Chapter II: Part 2

Explosion doors provide another means for preventing damage from gas explosions. Some authorities recommend that these doors be placed in front of the tuyeres, so that when the blast is turned off the doors may be opened to admit the outside air. When this arrangement is adopted the doors should not be closed until the blast has entered the wind box, so that any gas remaining therein may escape through the doors.

With a positive-pressure blower, which is probably the best type for cupola work, a safety-valve should be provided for the protection of the blast pipe or blower. This will prevent the bursting of the blast pipe in case the blast gate is closed suddenly, or if the cupola becomes clogged with slag in such a manner as to obstruct the passage of the air to a dangerous extent. The weights on the safety-valve should be sufficient to prevent blowing-off unless the obstruction is quite serious, because a constant blast-volume is required in modern cupola operation, and if the volume is decreased an undesirable lowering of the temperature occurs.

Charging and lighting-up should be done carefully and by experienced workmen, and the charges should be laid as nearly level as possible. When the charging has been completed, and after lighting-up, sufficient time should be allowed for the cupola to become thoroughly warmed up before starting the blower.

Traveling Cranes.

Cranes of various types are used in the foundry, but most of the heavy work is done by electrically-operated traveling cranes. The suggestions that follow therefore relate mainly to that type, although many of them are applicable to all cranes, and to hoisting devices of other kinds.

A substantial stairway or ladder should be installed at one end of the crane runway, to provide access to the crane cab or cage; and when two cranes are operated on the same runway, stairways or ladders should be installed at both ends of the runway. Cranemen should always use this means of entering and leaving the cages. Every crane cab should be inclosed to a height of at least 42 inches on all sides, except where entrance is actually effected. The inclosure should preferably be of sheet metal or expanded metal, or of heavy, woven-wire mesh. If railings are used there should be an intermediate rail midway between the top rail and the floor of the cab, and a six-inch toe-board should also be installed. A stairway or a ladder should always be provided for passing from the cab to the top of the crane bridge. This should be substantially built, and properly protected so that the crane operator or repairman will be in no danger of falling when he uses it.

A foot-walk should be constructed along the bridge of the crane, or on both sides where the width of the bridge demands. This will give easy and safe access to the trolley in any position, and to any part of the bridge. The construction should be substantial, and the width must be sufficient to provide ample room for passage. Double railguards 42 inches high should be erected along each foot-walk, and six-inch toe-boards should also be provided.

Whenever possible, a substantial walk should be installed beside the crane runway, and this should be protected by strong railings and toe-boards along its entire length. All traveling cranes should be equipped with spring bumpers or oil bumpers, and suitable stops should be installed at each end of each rail of the runway.

All gears on the trolley and other parts of the crane should be completely incased, and no one should be allowed on top of the crane while it is in motion. A stout sheet-metal pan, or a substantial floor, should be provided under the trolley, to catch any parts that may work loose, and to prevent them from falling upon employees below. This pan or floor should be solid except for the cable openings. Guards, fenders, or brushes should be attached in front of the bridge and trolley wheels, to remove any obstructions that may be upon the tracks, and to prevent injury to persons who may be working in such positions that their hands or feet might be crushed by the wheels.

_Courtesy of The Alliance Machine Company._

FIG. 11. SAFEGUARDS ON A LARGE LADLE CRANE.

(This crane is larger than is used in the average foundry but it has some safety features that should be universally adopted. At A is the landing platform leading to the foot-walk on the crane bridge; B is a stairway which extends from the safety platform, C, just outside the operator’s cage, to the landing platform. The railing and toe-board on the crane bridge and on the trolley are also essential for safety.)]

All electrical wiring should be installed in conduits; and it is particularly important that hoist-limit stops be provided, in all cases, both for the main and for the auxiliary hoists. In the best crane practice the hoist-limit stops employ dynamic braking to check overtravel and to assist in lowering loads. To prevent the crane from being operated by unauthorized persons, or while repairs are being made, there should be a safety switch in the main line, mounted above the cab where it can be conveniently reached from the foot-walk. This switch should be fitted with a lock so that it can be secured in the open position, and the key should be only in the possession of the crane operator or the head repairman.

Woodwork should not be used about a crane, because it is likely to become oil-soaked, and it is then exceedingly combustible. If it should take fire and the craneman, in order to make his escape, should run the crane to a stairway, the time required for this purpose might increase his danger quite materially, and the motion of the crane would also tend to increase the fire. If, on the other hand, he tries to leave the crane in any other way than by the regular stairway, he will be exposed to hazards of other kinds, and these will be accentuated by his haste.

_Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company._

FIG. 12. SOME SAFETY FEATURES OF A TRAVELING CRANE.

(This illustration shows a part of a crane on the erecting floor of the manufacturer. There are no exposed revolving parts throughout the entire length of the crane bridge. Some of the safety features are as follows: A--inclosed gearing; B--inclosed drive-shaft coupling; C--pipe inclosure for drive shaft; D--device for sanding rails when crane is used out-of-doors. See also Fig. 13.)]

Keep all tools, oil-cans, and waste in a closed metal box securely fastened to the crane or to the runway at some convenient point.

Careful, watchful, intelligent, and trustworthy crane operators, floormen, and repairmen, can do a great deal toward preventing accidents, and only such men should be employed about cranes. The following suggestions relate to the work of these men, and if faithfully followed will be the means of promoting safety in a marked degree.

_Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company._

FIG. 13. SOME SAFETY FEATURES OF A TRAVELING CRANE.

(This is a nearer view of some of the safeguards shown in Fig. 12. A is the track sander which is operated by a rope or cable attached to the lever and extended to the craneman’s cage; B shows more clearly the drive-shaft coupling. The shaft inclosure also appears more plainly.)]

During the ordinary operation of an electric crane the craneman should never leave his cage without making sure that all the controllers are in the off position, and that the main switch is open. Before he leaves the crane the safety switch should also be locked open. If the electric current should be shut off at any time, the same precautions should be observed; and before closing the main switch, when about to resume work after an interruption due to any cause whatsoever, the craneman should again make certain that all the controllers are in the off position.

When about to lift a load, the motor should be run at low speed until the slack in the chain or cable has been taken up, after which the controller handle may be advanced slowly from point to point to increase the speed. Before a motor is reversed it should be brought to a full stop, except when an accident can be averted only by disregarding this advice.

When handling a heavy load the craneman should hoist it a few inches above the floor, and then, before proceeding further, he should assure himself that it is properly balanced and that the slings are secure, and should also test the brakes to make sure that they will hold the load safely. If there is any doubt whatsoever about the safety of the operation, the load should be lowered and the slings or brakes adjusted, or other necessary measures taken to avoid danger. It is also desirable, at the beginning of each shift, to test the foot brakes and limit switches thoroughly.

It is extremely important, at all times, and particularly when handling molten metal, to “spot” the trolley directly above the load to be hoisted. Failure to do this will cause the load to swing sidewise as soon as it is clear of the floor, and usually the metal will be spilled, or men or objects near by may be struck by the load.

Loads should be raised high enough to give proper clearance above men and objects on the floor, but they should not be carried for any considerable distance at an unnecessary elevation. So far as possible, the craneman should avoid transporting loads directly over workmen. Special care should be exercised to keep loads under control when lowering them, and the speed should always be restricted to a reasonable and safe limit.

Some definite person must be held responsible for the selection of the chains and slings that are used for hoisting, and for making suitable hitches about the loads. If the foundry is large enough to employ a special floorman, these matters may well be left to him, because he is necessarily familiar with the constantly-changing conditions, and he should therefore be able to select the proper sling quickly and intelligently. Moreover, experience will have taught him the best method for attaching the sling, or for hooking on to the load. If no special floorman is employed, this part of the work should be supervised by a specially assigned foreman, or by a skilled hooker-on. When applying the hook to the load, and when holding the hook in place while the slack is being taken up, the hooker-on should be careful to avoid having his hands caught and crushed between the sling and the load. Hooks with safety handles may be had, and these add greatly to the safety of the men when hooking up. If safety handles are not provided, pieces of wood notched at the end may be used with advantage for holding the hooks in place,--the notch being pressed against the hook to prevent it from moving before the tension comes on it.

When the hooks or slings are in place and the slack has been taken up, the workmen should immediately move back several feet from the load. When a load is being deposited, all persons should keep at a safe distance while the slings are being withdrawn from under it, because the slings may snap out suddenly, or may catch on the load and tip it over. When slackening-off the hoisting cables the hooker-on should avoid pulling down on the _inrunning_ side of the block, because his fingers may be caught between the sheave and the cable and be cut off or badly crushed. It is far safer to grasp the outrunning side, and pull up and away from the sheave. Greater safety in this work is insured by inclosing the block to which the hook is secured. Blocks guarded in this manner are available and should be generally adopted.

The crane operator should never allow chains, slings, cables, or hooks to drag along the floor, and he should never start the crane carriage or trolley until all such appendages are entirely clear. Even in the short distance that the crane might travel before they leave the floor, the slings or hooks might become caught on some obstruction and cause an accident.

No one should be permitted to ride on a load or on the crane hook; and if the craneman observes a violation of this rule he should stop the crane and refuse to move it until the person who is riding is in a safe place on the floor.

In a busy foundry the craneman must be specially alert, and his attention must be given, unremittingly, to following the various operations on the floor, taking the signals from the floorman, and controlling the movements of the crane.

Before an inexperienced man is permitted to take charge of a crane, he should be thoroughly trained in the work by a careful, well-qualified craneman, who should see that he becomes familiar with the operating mechanism, and skilled in the manipulation of the various levers and controls.

A signal gong, operated by hand or foot, or electrically, should be part of the equipment of every crane, and should be rung when the crane is started, and as frequently thereafter as may be necessary. Occasionally the gong is actuated by the mechanism that moves the crane, so that the warning signal is sounded automatically and continuously so long as the crane is moving. The objection to this method is that the sound of the gong is likely to become so familiar that its value as a warning of danger will be lost and the men will give little heed to it. Furthermore, the gong should always be treated as an _extra safeguard_, and no other safety precaution should be omitted or allowed to fall into disuse merely because the gong is used, nor should vigilance and caution be relaxed in any respect whatever.

