THE THREE ARCHANGELS.—BOTTICELLI

(Academy, Florence.)]

He is represented in three characters in art: as patron saint and prince of the Church Militant; as captain of the hosts of heaven and conqueror of the powers below; as lord of souls,—the conductor and guardian angel of the spirits of the departed.

In all representations of St. Michael in art the leading _motif_ is the same. He is young and beautiful, with a severe, imperious beauty. In early art he is represented in white, with large many-coloured wings, and carries only the sceptre, or the lance surmounted by a cross, as one who conquered sin by spiritual power alone. In later representations—those imbued with the spirit of chivalry, he becomes the idealised expression of knighthood, and is attired in a magnificent coat of mail, with shield and spear and sword. Sometimes he wears a helmet; more often his long, fair hair is confined by a jewelled tiara, or floats loose upon his shoulders, the only angelic attribute being the wings that spring resplendent from his shoulders.

In devotional pictures of St. Michael, he is represented as captain of the heavenly host and conqueror of the Evil One. He is armed and stands with his foot on the half-human, half-dragon form of Lucifer, whom he is about to pierce with his lance or to hurl down into the infernal regions. This representation is the universal symbol of the ultimate victory of good over evil.

When St. Michael is portrayed as lord of souls he is unarmed. He holds a balance and upon each scale sits a little naked figure representing two human souls. The _beato_—the blessed one—has his hands joined in gratitude, while the other, the rejected one, is in an attitude of hopeless misery. Frequently a demon is seen grasping the descending scale with his talons or a long two-pronged hook.

Whether with or without the balance, St. Michael appears as lord of souls in the death and assumption of the Virgin. The legends assert that he received her spirit and guarded it during the interim of her death and assumption.

=St. Gabriel.= _Ital._ San Gabriele, San Gabriello, L’Angelo Annunziatore.

Where the Angel Gabriel’s name occurs in Scripture it is in the character of a messenger only. It is he who is sent to Daniel to interpret the vision which shows the destinies of mighty nations, and to announce the return of the Jews from captivity. In the New Testament he foretells the birth of John the Baptist to the high-priest Zacharias and six months later he is sent to the Virgin to proclaim the coming of the Redeemer of the world. In the Apocryphal New Testament he foretells to Joachim the birth of the Virgin and is thought to have foretold the birth of Samson. He is more important in the New Testament than Michael and as the angel who announced the birth of Christ he is reverenced as the angel who presides over childbirth.

In devotional pictures he is represented as the second of the three archangels. In his character of _l’angelo annunziatore_, he usually carries a lily or a sceptre in one hand and in the other a scroll inscribed “Ave Maria, Gratia Plena!”

=St. Raphael.= _Ital._ San Raffaello. _Ger._ Der Heilige Rafael.

Raphael is the prince of guardian spirits, the guardian angel of all humanity and thus, according to the early traditions, he appeared to the shepherds by night, “with good tidings of great joy, which shall be for all people.”

Raphael in his character of guardian angel is generally represented leading the youthful Tobias. When in order to show the difference between the heavenly and the mortal being, Tobit is made to look like a child, and the angel appears with wings and is not disguised, it is no longer historical, but devotional, and Tobias with his fish represents the Christian protected and guided by his guardian spirit.

All the pictured subjects of Raphael belong to the history of Tobit, and incidents from this beautiful apocryphal legend have been favourite subjects of art. Tobias dragging the fish ashore and the angel standing by has been often painted. In such pictures the angel should be without wings and disguised as the friendly traveller; the dog, which should not appear in the devotional pictures, is here an attribute and belongs to the story.

Devotional pictures represent him attired as a pilgrim or traveller, with sandalled feet and hair confined by a fillet or diadem. He has the pilgrim’s staff and a wallet or panetière suspended from his belt. Often as guardian spirit he has a sword; usually, however, he bears a small vase or casket containing the “fishy charm” against evil spirits (Tobit, vi., 6-7).

FOOTNOTES:

[4] See Appendix.

VIII.—SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN

The =Star= often embroidered on the right shoulder of the Virgin’s mantle or in front of her veil refers to the most expressive of her many titles, _Stella Maris_, “Star of the Sea,” an interpretation of her Jewish name Miriam. Several pictures are called _La Madonna della Stella_. She is also _Stella Matutina_, the “Morning Star”; _Stella non Erratica_, the “Fixed Star”; and _Stella Jacobi_, the “Star of Jacob.”

The =Sun= and the =Moon=. “Who is she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the morn, clear as the sun” (Solomon’s Song, vi., 10). This text is applied to the Virgin and she is also the woman of the Apocalypse, “_A woman clothed with the sun, having the moon under her feet_, and on her head a crown of twelve stars.” Hence she is portrayed with the glory of the sun about her, and the crescent moon beneath her feet.

The =Enclosed Garden= is a symbol borrowed from the Song of Solomon (Cant. iv., 12) as well as a =Fountain Sealed=, a =Well of Living Waters=, the =Tower of David=, the =Temple of Solomon=, and the =City of David=.

The =Porta Clausa= or Closed Gate is taken from Ezekiel (xliv., 2).

The =Lily=, the =Rose=. “I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valleys” (Cant. ii., 1).

The =Palm=, the =Cypress=, and the =Olive= are all emblems of the Virgin. The first signifies victory, the second points to heaven, and the third denotes peace, abundance, and hope.