Some person should be specially designated to transmit to the craneman the signals for moving the loads, and the craneman should disregard signals given by other men. The signalman should stand in plain view of the craneman and should take care to give all his signals clearly. A definite and unmistakable code of signals, consisting of motions of the hands and arms, should be arranged. Signals given orally are unsatisfactory and unsafe, not only because it is often difficult to distinguish them with certainty unless the foundry is quiet, but also because the sound of loud voices will always distract the attention of other men from their work. When a load is being transported some person designated for this purpose should always walk in front of it to warn workmen who are in danger of being struck, and he should also see that the load is carried high enough to clear all obstacles in its path, because the craneman, on account of his location, sometimes finds it hard to judge the height of the load correctly.

A crane that is to be repaired should be moved to one end of the runway or to some other point where it will cause the least interference with the movements of other cranes. The controllers and the main and emergency switches should be placed in the off position before starting any repair work on cranes, and the safety switches should be locked, or the fuses removed, to prevent any movement of the crane, and to avoid accidental short circuits that might result in injury to the repairmen.

Suitable warning signs should be placed on cranes that are undergoing repairs, and buffers or rail stops should be clamped to the crane rails a few yards in front of the disabled crane when others are operated on the same runway. If practicable, a suitable floor area directly underneath the disabled crane should be roped off or inclosed in some other way, to prevent accidents that might be caused by tools or other objects falling from the crane. Similar precautions should be taken when men are at work on the runways, and red flags or other warning devices should be placed at both ends of the section undergoing repairs.

Chains and Hooks.

Chains and hooks should be carefully inspected at regular intervals, and they should also be annealed from time to time by competent workmen who thoroughly understand the art of annealing, and who know how to secure the results that are desired. Particular care should be taken with hooks in this respect, because a hook, when properly annealed, should gradually yield or straighten if subjected to a serious overload, and thus give warning of danger; whereas if it is not properly annealed, and therefore hard, it is likely to snap off suddenly, without warning. Chains and hooks should be inspected with care immediately after annealing, because they are then cleaner than at other times, and hence any existing defects or flaws in them may be detected with greater certainty. All chains and hooks should be numbered, and a careful record should be kept of the inspections and annealings. Hoisting chains are particularly liable to failure through fatigue or over-strain, on account of the severe treatment to which they are frequently subjected; and they should therefore be examined minutely, and link by link, to detect insecure welds and slight cracks or other defects. Chain slings should never be crossed or twisted when placed around loads, and every chain that is to be used as a sling should be made of the highest quality of wrought iron. All chains should be oiled frequently, to prevent rusting.

Forged hooks, or laminated hooks made of steel plates securely riveted together, should be used in preference to those made of cast steel. Hooks are sometimes subjected to severe abuse by workmen who try to force them into position by striking them with heavy iron bars or other implements. This is a dangerous practice, and should be strictly prohibited.

Wire-Rope Slings.

Well-made wire-rope slings give better service than chain slings, because they are stronger, weight for weight, and also because deterioration is usually indicated by broken strands that are readily discoverable by an experienced and qualified inspector. Wire-rope slings are pliable, and may be adapted to almost every use. They should be kept in good condition, and to prevent rusting and unnecessary wear from friction they should be treated with oil or with a good cable lubricant prepared specially for the purpose. Wire-rope for slings used in handling molten metal or hot castings should have a soft iron-wire core, because a hemp core is quite likely to be destroyed by the heat.

Slings in General.

A sling should never be allowed to rest directly against the sharp corners of a heavy flask, casting, or other similar object, but should be protected by wooden corner-pieces, or by pads of burlap or other soft material.

Every sling, whether composed of a chain or a rope, should be long enough not only to surround the load it has to support, but also to leave a considerable space between the sling and the upper surface of the load. The oblique parts of the sling, which lie above the load and join it to the hook (or to the point where the suspension first becomes vertical) should never be so flat as to make an angle of less than 45 degrees with the ground. This precaution is highly important, but it is often overlooked or neglected, because the men do not realize that the stress on the ends of a sling is greater, the flatter (or more nearly horizontal) they lie. When the ends are inclined at an angle of 45 degrees, the stress upon each of them is about 41 per cent. greater than it would be if the ends were vertical; and if the sling is so short that it barely goes around the load and has but little slack, the stress upon it may be very great indeed.

We strongly advise that all slings, when not in actual use, be kept under lock and key and placed in charge of some responsible person who knows their condition and is competent to select safe and appropriate slings for every occasion. They may be stored in the tool room or supply room, for example, and be in charge of a qualified foreman.

Hoisting Apparatus in General.

Hoisting apparatus of every kind should be inspected frequently and thoroughly, and all parts that are defective in any way should be promptly repaired or replaced. The man charged with the operation of the apparatus should not attempt to make repairs or adjustments, however, unless the foundry is a small one, where this constitutes a part of his recognized duty. Under all other circumstances he should immediately report to the foreman or repairman, in order that the job may receive attention in the proper way. If the defect is serious enough to constitute a possible source of danger, the apparatus should not be operated until the necessary repairs or adjustments have been made.

Tumbling Barrels.

Tumbling barrels (or “rattlers”) for cleaning rough castings are of two general types, respectively known as wet and dry. There are numerous mechanical hazards in connection with both types, and with dry tumbling barrels considerable danger to health may be caused by the dust created by them unless suitable preventive measures are adopted.