The =Cedar of Lebanon= (“exalted as a cedar in Lebanon”), because of its imperishable nature, its perfume, its healing qualities, and its great height, denotes also the virtue, greatness, and beauty of the Virgin.

The =Sealed Book=, as a symbol in the hands of the Virgin, refers to the text: “In that book were all my members written”; also to the “book that is sealed which men deliver to one that is learned, saying, Read this, I pray thee: and he saith, I cannot, for it is sealed: And the book is delivered to him that is not learned, saying, Read this, I pray thee: and he saith, I am not learned” (Is. xxix., 11-12).

Besides these symbols, which are mystical and sacred and belong only to the Virgin, there are others of a more general nature that appear in pictures of the Madonna and Child.

The =Globe=, as the symbol of sovereignty, was early placed in the hands of the divine Infant. When it is under the feet of the Madonna with a serpent twining about it, it is the symbol of redemption.

The =Apple=, in the hands of the Infant Christ, symbolises the fall of man; in the hands of the Virgin it indicates that she is the second Eve.

The =Serpent= is the general emblem of Satan and sin, but it is used in reference to the prophecy, “She shall bruise thy head,” when placed under the feet of the Madonna.

The =Pomegranate=, the ancient symbol of hope, is often placed in the hands of the Child, who is seen presenting it to His mother.

The =Book=, when the Madonna holds it open, or has a finger between the leaves, or when the Child is turning the pages, is the Book of Wisdom, and is supposed to be open at the seventh chapter. When clasped or sealed, as before explained, it is a mystical emblem of the Virgin herself.

=Birds= represent the soul. The =Dove= is the Holy Spirit hovering about the Virgin. The =Seven Doves=, typifying the gifts of the Spirit, when they surround the Virgin, characterise her as _Mater Sapientiæ_, “Mother of Wisdom.” Doves near her when she is working or reading in the Temple express the meekness and tenderness of her nature.

* * * * *

Certain women of the Old Testament are regarded as especial types of the Virgin, viz.: =Eve=, =Rachel=, =Ruth=, =Abishag=, =Bathsheba=, =Judith=, and =Esther=, and it is because of this that these Jewish heroines so often appear in religious pictures.

The correct and traditional dress of the Virgin is a blue robe or mantle worn over a close red tunic with long sleeves. In early pictures her head is veiled and the colours are pale and delicate. The enthroned Madonna unveiled was introduced about the end of the fifteenth century.

In the historical pictures she is simply dressed, but in the devotional pictures wherein she is portrayed as the Queen of Heaven, she wears a magnificent crown wrought with jewels interwoven with roses and lilies; her blue robe is richly embroidered with gold and gems, and lined with ermine or stuff of gorgeous colours, carrying out the text: “The king’s daughter is all glorious within; her clothing is of wrought gold. She shall be brought unto the king in raiment of needlework” (Ps. xlv., 13-14).

In the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption, the Virgin wears a white tunic, or white strewn with gold stars. In all subjects that relate to the passion and those that follow the crucifixion she should wear violet or grey. This rule is not always followed, however.

The =Seven Joys= and the =Seven Sorrows of the Virgin= are often
painted as a series.

The =Seven Joys= are: the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Nativity,
the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple, Christ
found by His mother, the Assumption and the Coronation.

The =Seven Sorrows= are: the Prophecy of Simeon, the Flight into
Egypt, Christ lost by His mother, the Betrayal of Christ, the
Crucifixion (with St. John and the Virgin only present), the
Deposition from the Cross, and the Ascension when the Virgin is left
without her Son.

The fifteen Mysteries of the Rosary are also given as a series.

The =Five Joyful Mysteries= are: the Annunciation, the Visitation,
the Nativity, the Purification, and Christ found in the Temple.

The =Five Sorrowful Mysteries= are: Christ in the Garden of Olives,
the Flagellation, Christ Crowned with Thorns, the Procession to
Calvary, and the Crucifixion.

The =Five Glorious Mysteries= are: the Resurrection, the Ascension,
the Descent of the Holy Ghost, the Assumption, and the Coronation.

These series are treated mystically rather than in the limited
historical sense, the object being to induce devout religious
contemplation.

IX.—LEGENDS OF THE MADONNA

Anna, the mother of the Virgin, was early venerated as a saint in the East, but the parents of the Virgin were never represented in early art except in a series of the life of the Virgin. It was not until the beginning of the sixteenth century that the increased reverence for the Virgin Mary gave to her parents Joachim and Anna a more prominent position as patron saints, and from that time on they were frequent subjects in sacred groups.

A complete series of the history of the Blessed Virgin, as imaged forth by the early artists, always begins with the =Legend of Joachim and Anna= as it is related in the Apocryphal New Testament.

Joachim, a man of Nazareth, was of the royal race of David, and had for his wife Anna whose family were of Bethlehem. “Their lives were plain and right in the sight of the Lord and pious and faultless before men.” Thus they lived for twenty years without children. Now at a certain great feast of the Lord, when Joachim was about to offer his gifts, the high-priest opposed him saying, “It is not lawful seeing thou hast not begot issue in Israel.” Joachim, much concerned, found upon inquiry, that all the righteous except himself had raised up seed in Israel. He remembered Abraham, how that God in the end of his life had given him his son Isaac, and he would not be seen of his wife but retired into the wilderness where he fasted forty days and nights and vowed neither to eat nor drink until the Lord should look down upon him. And his wife Anna was sore distressed and mourned for her widowhood and her barrenness.

Then an angel of the Lord appeared to her saying, “Behold Joachim thy husband is coming with his shepherds; an angel of the Lord hath also told him that his prayer is heard.” And Anna stood by the golden gate and saw Joachim coming with the shepherds, and she ran to him and hanging about his neck, said: “Now I know that the Lord hath greatly blessed me.” And they returned home together. And when her time was come, Anna brought forth a daughter, and she said: “The Lord hath this day magnified my soul,” and she called the child Mary.

The =Nativity of the Blessed Virgin=. _Ital._ La Nascità della B. Vergine. _Fr._ La Naissance de la S. Vierge. _Ger._ Die Geburt Mariä. (Sept. 8.)

This is the next historical picture, and as Joachim and Anna were “exceedingly rich,” the scene is usually a chamber richly decorated. A glory sometimes surrounds the head of the child. Neighbours and friends are sometimes introduced who have come to tender their congratulations.

The =Presentation of the Virgin=. _Ital._ La Presentazione ove nostra Signora piccioletta sale i gradi del Tempio. _Ger._ Joachim und Anna weihen ihre Tochter Maria im Tempel; Die Vorstellung der Jungfrau im Tempel. (Nov. 21.)

“And when the child was three years old, Joachim said: ‘Let us invite the daughters of the Hebrews, who are undefiled, and let them take each a lamp, and let them be lighted, that the child may not turn back again, and her mind be set against the temple of the Lord.’

“And they did thus till they ascended into the temple of the Lord. And the high-priest received her, and blessed her, and said, ‘Mary, the Lord God hath magnified thy name to all generations, and to the very end of time by thee will the Lord shew His redemption to the children of Israel.’”

Photo. Alinari

THE PRESENTATION OF THE VIRGIN IN THE TEMPLE.—TITIAN

(Academy, Venice.)]

“And he placed her upon the third step of the altar, and the Lord gave unto her grace, and she danced with her feet, and all the house of Israel loved her.” (_Protevangelion_, vii., 3-5.)

The theme does not vary. Mary, who should be portrayed as an infant of three years, is often represented as a child of ten or twelve. Sometimes she wears a blue, but more generally a white garment; her hair is long and golden, and she is seen ascending the steps which lead to the porch of the temple. These steps are always fifteen in number. In the account given in the Gospel of the Birth of Mary it says, “And there were about the temple, according to the fifteen Psalms of degrees [those Psalms are, from the 120th to the 134th, including both], fifteen stairs to ascend. For the temple being built in a mountain, the altar of burnt-offering, which was without, could not be come near but by stairs.” (Chap. iv., 32.)

The life of Mary in the temple is represented in various ways. She is seen instructing her companions, sometimes spinning or embroidering on tapestry. Often she is attended by angels, and it was believed that angels supplied her with celestial food. It has also been asserted that she had the privilege which was granted to no other woman, of going into the Holy of Holies to pray before the Ark of the Covenant.

The =Marriage of the Virgin=. _Ital._ Il sposalizio. _Fr._ Le Mariage de la Vierge. _Ger._ Die Trauung Mariä. (January 23.)

The legend of the Marriage of Joseph and Mary is founded upon the account given in the _Protevangelion_, which relates that “when Mary was twelve years of age the priests met in council to know what should be done with her, and the high-priest Zacharias entered into the Holy of Holies, and taking away with him the breastplate of judgment made prayers concerning her. And behold the angel of the Lord came to him and commanded him to go forth and call together all the widowers among the people, and let every one of them bring his rod, and he by whom the Lord should shew a sign should be the husband of Mary. And the criers went out through all Judæa, and the trumpet of the Lord sounded, and all the people ran and met together. Joseph also, throwing away his hatchet, went out to meet them; and when they were met they went to the high-priest taking every man his rod. The high-priest received their rods and went into the temple to pray. When he came forth and distributed them, there was no miracle until the last rod was taken by Joseph, and behold a dove proceeded out of the rod and flew upon the head of Joseph. And the high-priest said to him, ‘Thou art the person chosen to take the Virgin of the Lord to keep her for him.’ But Joseph at first refused, saying, ‘I am an old man’; then, fearing the wrath of the high-priest and the displeasure of the Lord, he took her unto his house, and said unto her, ‘Behold, I have taken thee from the Temple of the Lord, and now I will leave thee in my house; I must go to mind my trade of building. The Lord be with thee!’”

The painters have used for their text an old legend which relates that the suitors for the hand of Mary, among whom was the son of the high-priest, deposited their wands overnight in the temple, and the next morning the rod of Joseph was found to have budded forth in flower. The disappointed suitors broke their wands in a frenzy of wrath, and one of them, whose name was Agabus (a youth of noble family), fled to Mount Carmel and became an anchorite.

Marriage among the Jews being a civil contract instead of a religious rite, nearly all the early painters represent the ceremony as taking place in the open air in a garden or landscape, or in front of the Temple. Mary, a beautiful maiden attended by a train of virgins, stands on the right, and Joseph is on the left; behind him are gathered the disappointed suitors. This is the traditional treatment from Giotto down to Raphael.