There are two methods that are commonly employed for removing the dust from dry tumbling barrels. One of these consists in attaching an exhaust system directly to the machine, and the other consists in inclosing the barrel in a dust-proof compartment from which the dust may be exhausted. The first method, as a rule, is practicable only in connection with tumbling barrels that are of special design, and are provided with the necessary attachments for connecting with exhaust fans. In nearly all other cases dust-proof inclosures must be built, and it is practicable to secure satisfactory results in this way when the system is properly arranged. The compartments should be made as tight as possible, and should be constructed of sheet metal or well-seasoned lumber. The doors may be arranged to fold, or to slide upward or sidewise; or they may be hinged to open in any way that is most convenient. In some cases rolling steel shutters are used. Doors that rise vertically should be suitably counterweighted so that they will not drop upon the workmen, and the counterweights should be inclosed. In addition to the counterweights we recommend the use of catches or fastenings for holding up the doors.

When tumbling barrels (either wet or dry) are not located in compartments, substantial double railings, at least 42 inches high, should be placed about them, with a clearance of not less than 15 inches nor more than 20 inches. (When railings are placed more than 20 inches away, workmen are likely to crawl inside of them to do any necessary work, and they are then in greater danger than they would be in if no railings were present; whereas if railings are omitted altogether, the workmen are likely to be struck or to have their clothing caught by small objects that may work through perforated or loosely-fitting covers, or by the projecting cover-fastenings.) The railings should be provided with gates so arranged that opening the gates will automatically throw the driving belts or clutches into the off position, and will prevent the machines from being started until the gates are closed. Driving belts should be guarded to a height of at least 6 feet above the floor, and all exposed gears should be completely inclosed. Chain hoists should be provided for lifting heavy covers, and suitable brakes or locking devices should be installed to prevent any movement of the machines while they are being loaded or unloaded. Securing the barrels in position by means of bars or props is a mere makeshift method, and is manifestly unsafe.

Sand Mixers and Sifters.

Sand mixers are of two general types, one of which simply mixes the materials, while the other not only mixes but also grinds them. The mixer consists of a horizontal semi-cylindrical vessel in which the sand is placed and the mixing is done by revolving blades. The top of the cylinder should be covered by a substantial grating composed of 3/8-inch round stock suitably reinforced to insure rigidity, and provided with free-swinging discharging doors. All gears should be inclosed by substantial guards, and the driving belt should be protected to a height of at least 6 feet above the floor. A well-designed belt-shifter should be provided, and should be so arranged that it may be locked to prevent creeping of the belt.

The combination mixer and grinder is similar to the revolving dry-pan used in the manufacture of bricks, and it may be driven either from underneath or from overhead. In either case the driving gears and all other exposed gears should be suitably inclosed, and the driving belt should be protected and be fitted with a belt-shifter, as described above in connection with the sand mixer. The revolving pan should be completely surrounded by a substantial guard of heavy, reinforced wire netting extending to a height well above the hubs of the grinding wheels. An opening should be left in one side of the guard, and at this point a sheet-metal feeding hopper should be securely riveted on. A drag or other suitable mechanical device should be provided to force the sand out through the discharging door, and the use of hand shovels for removing the sand from the pan while it is in motion should be prohibited.

Pipe or angle-iron railings 42 inches high should be installed at the sides of rotating sand sifters, at a distance of at least 15 inches, and not more than 20 inches, from them. Belt-shifters should be provided, and the belts should be guarded to a height of at least 6 feet above the floor.

When sand mixers and sifters are driven by electric motors every precaution should be taken to prevent electric shocks and burns. See that all live wires and other parts are thoroughly insulated, and guard all dangerous rotating parts. Inclosed switches should be used, and they should be located in convenient and easily accessible positions; fuses of the inclosed type should also be used.

Automatic Molding Machines.

The gears on both sides of these machines should be entirely inclosed by substantial guards of sheet metal, expanded metal, or close-mesh woven wire. The connecting rods should be similarly guarded, the inclosures in the latter case to extend as high as possible without interfering with the adjustment. Whether the machines are driven by belts or by electric motors, such precautions should be taken with regard to belt-shifters, belt-guards, and electrical safeguards as have been recommended above in connection with sand mixers.

Chipping Department.

Many serious eye injuries occur in the chipping department, and practically all of these may be prevented by requiring the general use of suitably-designed eye-protectors or goggles. Eye-protectors for cupola men and others engaged in handling molten metal have been described in a previous paragraph, and those to be used by chippers should be similar. Cheap, flimsy eye-protectors should not be used. It is economy to buy substantial goggles at a higher price, not only because they afford better protection, but also because they are more durable.

In addition to the eye-protectors, shields of canvas or other suitable material, mounted on substantial frames, should be provided, wherever needed, to protect near-by workmen from flying chips.

Chippers should not be permitted to work with battered or otherwise defective tools. Broken hammers and sledges should be discarded, and cold-chisels and other implements should be dressed when they become burred or mushroomed.

Grinding Wheels.

Emery wheels and wheels of other abrasive materials are used in grinding castings, and these sometimes burst and cause serious injuries to the operators. All grinding wheels should be fitted with safety collars or flanges, and, where practicable, should be inclosed by substantial metal hoods connected to exhaust fans for removing the dust. Stationary grinding machines should be mounted on solid foundations to prevent vibration, and their bearings should be ample in size and be kept well lubricated and properly adjusted. It is important that grinders wear goggles, to protect their eyes from flying dust and sparks.