In ancient art Joseph has been sometimes represented as very old, and again as not more than thirty. But in the best pictures of the Italian and Spanish schools he is middle-aged, with brown hair and short, curly beard, his face expressing infinite mildness and kindliness. The crutch or stick became his conventional attribute from earlier times, when he was depicted as very old, leaning upon a crutch.

The =Annunciation=. _Ital._ L’Annunciazione. _Fr._ L’Annonciation, La Salutation Angélique. _Ger._ Die Verkündigung, Der englische Gruss. (March 25.)

From the thirteenth century onward, the Annunciation became the expression of a theological dogma, and formed part of every altar-piece, whatever its subject,—whether a Nativity or Coronation, or the Last Supper—appearing in the predella below or the spandrils of the arches above; and was frequently painted or carved on the doors of a triptychon or tabernacle.

It is related in the _Protevangelion_ (chap. ix., 7) that “Mary went out to draw water and heard a voice saying unto her ‘Hail thou who art full of grace, the Lord is with thee; thou art blessed among women.’ And she looked round to the right and to the left to see whence that voice came, and then trembling went into her house, and laying down the water-pot, she took the purple and sat down in her seat to work it. And behold the angel of the Lord stood by her, and said, ‘Fear not, Mary, for thou hast found favour in the sight of God.’”

Photo. Alinari

THE ANNUNCIATION.—BOTTICELLI

(Uffizi, Florence.)]

St. Bernard gives the following version of the legend. Mary was studying the book of Isaiah and as she came to the verse, “Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son” she thought within herself, “How blessed the woman of whom these words are written! Would I might be but her handmaid to serve her, and allowed to kiss her feet!” And at that moment the angel appeared and revealed to her that the prophecy was fulfilled in herself.

In early art the annunciation is treated as a religious mystery. The scene is usually a porch or portico with arcades. The Virgin stands, or if she is seated, it is on a sort of raised throne; the angel stands before her at a little distance; sometimes she is within the portico and he is without. Gabriel is the commanding figure, while the Virgin’s attitude—she is usually represented shrinking back with drooping eyes and hands folded on her breast—is always expressive of the utmost submission and humility. Gabriel is usually represented clothed in white, with large many-coloured wings, his flowing hair bound by a jewelled tiara. He holds the sceptre in his left hand, while the right is extended in benediction as well as salutation, “Hail! thou that art highly favoured! Blessed art thou among women!”

Sometimes the two figures were not in the same picture, but were placed each side of the altar, that of the Virgin being usually placed to the right. In some of the old pictures the figure of the angel is seen flying down from heaven.

From the beginning of the fourteenth century the increased reverence paid to the Virgin demanded that she be represented as the superior being, the _Regina angelorum_, and the angel is depicted bowing before her or kneeling as to a queen.

Photo. Alinari

THE VISITATION.—ALBERTINELLI

(Uffizi, Florence.)]

When the annunciation is an event given in the series of the Life of the Virgin, the place is usually in the house. The fountain is rarely introduced. Gabriel either bears the lily or it is in some other part of the picture. Sometimes he has the olive, typical of peace, or a sceptre with a scroll inscribed _Ave Maria! Gratia plena!_ The work basket, expressing the industry of Mary, is rarely omitted, and to typify her temperance a dish of fruit and a pitcher of water are frequently introduced.

The lily in the hand of the angel is not merely the emblem of purity but the symbol of the Virgin—“I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valley.” A lily is often introduced in a vase near the Virgin or in the foreground of the picture. Sometimes the dove as the Holy Spirit hovers over the head of the Virgin or enters by the open window.

The =Visitation=. _Ital._ La Visitazione di Maria. _Fr._ La Visitation de la Vierge. _Ger._ Die Heimsuchung Mariä. (July 2.)

After the annunciation of the angel, we are told that “Mary arose and went up into the hill country with haste, to the house of her cousin Elizabeth, and saluted her.” This meeting of the two kinswomen is usually styled in art, the _Visitation_ and, sometimes, the _Salutation of Elizabeth_. It is important in its religious significance as being the first recognition of the character of the Messiah. “Whence is this to me,” exclaims Elizabeth, “that the mother of my Lord should come to me?” (Luke i., 43.)

Photo. Alinari

SIBYL PROPHESYING TO AUGUSTUS CÆSAR THE COMING OF CHRIST.—B. PERUZZI

(Church of the Fontegiusta, Siena.)]

In the representations of this scene the number of the figures, the locality and circumstance vary greatly. Sometimes only the two women are represented, without accessories of any kind. The scene is often a garden or open porch in front of a house, and this garden is noted in the traditions of the East. The legends relate that the Virgin, as she walked in the garden of Zacharias during her stay with her cousin Elizabeth, meditating deeply and reverently upon the holy destiny that was hers, happened to touch a certain flower that bloomed there with her most blessed hand—which, from being without odour before, became from that moment of a delicious fragrance.

The =Nativity=. _Ital._ Il Presepio, Il Nascimento del Nostro Signore. _Fr._ La Nativité. _Ger._ Die Geburt Christi. (Dec. 25.)

In the early Christian traditions this great event is preceded and accompanied by several circumstances which have often been rendered in art.

According to an old legend, the Emperor Augustus Cæsar betook himself to the sibyl Tiburtina, to ask whether he should accept the divine honours the Senate had decreed to him. The sibyl, after meditating some days, took the emperor aside and showed him an altar; and above the altar, in the opening heavens, he saw a beautiful Virgin holding an infant in her arms, and at the same time a voice was heard saying, “This is the altar of the Son of the living God.” Then Augustus caused an altar to be erected on the Capitoline Hill, with this inscription, “Ara primogeniti Dei”; and in later times the church called the Ara-Cœli, with its flight of one hundred and twenty-four marble steps, was built on this spot.

The sibylline prophecy is believed to have occurred a short time before the Nativity, about the time that there went forth from the Emperor Augustus a decree that all the Jews should be taxed who were of Bethlehem in Judæa.

It is related that Joseph therefore saddled his ass and took his wife to Bethlehem, the city from whence he came. As they were near there (within three miles), Joseph, turning about, saw that Mary was sorrowful, but when he looked again she smiled. And before they were come there Mary said: “Take me down, for I suffer.”

The Nativity, when treated historically, is represented in a stable or cavern, at midnight and in winter. The earlier pictures give Mary the appearance of suffering, but from the fourteenth century, this treatment was abandoned. “To her alone,” said St. Bernard, “did not the punishment of Eve extend.”

The attendants and Mary are represented in the “posture and guise of worshippers,” kneeling or bending over the Child, or pointing to the manger in which he lies. The Virgin is bathed in the light which surrounds the Child like a glory. Joseph is sitting or stands leaning on his staff and often holds a taper or light to show that it is night.

The angels who sing the _Gloria in excelsis_ are never omitted. At first these were three in number, but in later pictures the mystic three became a band of angels.

The ox and the ass are always introduced as accessories,—according to the prophecy: “The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master’s crib” (Is. i., 3). The ox typified the Jews and the ass the Gentiles. The Jews were likened unto the ox because they bore the yoke of the law, whereas the ass represented the Gentiles because it bore Christ willingly, when He rode into Jerusalem.

Photo. Alinari

THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS.—D. GHIRLANDAJO

(Academy, Florence.)]

The shepherds are frequently in the background.

When other figures are introduced, they are saints or votaries for whom the picture was painted.

The =Adoration of the Shepherds=. _Ital._ L’Adorazione dei Pastori. _Fr._ L’Adoration des Bergers. _Ger._ Die Anbetung der Hirten.

“And it came to pass, as the angels were gone away from them into heaven, the shepherds said one to another, Let us now go even unto Bethlehem, and see this thing which has come to pass, which the Lord has made known unto us. And they came with haste, and found Mary, and Joseph, and the babe lying in a manger.” (St. Luke ii., 15-16.)

Being come, they tender their offerings of fruits, lambs, or doves, and with heads uncovered they acknowledge and worship the divine Child. In some pictures their women, sheep, and even their dogs accompany them. There is an old legend that Simon and Jude, afterwards apostles, were with the shepherds.

Sometimes the Infant sleeps and Joseph or Mary raises the veil from His face to show Him to the shepherds.

The flowers sometimes scattered by angels are supposed to have been gathered in heaven.

The =Adoration of the Magi=.[5] _Ital._ L’Adorazione de’ Magi, L’Epifania. _Fr._ L’Adoration des Rois Mages. _Ger._ Die Anbetung der Weisen aus dem Morgenland, Die heiligen drei Könige. (Jan. 6.)

This subject, the most extraordinary incident in the early life of our Saviour, has been set before us in every style and form of art, from the third century to the present time.

Magi, in the Persian tongue, signifies “wise men”; and they were in their own country kings or princes, from what country is not said. The prophecy of Balaam had been held in remembrance by their people. “I shall see him, but not now; I shall behold him, but not nigh; there shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel.”

When the Eastern sages beheld this wondrous and long-expected star, they rejoiced greatly; and taking leave of their relations and friends set forth on their long and perilous journey, the star going before them, until it stood over the place where the young Child was—He who was born King of Kings.

Photo. Alinari

THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI.—BOTTICELLI

(Uffizi, Florence.)]

The artists made good use of the picturesque possibilities of the story, and in their hands it grew from a symbol to a scene of dramatic splendour. It is the oldest subject in Christian art, and taken in the early religious sense, it signified the calling of the Gentiles.

In the earlier representations the Virgin-mother is seated and holds the Child upright on her knee. The Wise Men, always three in number and all alike, approach in attitudes of adoration, and behind them are seen their camels’ heads, showing the land whence they came—the land of the East.

But in the fourteenth century legends the Three Wise Men or Kings became distinct characters, each with a name, and in the pictures they represent the three ages of man. Jasper or Caspar is very old, Melchior in the prime of life, and Balthazar young. Sometimes the latter or his servant is black, to indicate that Christ came to save all races of men. These pictures of the Magi reflect all the pomp and circumstance that was the custom of the times in which the artists lived, and the details vary with the nationality of the artist.

It is related that when they returned to the East they abandoned all their possessions and went about preaching the new gospel; that they were baptised by Thomas and put to death by the heathen. Their remains were discovered and removed to Constantinople by the Empress Helena, and after being carried to Milan during the first crusade were finally placed in the cathedral at Cologne by the Emperor Barbarossa, and repose there in a magnificent shrine. Wherever one sees the sign _Drei Könige_, or _Trois Rois_, in front of Continental hotels, or _Three Kings_ above the doors of English inns, it refers to the Magi.

The =Purification of the Virgin=, the =Presentation=, and the =Circumcision of Christ=. _Ital._ La Purificazione della B. Vergine. _Ger._ Die Darbringung im Tempel, Die Beschneidung Christi.