Further details with regard to the design, care, and operation of grinding wheels will be found in a booklet, entitled “_Grinding Wheels_”, published by the Engineering and Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY.

Compressed Air.

Compressed air is commonly used in foundries for operating air hoists, blow guns, spraying devices, pneumatic hammers and chisels, sand-blasts, molding machines, and sand-blast tumbling barrels. Serious accidents are often the result of the improper use of compressed air, and workmen should never be allowed to play pranks with it, but should use it only for the purposes for which it is provided. In particular, a sand-blast should never be turned upon a person, because it might easily destroy his eyesight or cause other serious injuries.

The introduction of compressed air into the human body causes great distention of the intestines, accompanied by agonizing pain; and the victim usually dies after a short period of intense suffering. Every man about the foundry should therefore make it his special business to see that no attempt is made to use the air lines for perpetrating so-called “practical jokes”.

(Strong air suction, through the exhaust hoods shown in the upper part of the picture, will remove a large quantity of the dust that is created, but it would be better if the ducts were placed in the floor, with gratings over them, or in the side walls. The helmet which the operator is wearing is of a type commonly used in work of this kind. As explained in the text, no entirely satisfactory helmet has yet been devised.)]

Sand-blasting.

Sand-blasting may be done in the open air if eye-protectors and respirators are worn and other suitable precautions are taken, but it is far better to provide a dust-proof chamber for this work. The operator of the sand-blast should then wear an appropriate helmet, to effectively protect his lungs and eyes from the dust. The form of apparatus used should be adapted to the work to be done, and to the conditions that must be met. Considered from the point of view of the dust hazard alone, the ideal arrangement appears to consist in a helmet well ventilated by means of a hose supplying an adequate flow of dust-free air. The hose may be run from the compressed-air tank to the upper part of the helmet, and it should be provided with a regulating valve located where it may be easily controlled by the man who is to be supplied. The air current should be so adjusted that it will not only afford sufficient oxygen to serve for respiration, but also prevent dust from rising into the helmet through openings in the lower part of it. In practice, however, it is frequently found that the plan here outlined is highly objectionable to the men, and in fact they often refuse to wear apparatus of this type, claiming that the cool air passing down the neck soon causes them to catch cold. Baffles and various other distributing devices to regulate the flow of the air within the helmet have been tried, but no ideal and wholly satisfactory solution of the difficulty has yet been worked out, so far as we are aware. In the opinion of certain foundry experts, an ordinary helmet with a respirator attached, or used in conjunction with a separate respirator, constitutes the best device for the protection of the sand-blaster, when all phases of the problem are considered.

Each compartment used for sand-blasting should be provided with an exhaust system capable of removing the dust in a satisfactory manner.

_Courtesy of the Western Electric News._

FIG. 16. CABINETS FOR SAND-BLASTING SMALL CASTINGS.

(The castings are placed in the cabinets and are held and turned about by the operators, who watch the progress of the work through glass panels. The dust is carried off through the exhaust ducts.)]

Illumination.

The average foundry is poorly lighted, and many accidents may be attributed directly to this condition. There are many problems to be considered in providing proper and adequate light for foundries, and as the conditions that have to be met vary a great deal, it is impossible to make any general recommendations that will be applicable in all cases.

The floors, walls, supporting columns, ceilings, and materials in foundries are usually covered with grime and dust which absorb from 95 to 98 per cent. of the light that strikes them, and which give them all the same general tone or color. With no contrasting background it becomes exceedingly difficult, at times, to distinguish objects lying upon the floor, and care should therefore be taken to see that the floor is kept free from tools, materials, and obstacles of every other kind, over which the workmen might stumble. Moreover, if the ventilating system is inadequate to keep the air reasonably clear, the dust, smoke, and gases will not only reduce the intensity of the illumination and thereby invite accidents, but may also affect the health of the working force.

During certain stages of the work,--notably at pouring time,--the men are exposed to a dazzling, blinding radiation from the white-hot, molten metal. Very often, too, lighting units of intense intrinsic brilliance and high candle-power are placed where they shine directly into the eyes of the men. Conditions such as these impair the vision of the worker, thereby reducing his efficiency as a producer, and multiplying the opportunities for accidents.

One of the best artificial lighting sources for foundry work is the Mazda C lamp (500 to 1,000 watt sizes). To determine the proper location of the lamps, and their spacing, suspension heights, and other features (such as the types of reflectors that should be used) it is necessary to understand, as fully as possible, the exact conditions that must be met. Where incandescent lighting units are to be used, wall brackets, fitted with angle reflectors, provide the best means of securing satisfactory illumination at the floor level. Good results may be obtained by installing the brackets on the supporting columns, under the crane runway and below the smoky zone.

Although we have spoken only of artificial light for foundries, it is important to admit the greatest possible amount of natural light. As a usual thing, skylights are of little value on account of the clouds of smoke that often fill the upper part of the building, and therefore practically all the natural light that can be really serviceable must pass through windows in the side walls. For the same reason the effective window area must be considered as only that below a height of approximately twelve feet. It is essential that the windows occupy as much of the wall space as possible, and, where the width of the room is great, prism glass should be used. Prism glass, when properly set, will reflect the light into the room in a nearly horizontal direction. Satisfactory natural illumination can hardly be had without keeping the windows clean; and we also strongly advise whitewashing the walls, ceilings, and supporting columns, applying fresh coats whenever they are needed.