The Virgin, after the birth of her Son, complied with all the requirements of the Mosaic law. The circumcision and the naming of Christ have often been painted to express the first of the sorrows of the Virgin. But the Presentation in the Temple has been selected with better taste for the same purpose, and the prophecy of Simeon, “Yea, a sword shall pierce through thy own soul also,” becomes the first of the Seven Sorrows.

It is related that, about 260 years before Christ, Ptolemy Philadelphus, desiring to have the Hebrew Scriptures translated into Greek for his famous library, asked the high-priest of the Jews to send him scribes and interpreters. In response to his demand, six of the most learned rabbis of the twelve tribes of Israel, seventy-two persons in all, were sent into Egypt, among them Simeon, a man full of learning. To him fell the book of Isaiah to translate. When he came to the verse, “Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son,” he doubted in his own mind how such a thing could be, and, fearing to give offence to the Greeks, he used the Greek word “a young woman” for the Hebrew word “virgin.” He had no sooner written it, however, than an angel leaned over the page and blotted it out, setting down the right word in its place. Completely dumfounded Simeon essayed again and again to substitute the word “young woman,” as seemed to him fitting and proper, and each time the angel effaced the word substituting the Greek word for “virgin” in its place.

Then it was disclosed to Simeon that the miracle that he had dared to doubt was not only possible, but that he “should not see death until he had seen the Lord’s Christ.” So for nearly three centuries he remained on earth, until all had come to pass. He was brought to the Temple on the very day that Mary came there to present her Son, and taking the Child in his arms, he exclaimed, “Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, according to thy word.”

Anna, the prophetess, is often introduced. She also testifies unto Christ, but does not take Him in her arms as did Simeon, hence she was considered to typify the Synagogue, which prophesied the Messiah, but did not embrace Him when he came.

When represented in Greek art, this picture is often called the _Nunc Dimittis_.

The =Flight into Egypt=. _Ital._ La Fuga in Egitto. _Fr._ La Fuite de la Sainte Famille en Egypte. _Ger._ Die Flucht nach Aegypten.

There are many legends in connection with this journey that have been illustrated by the artists. One is that when it became known that the Holy Family had fled from Bethlehem, Herod sent his officers in pursuit of them. The Holy Family, knowing they were pursued, after travelling some distance, came to a field where a man was sowing wheat. And the Virgin said to the husbandman: “If any shall ask you whether we have passed this way, ye shall answer, ‘Such persons passed this way when I was sowing this wheat.’” And lo! in the space of a single night the seed had grown ready for the harvest! And next morning the officers of Herod came by, and inquired of the husbandman, saying, “Have you seen an old man with a woman and child travelling this way?” And the man, who was reaping his wheat in great wonder and joy, replied: “Yes.” And they asked him again, “How long is it since?” And he answered: “When I was sowing this wheat.” And at this the officers of Herod turned back.

Another very old tradition, taken from the First Gospel of Infancy (chap. viii.), relates that on their way they met two robbers who protected them from their confederates, and that they were the two thieves who were later crucified with Christ.

Another tradition is that both the ox and the ass went with the Holy Family into Egypt, and they are occasionally introduced in some pictures of this event, but generally the group is confined to Joseph, Mary, and the Child.

The =Repose of the Holy Family=. _Ital._ Il Riposo. _Fr._ Le Repos de la Sainte Famille. _Ger._ Die Ruhe in Aegypten.

This subject has been considered one of the most graceful and attractive in the whole range of sacred art.

The _Riposo_, so called is either the rest on the journey, or at the close of the journey, called the Flight into Egypt. Some of the features stamp the intention at once; as, the ass grazing in the distance; a wallet and pilgrim’s staff near Joseph; the date tree; the fallen idols; the Virgin taking water from a fountain—the fountain refers to a tradition that when the Holy Family came to Matarea they rested in a grove of sycamores, and here a fountain miraculously gushed forth for their refreshment.

In pictures of the _Riposo_ angels often minister to the comfort of the Holy Family, and there is a legend that each night angels pitched a tent for their protection and shelter, and watched over and guarded them until morning.

Photo. Alinari

REPOSE OF THE HOLY FAMILY—“MADONNA DEL SACCO”—ANDREA DEL SARTO

(Church of the Annunziata, Florence.)]

When other figures than the Holy Family and attendant angels are introduced, it is not a _Riposo_, but merely a Holy Family.

When the Holy Family are seen as on a journey and the Saviour is represented as a child, walking, it is the return from Egypt that is pictured.

The =Holy Family=. _Ital._ La Sacra Famiglia, La Sacra Conversazione. _Fr._ La Sainte Famille.

After the return to Nazareth, until Jesus is twelve years old no event is recorded of the life of the Virgin or her Son. But under the title of Holy Family there are an endless variety of pictures representing the imaginary life of these exalted ones.

The simplest form is that of two figures, the Virgin and Child; frequently she is nursing the babe, sometimes she fondles him, pressing his cheek to hers, or they sport with a rose, an apple, or a bird, these mystic symbols being lightly used as mere playthings by the artists. Sometimes one or more attendant angels appear or the Infant slumbers on His mother’s knee. Sometimes Mary is represented watching over him, “pondering in her heart” the great destiny of her Child.