_Courtesy of American Blower Company._

FIG. 17. GOOD DAYLIGHT CONDITIONS IN A FOUNDRY.

(Observe also the ventilating duct, near the roof, and the downwardly-projecting Y-shaped nozzles connected to it through which the smoke and dust are drawn out of the building.)]

The Foundry Yard.

The fact that orderliness and system promote safety is probably nowhere better exemplified than in a large foundry yard. The maintenance and cost of a foundry yard is small as compared with that of the foundry itself, and it is good economy, therefore, to use the yard as much as practicable for the storing of scrap, sand, flasks, finished product, raw materials, and miscellaneous supplies; but the maximum efficiency and economy cannot be realized unless the yard is kept in a neat and orderly condition. If a yard is just large enough to meet the needs of a foundry, and is not used to its full capacity, it usually follows that the foundry floor space is littered with material that could be stored in the yard more advantageously; and the crowding of the foundry floor increases the number of accidents, many of which might be eliminated if the yard were utilized to better advantage. This is specially true of a foundry where every available foot of floor space is required for production. In this class belongs the “jobbing foundry,” in which work of a miscellaneous nature is done, as distinguished from the “repetition foundry,” in which the work consists mainly in the continuous reproduction of certain standard stock patterns.

The jobbing foundry owes its existence to the fact that many manufacturers who use castings have no room for a foundry, or have too limited a need for castings to warrant the expense of maintaining a foundry of their own. A foundryman who depends largely or wholly upon job contracts to keep his plant in operation usually has to turn out an exceedingly varied assortment of castings, and speed is often an essential factor in the contract. This means that as soon as one job is finished, the flasks and patterns must be removed and a different set substituted. If the yard is not well kept there is little likelihood that there will be ample space in it for the flasks and sand, and if there is not, it may be necessary to use the foundry floor for storage until the new flasks are brought in. The floor is then in a disorderly, crowded state, just when clear space is needed. It is evident that the probability of accident is greatly increased when such conditions prevail.

It is important for the foundry yard to be level and fairly smooth, and it will pay the owner well to put forth every reasonable effort to secure a yard of this kind. Material can be handled and stored with much greater safety and facility, in a level yard, than in one that is sloping or uneven. Foot paths, and passageways for wheelbarrows and trucks, can also be kept in good condition more easily.

A considerable part of the space in a yard, particularly when it belongs to a jobbing foundry, is devoted to the storage of flasks. The flasks should be carefully piled, so that they will not fall over, and they should also be arranged in an orderly manner, according to size, type, or combinations. Attention to these details will no doubt consume more time than would be required to store the flasks promiscuously; but the extra time is well worth taking, on account of the ease with which the flasks can be located, and the safety with which they can be withdrawn when they are again needed in the foundry,--to say nothing of the greater safety that proper storing insures, during the intervening period. If the flasks are heaped up in disorderly piles, or stored in other indiscriminate ways, accidents are likely to happen when the workmen are endeavoring to extricate one that is more or less buried or hidden. If the particular flask required cannot be located readily, a less desirable one is used, or a makeshift is hastily constructed. In the foundry these misfit flasks often cause burns, many of which could be avoided if more system were used in storing the flasks in the yard, so that the right one could be found without delay.

_Courtesy of the General Electric Company._

FIG. 18. DANGEROUS LOADING OF A CAR USED FOR TRANSPORTING FOUNDRY MATERIAL.]

When materials or equipment are stored or piled by the side of car tracks, a clear space of not less than six feet should be maintained between the tracks and the piles. Workmen engaged in the movement of cars, or other employees who are obliged to use the car tracks in the performance of their work, are likely to be caught and killed, or severely injured, unless ample clearance is provided.

At all places where railroad tracks cross roadways, runways, or footways, planks should be nailed down between the rails and at both sides of them, or other equivalent measures should be taken, to provide a smooth passageway over the rails for wagons, trucks, or barrows, as well as for foot passers. This greatly facilitates the crossing of the tracks, and it also reduces, in large measure, the shocks to which loads would otherwise be subjected, and the consequent danger of material falling off and injuring the men. The planks (or their equivalent) should be _flush_ with the rails, however, and they should come snugly up to the rails on the outside, and as close to them, on the inside, as the flanges of the car wheels will permit. Warning signs should be posted at all crossings, and the men engaged in car movements should always blow a whistle or sound a gong or bell as the cars approach a crossing.

Whenever tracks or roadways are depressed, they should be guarded by substantial railings. Furnace pits and excavations of all kinds should also have effective protection of the same nature.

All manholes should be kept covered with wooden tops, or with covers made safe by the use of non-slip material or by being checkered with a raised pattern; and the covers should be set as nearly flush with the surrounding surfaces as possible. Many serious injuries have resulted from workmen slipping on smooth, wet manhole covers of iron or steel, and from tripping over covers projecting above the level of the floor or the ground. When it is necessary to remove a cover, a guard rail should be placed about the hole immediately, and a danger signal secured to the guard rail.

Sand bins and coke bins, particularly those constructed of wood, often get badly out of repair. The boards become warped and bulge out under the weight of their contents, and they often split or crack in such a way as to present dagger-like points, or slivers, that are likely to catch the unwary workman, especially at night or during late afternoons in winter months, when the light is poor.