Where there are three figures, the third is generally St. John, although sometimes it is St. Joseph. Sometimes St. John and his mother, St. Elizabeth—the two mothers and the two sons—are represented. More rarely, four figures include St. Joseph and St. John. Five figures include all who have been named, and sometimes Zacharias makes the sixth.

Many of these pictures bear such names as _La Vierge aux Cerises_, _La Vierge à la Diadème_, _La Vierge à l’Oreiller Verd_, _Le Ménage du Menuisier_, _Le Raboteur_, etc.

The introduction of persons who could not have been contemporary, such as St. Francis or St. Catherine, makes the group ideal and devotional.

The =Dispute in the Temple=. _Ital._ La Disputa del Tempio. _Fr._ Jésus au milieu des Docteurs.

This subject is a scene of great importance in the life of the Redeemer, but it is quite as often made one of the series from the life of the Virgin.

The =Death of Joseph=. _Ital._ La Morte di San Giuseppe. _Fr._ La Mort de St. Joseph. _Ger._ Josefs Tod.

Some chronologers place the death of Joseph in the eighteenth year of the life of our Saviour, and others in his twenty-seventh year, when, as they assert, Joseph was one hundred and eleven years old.

Joseph’s popularity as a patron saint of power dates from the fifteenth century. A custom had come about of invoking him as mediator to obtain a blessed and peaceful end, and he became in a certain way the patron saint of death-beds.

Late in the sixteenth century the death of St. Joseph is represented as a separate subject in art, and became a popular subject in the churches and convents of Augustine canons and Carmelite friars whose patron saint he was, and also in family chapels consecrated to the memory of the dead.

The =Marriage at Cana, in Galilee=. _Ital._ La Nozze di Cana. _Fr._ Les Noces de Cana. _Ger._ Die Hochzeit zu Cana.

There is an old Greek tradition that the Marriage at Cana, which has often been represented in art, was that of John the Evangelist and Mary Magdalene, and that immediately after the wedding feast St. John and Mary separated and devoted themselves to an austere and chaste religious life, spent solely in the service of Christ.

In the =Passion of our Lord=, certain women who attended upon Christ during His ministry are represented as always near the Virgin, and sustaining her with their tenderness and sympathy. The Gospels mention three by name: Mary Magdalene; Mary, the wife of Cleophas; and Mary, the mother of James and John. Martha, the sister of Mary Magdalene, is also included. These women, with the Virgin, form the group of five female figures that is usually introduced in the scriptural scenes from the Life of Christ.

The =Procession to Calvary= (_Ital. Il Portamento della Croce_), and the =Crucifixion= are included in the Rosary as two of the mystical Sorrows. It was in the Via Dolorosa near the summit of the hill that the Virgin-mother and her women companions are said to have placed themselves, and where Mary in her anguish, seeing her divine Son, bleeding from the scourge, and sinking under His cross, fell fainting to the earth. This incident is called in French _Notre Dame du Spasme_, or _du Pâmoison_; in Italian _La Madonna dello Spasimo_, or _Il Pianto di Maria_ and becomes one of the mournful festivals of Passion Week.

In the many celebrated representations of this scene, she is sometimes portrayed sinking to the earth, upheld by the women or St. John; sometimes she stands with clasped hands in dumb and motionless agony; sometimes she stretches out her arms to her Son who goes on His sorrowful way.

In the =Crucifixion= treated as a _mystery_ Mary stands alone on the right of the Cross and St. John on the left. She looks up with an expression of mingled sorrow and faith or bows her head in sad submissiveness.

When the Crucifixion is treated as an _historical event_ the Virgin is represented in a fainting attitude, sustained in the arms of the two Marys, assisted sometimes but not always by St. John; while Mary Magdalene is seen kneeling at the foot of the cross or with arms clasped around it.

Photo. Alinari

THE CRUCIFIXION.—PERUGINO

(Convent of Santa Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi, Florence.)]

The =Descent from the Cross= and the =Deposition= are two separate subjects in art. In the first the Virgin should stand. In the old legend it is said, that when Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus drew out the nails that fastened the hands of our Saviour to the cross, St. John concealed them from His mother. Then Nicodemus took out those which fastened His feet, and Joseph of Arimathea supported the body, and the head and arms of our Lord hung over his shoulder. The sorrowing mother took the bleeding hands in hers and kissed them tenderly, and then, borne down by the weight of her woe, she sank to the ground, mourning her Son.

The =Deposition= is that moment which succeeds the Descent from the Cross, when the dead form of Christ is deposed or laid upon the ground, resting on the lap of His mother, and lamented by St. John, Mary Magdalene, and others.

The =Entombment= follows and when treated historically the Virgin-mother is always introduced, although less conspicuously; either she faints, or stands by with streaming eyes and clasped hands, while the beloved Son is laid in the tomb. Then in fulfilment of the last command of his dying Master, John the Evangelist brought to his own house the Mother to whom he was in future to be as a son. This beautiful subject appears first in art in the seventeenth century.

The =Apparition of Christ to His Mother=. There is a very ancient tradition (mentioned by St. Ambrose in the fourth century, as being then generally accepted by Christians) that Christ, after His return from Hades, visited His mother before appearing to Mary Magdalene in the garden.

Photo. Alinari

THE SAVIOUR APPEARS TO MARY MAGDALENE—“NOLI ME TANGERE.”—LORENZO DI CREDI

(Uffizi, Florence.)]