Good, serviceable walks should be provided throughout the yard. If the walks are conveniently located and are kept in good order, the workmen will use them; but if these conditions are not fulfilled, the men will climb over scrap piles or under cars, in order to “make a short cut.” Cinder paths are no doubt the most serviceable for foundry yards. Loosely-laid boards are continually getting out of place, and they are also likely to become warped so that they will not lie flat. Boards often warp enough to split, even when they are nailed down; and in such cases they may constitute a more or less dangerous tripping hazard to the workmen.

The safest way to store pig iron is to stow it in bins, or pile it up in neat stacks. This is more costly, however, than throwing it down promiscuously in piles, and hence the safer methods are often neglected. Electromagnetic cranes are coming into wide use for handling pig iron, and although they are very convenient, they have serious drawbacks when regarded from the safety standpoint, and their hazards should be clearly understood and carefully avoided. When the electromagnet is used no one should be permitted to stand, walk, or work near the path followed by the magnet, because any interruption of the electric service, from the opening of a switch, the blowing of a fuse, the short-circuiting of the magnet coil, or any other cause, will instantly let the whole load drop. Sometimes, too, a pig is barely held by the magnet, so that the least jar will break its contact and allow it to fall.

Safety, neatness, and convenience may be secured by constructing stout bins and dividing them into compartments, preferably of one-car capacity each, in which the pig iron can be deposited by the magnet crane,--always provided the dangers incident to the use of the magnet are borne in mind and avoided. When the iron is piled high in loose, irregular heaps, there is danger of one or more of the pigs becoming free and tumbling down upon workmen. This hazard is avoided when substantial bins are employed.

In many foundry yards boxes and barrels are used to store worn-out tools, small scrap material, discarded lumber, and other rubbish. It will materially assist in keeping the yard in a neat, safe condition, if the barrels or boxes used for this purpose are kept in convenient places, because the men are then more likely to make use of them. It is important, too, to keep all such receptacles in good order. It is not uncommon to see the ragged edge of a worn-out shovel blade, or some other discarded tool, sticking out menacingly over the edge of a box or barrel. Heaping up the scrap so that it stands high above the receptacles, or allowing it to project over the edges of them as just described, should be prohibited, because careless habits of this kind increase the dangers about the yard and invite injury, especially at night.

Barrel hoops are frequently left lying about, and when a workman steps on such a hoop it is likely to swing up and strike him smartly, often causing acute pain, or perhaps producing an actual abrasion or lesion, if it contains a sharp nail. This particular hazard may be taken as representative of a large class of others that are seemingly trivial in nature, but which are well worthy of attention in the aggregate. These minor accidents are often attended by grave consequences, not only because they may be followed by septic poisoning, but also because they frequently occur when the workman is engaged at some important task involving the safety of himself or others. Coming at such a time they take him by surprise, and they are likely to make his attention lapse momentarily from the work in hand,--perhaps with disastrous results. A book might be written about the big consequences of little things.

When old castings and other metal objects are broken up the work should preferably be done in the yard. A “skull-cracker” or “yard-drop” is usually employed for breaking these objects, and this consists of a derrick or hoist which lifts a heavy metal ball and drops it on the castings. Pieces of the objects are likely to fly in all directions when the weight falls on and breaks them, and all persons in the immediate vicinity are endangered by these pieces. Every skull-cracker should therefore be entirely surrounded by a substantially constructed fence, barricade, or inclosure, of sufficient height to protect persons working in the vicinity, and all passers-by, from injury from flying fragments of metal. In addition, a suitable shelter-house should be provided for the operator of the skull-cracker and his helpers, and all these persons should go into the shelter-house _before the ball is raised_. A safety drop-hook should be used to prevent premature or accidental dropping of the ball, if the weight is held by mechanical means; and if an electromagnet is employed to raise and hold the weight, the utmost care should be taken to keep the electrical circuits and devices in perfect condition. All gears, sprockets, and other dangerous moving parts of the skull-cracker should be covered or otherwise rendered harmless by the installation of standard guards.

INDEX

Accident in foundries, the causes of, 1.

Acid burns, protection against, 5.

Air, compressed, as employed in foundries, 52.
accidents caused by misusing, 52.

Annealing chains and hooks, 44.

Aprons, rubber and leather, 5.

Barrels, tumbling, wet and dry, 47.
guards for, 48.

Bins, sand and coke, dangers of, 63.

Boots, rubber, 5.

Bot, the proper use of the, 30.

Brakes, crane, testing, 40.

Braking, dynamic, for cranes, 37.

Buggy ladles.--See _Ladles_.

Bull ladles.--See _Ladles_; _Shanks_; _Clamps_.

Bumpers for cranes, 36.

Burns the most common injuries in foundries, 1.
--See also _Acid burns_.

Carbon monoxide in cupolas, 34.

Castings, old, method of breaking up, 65.

Chains, responsibility for selection of, 41.
and hooks, inspecting and annealing, 44.

Chipping department, accidents in the, 50.

Clamps for bowls of bull ladles, 9.

Clearance beside car tracks, 61.

Clinkers, crucibles damaged by, 29.

Clothing, suitable, for foundry workers, 1.

Crane operators, duties of, 39.
under repairs, precautions for, 44.
ladles.--See _Ladles_.

Cranes, traveling, safeguards for, 35.
electromagnetic, dangers of, 63.