The story is thus related in Mrs. Jameson’s _Legends of the Madonna_: “Mary, when all was ‘finished,’ retired to her chamber, and remained alone with her grief—not wailing, not repining, not hopeless, but waiting for the fulfilment of the promise. Open before her lay the volume of the prophecies; and she prayed earnestly, and she said, ‘Thou didst promise, O my most dear Son! that thou wouldst rise again on the third day. Before yesterday was the day of darkness and bitterness, and, behold, this is the third day. Return then to me thy Mother: O my Son, tarry not, but come!’ And while thus she prayed, lo! a bright company of angels, who entered waving their palms and radiant with joy; and they surrounded her, kneeling and singing the triumphant Easter hymn, _Regina Cœli lætare, Alleluia_. And then came Christ, partly clothed in a white garment, having in His left hand the standard with the cross, as one just returned from the nether world, and victorious over the powers of sin and death. And with Him came the patriarchs and prophets, whose long-imprisoned spirits He had released from Hades. All these knelt before the Virgin, and saluted her, and blessed her, and thanked her, because through her had come their deliverance. But, for all this, the Mother was not comforted till she had heard the voice of her Son. Then He, raising His hand in benediction, spoke, and said, ‘I salute thee, O my Mother!’ and she, weeping tears of joy, responded, ‘Is it thou indeed, my most dear Son?’ and she fell upon His neck, and He embraced her tenderly, and showed her the wounds He had received for sinful men. Then He bid her be comforted and weep no more, for the pain of death had passed away, and the gates of hell had not prevailed against Him. And she thanked Him meekly on her knees, for that He had been pleased to bring redemption to man, and to make her the humble instrument of His great mercy. And they sat and talked together, until He took leave of her to return to the garden, and to show Himself to Mary Magdalene, who, next to His glorious Mother, had most need of consolation!”

This beautiful myth of the early ages has only been pictured as a matter-of-fact scene in art. The Virgin kneels; the Saviour, with His standard, stands before her; and generally Adam and Eve, the authors of the fall, or Abraham and David, the progenitors of Christ and the Virgin, are introduced, as the delivered patriarchs.

The =Ascension=, though one of the “Glorious Mysteries,” was also the seventh and last of the sorrows of the Virgin, who was then left alone on earth. All the old legends record her being present at this time and saying, as she followed with uplifted eyes the soaring figure of Christ, “My son, remember me when Thou comest to Thy kingdom! leave me not long after Thee, my Son!”

The =Descent of the Holy Ghost= is a strictly scriptural subject. It has been said that Mary, in her character of the divine Mother of Wisdom, did not need any accession of intellectual light, but that the Holy Spirit was sent to her as the Comforter.

When Mary is present she is usually placed either in front or in the centre on a raised seat and often holds a book (as the _Mater Sapientiæ_).

The =Death and Assumption of the Virgin=. _Lat._ Dormitio, Pausatio, Transitus, Assumptio, B. Virginis. _Ital._ L’Assunzione, Il sonno della Beata Vergine, Il transito di Maria. _Fr._ L’Assomption, La Mort de la Vierge. _Ger._ Das Absterben der Mariä, Mariä Himmelfahrt.

No subject has been more popular, nor more frequently represented in art than the Death and Assumption of the Virgin. The assumption was indeed the manifest expression of a dogma of faith—the glorification of the Virgin in the body as well as in the spirit, and as such it appears in all the edifices dedicated to her.

The two subjects are often combined. The death scene is portrayed below (_Il transito di Maria_), and the taking up into heaven of the body and soul of the Virgin Mary—the assumption—is given above.

It is related in the legend that when the time came for Mary to die, the apostles (who were scattered in various parts of the world) were all assembled by a miraculous power and brought to the door of Mary’s dwelling. When Mary saw them she blessed them and thanked the Lord, then kneeling down they prayed together, and after that she laid herself down in her bed prepared to die. About the third hour of the night a great sound smote on their ears, the chamber became filled with a heavenly fragrance, and Christ Himself appeared, followed by angels, patriarchs, and prophets, who surrounded the bed of the Virgin singing hymns of joy. And Jesus said to His mother, “Arise, my beloved, mine elect! come with me from Lebanon, mine espoused! receive the crown that is destined for thee!” And Mary replying, said: “My heart is ready; for it was written of me that I should do Thy will.” Then all the angels and blessed spirits who were with Jesus began to sing and rejoice. And the soul of Mary departed from her body and in the arms of her Son together they arose into heaven. The apostles gazing after her, said: “O most prudent Virgin, remember us when thou comest to thy glory,” and the angels who received her into heaven sang, “Who is this that cometh up from the wilderness leaning upon her Beloved? She is fairer than all the daughters of Jerusalem.”

There was but one absent among the apostles and when he came in haste soon after, he could not believe in the resurrection of the Virgin. It was this same Thomas who had doubted the resurrection of Christ. At his desire the tomb was opened before him and in it he saw lilies and roses. Then looking up in astonishment to heaven, he beheld the body of the Virgin, radiant in a glory of light ascending slowly towards the celestial regions.

It is related that in pity for his lack of faith she flung down to him her girdle—the same _sacratissima cintola_ which is still preserved in the Cathedral of Prato.

The “angel of death,” usually supposed to be Gabriel, but more correctly Michael, sometimes offers her a taper—it being customary to place a taper in the hands of one who is dying.