Crucibles, the safe handling of, 19.
material for, 19.
improve with age, 20.
records of heats taken from, 21.
inspection, storage, and annealing of, 22.
“soaking”, 22.
“alligator cracks” in, 24.
care in filling, 25.
injured by tongs and shanks, 26.
the number of heats taken from, 26.
danger of leaving metal in bottom of, 30.

Cupola, gate for charging, opening of, 32.

Cupolas, proper method of tapping-out, 30.
precautions to be taken when relining, 32, 33.
explosions in, 33.
charging, lighting-up, and warming-up, 35.

Damper in blast pipe, 34.

Doors, explosion, for cupolas, 34.

Dust hazard in sand-blasting, 53.
from tumbling barrels, methods for removing, 47.

Drops.--See _Skull-crackers_.

Electricity, guarding against shocks and burns from, 50.

Elevators in foundries, 31.

Emery wheels.--See _Grinding wheels_.

Employees, new, instruction of, 12.

Explosion doors for cupolas, 34.

Explosions in cupolas, 33.

Eye-protectors for foundrymen, 3, 4, 50.

Fenders for cranes, 36.

Flasks and molds, 16.
iron and steel, superior to wooden, 16.
storage of, 18, 60.

Floors, concrete and brick, prevent spills, 8.

Foot-walks on crane bridges and runways, 36.

Foundry, jobbing, 59.
repetition, 59.
yard, the, 58.

Furnaces, oil, for heating crucibles, 25.

Garments.--See _Clothing_.

Gas.--See _Carbon monoxide_.

Gears on geared ladles to be completely inclosed, 5.

Glass, prism, for use in foundries, 57.

Glasses, safety.--See _Eye-protectors_.

Gloves for use in foundries, 4.

Goggles.--See _Eye-protectors_.

Gongs, signal, for cranes, 42.

Grinding wheels, guards for, 52.

Hand-leathers, 4.

Helmets for sand-blasters, 53.

Hoisting apparatus, care of, 47.
--See also _Cranes, traveling_; _Elevators_.

Hook, crane, method of applying, to load, 41.

Hooks, crane, with safety handles, 41.
and chains, inspecting and annealing, 44.
safety, for skull-crackers, 65.

Hoops, barrel, dangers of, 64.

Illumination in foundries, 56.

Injuries in foundries, the causes of, 1.

Iron, pig, storage of, 63.
scrap and pig, safety in handling, 31.

Jokes, practical, with compressed air, 53.

Khaki.--See _Clothing_.

Ladles, motor-operated, guards for, 5.
foundry, types of, 5.
geared, locking device for, 7.
crane, precautions in connection with, 7.
sulky and buggy, cause many accidents, 7.
bull, styles of shank-handles for, 9.
single-hand, guards for, 10.
proper method of filling, 12.
proper balancing of, 12.
damp, explosions caused by, 14.
relining, drying, and storing, 16.
--See also _Prong guards_; _Trolley systems_.

Lamps, electric, suitable for foundries, 57.

Leave-overs, proper disposition of, 14.

Leggings, suitable, for foundry workers, 2.

Lenses.--See _Eye-protectors_.

Lighting.--See _Illumination_.

Limit-stops, hoist, for cranes, 37.

Manholes, safe covers for, 62.

Molding machines, automatic, guards for, 50.

Molds and flasks, 16.

Orderliness in foundry yards, advantages of, 64.

Overalls.--See _Clothing_.

Passages, width of, between rows of flasks, 17.

Pickling processes, rubber gloves required for, 4.

Prong guards for buggy ladles, 9.

Railroad tracks in foundry yards, 62.

Rattlers.--See _Barrels, tumbling_.

Respirators.--See _Helmets_.

Riding on crane loads prohibited, 42.

Run-outs, 17.

Runways for buggy ladles, 7.

Safety-valves for cupolas, 34.

Sand-blasting, precautions in, 53.

Sand mixers and sifters, guards for, 49.
types of, 49.

Screen guard for use when relining cupola, 32.

Shanks for bull ladles, 9.

Shields for hand ladles, 10.
to intercept flying chips, 52.

Shirts.--See _Clothing_.

Shoes, congress, best for foundry workers, 2.

Signals for elevators, 31.
code of, for directing movements of crane, 43.
--See also _Gongs_.

Skull-crackers, guards for, 65.

Sleeves should be worn outside of gauntlets, 4.

Slings, responsibility for selection of, 41.
the safe angle of, 46.
to be locked up when not in use, 46.
protecting, at sharp corners of heavy objects, 46.
wire-rope, preferable to chain slings, 45.
lubricating, 45.
--See also _Chains and hooks_.

Stops, hoist-limit, for cranes, 37.
on crane runways, 36.

Sulky ladles.--See _Ladles_.

Switches, safety, for cranes, 37.

Tapping-out.--See _Cupolas_.

Tongs, types of, 27.
suitable, importance of using, 27.

Tongs, bent, method of re-shaping, 29.

Tools, defective, should not be used, 52.

Trolley systems for transporting ladles, 9.

Tumbling barrels.--See _Barrels, tumbling_.

Walks in foundry yards, 63.

Wiring for cranes to be installed in conduits, 37.

Woodwork about cranes, fire hazard of, 38.

Yard, foundry, the 58.

Yard-drops, guards for, 65.

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