Chapter VII: MISCELLANEOUS.--The Missing German Corvette Augusta.--With (2)

The operation of carbonizing woolen rags for the purpose of obtaining pure wool, through the destruction of the vegetable substances contained in the raw material, maybe divided into two parts, viz., the immersion of the rags in acid, with subsequent washing and drying, and the carbonization properly so called. The first part is so well known, and is so simple in its details and apparatus, that it is useless to dwell upon it in this place. But the second requires more scientific arrangements than those that seem to be generally adopted, and, as carbonization is now tending to constitute a special industry, we think it is of interest to give here a typical plan for a plant of this kind. It will be remarked that this plan contains all the parts in duplicate. The object of this arrangement is to permit of a greater production, by rendering the operation continuous through half of the apparatus being in operation while the other half is being emptied and filled.

Figs. 4 and 5 give plans of the ground floor and first story, and Figs. 1, 2, and 3 give vertical sections. The second story is arranged like the first, and serves as a drier. As we have said, there is a double series of chambers for carbonization, drying, and work generally. These two series are arranged on each side of a central portion, which contains the heating and ventilating apparatus and a stone stairway giving access to the upper stories. The heating apparatus is a hot air stove provided with a system of piping. The rags to be carbonized or the wool to be dried are placed upon wire cloth frames.

The carbonization is effected in the following way: When the heating apparatus has been fired up, and has been operating for about half an hour, the apertures, i, are opened so as to let the air in, as are also those, m, which allow the hot air to pass into the chambers. The hot air then descends from the top of the chamber into the wool or rags, and, becoming saturated and heavier, descends and makes its exit from the chamber through an aperture, n, near the floor, whence it flows to the central chimney. This latter, which is built of brick or stone, contains in its center a second chimney (formed of cast or forged iron pipes) that serves to carry off into the atmosphere the products of combustion from the heating apparatus. The heat that radiates from these pipes serves at the same time to heat the annular space through which the vapors derived from the wool are disengaged.

The air, heated to 40° or 50°, is made to pass thus for several hours, until the greater part of the humidity has been removed. The temperature is then raised to 80° or 90° by gradually closing the apertures that give access to the ventilating chimney. In order that it may be possible to further increase the temperature during the last hour, and raise it to 90° or 120°, an arrangement is provided that prevents all entrance of the external air into the heating apparatus, and that replaces such air with the hot air of the chamber; so that this hot air circulates in the pipes of the stove and thus becomes gradually hotter and hotter. The hot vapors that issue from the lower chamber rise into the upper one, where they are used for the preliminary drying of another part of the materials.

The hot air stove should be well lined with refractory clay, in order to prevent the iron from getting red hot, and the grate should be of relatively wide surface. All the pipes should be of cast iron, and all the joints be well turned. Every neglect to see to such matters, with a view to saving money, will surely lead in the long run to bad results.

The mode of work indicated here is called the moist process. It necessitates the use of a solution of sulphuric acid, but, as this latter destroys most colors, it cannot be used when it is desired to preserve the tint of the woolen under treatment. In this case recourse is had to the dry process, which consists in substituting the vapors of nitric acid heated to 115° or 125° for the sulphuric acid. The arrangement of the rooms must likewise be different. The chambers, which may be in duplicate, as in the preceding case, are vaulted, and are about three yards long by three wide and three high. The rags are put into wire cages that have six divisions, and that are located in the middle of the chamber, where they are slowly revolved by means of gearings. Under the floor are the heating flues, and upon it is a reservoir for holding the vessel that contains the acid to be vaporized. The arrangements for the admission of air and carrying along the vapors are the same as in the other case. Great precaution should be taken to have the flues so constructed as to prevent fire.--_Bull, de la Musee de l'Industrie_.

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APPARATUS FOR EVAPORATING ORGANIC LIQUIDS.

According to Mr. D'A. Bernard, it is especially important, in the dry distillation of distiller's wash in a closed vessel, for the production of methyls, ammonia, acetates, and methylamine, that the mass shall be divided as completely as possible, since it then takes but a relatively moderate heat to completely destroy the organic coloring matter contained in the wash. The apparatus shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is based upon this observation.

The wash enters, through the hopper, D, and the valve, z, a long boiler, B, which is heated by the furnace, F, through the intermedium of a waterbath, w. An agitator, E, moves the mass slowly to the other extremity of the boiler, from whence it makes its exit in the form of dust. To the frame, E, are fixed the scrapers, b, and the interrupted pieces, a, in front of which are the hinged valves, c. In the motion of the pieces, a, from right to left, these valves free the apertures thereof and allow the wash to pass, while in the motion from left to right the apertures are closed and the valves push the mass to be evaporated before them.

From any motor whatever, the frame, E, receives a double to and fro motion in a horizontal and vertical direction, the latter of which is produced by the rods, f, which are provided at their lower, forked extremity with rollers, e, over which passes the piece, d, that supports the frame, E. At their upper part the rods, f, pass through the side of the boiler, through the intermedium of stuffing boxes, and are connected by their upper extremities, through a link, with levers, g, that revolve around the point, h. A cam shaft, M, communicates a temporary, alternately rising and descending motion to the levers, g, and the rods f. The same shaft, M, opens and closes the valve, z, of the hopper, D, and thus regulates the entrance of the wash into the boiler. The frame, E, receives its horizontal to and fro motion from the rod, l, which traverses a stuffing-box and is moved by a crank on an eccentric, m. The material in powder derived from the evaporation of the wash is stored at the extremity of the apparatus into a lixiviating vessel, G, provided with a stirrer, H. The salts and other analogous matters are dissolved, and the residuum, which constitutes a carbonaceous mass, is forced out of the apparatus, while the solution passes directly to the refinery, where it is evaporated.

In manufactories where no refining is done, the crude potassa in powder is pushed on to a prolongation of the apparatus which is cooled by means of water, and is removed from time to time with shovels by the workmen, so that the orifice of the boiler remains constantly covered externally by the mass, and that the air cannot re-enter the apparatus.

The gases disengaged during the operation pass into a cooler, where they condense into a liquid which contains ammonia and methylamine. The non-condensable part of the gases is burned in the furnace of the manufactory.

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IMPROVED LEVELING MACHINE.

In the American Court of the Inventions Exhibition, London, we find a leveling machine for sheet metals exhibited by Mr. J.W. Britton, of Cleveland, Ohio, and which we illustrate.

This apparatus is intended to supersede the cold rolling of plates in order to take the buckle out of them. The sheets are clamped in the jaws or grips shown, and the stretch is effected by means of a hydraulic ram connected directly to the nearest pair of jaws. The power is obtained by means of a pair of pumps run through spur-gearing by the belt pulleys shown. The action of the machine puts a strain on those parts of the plates which are not "bagged" or buckled, and this causes the surface to extend, the slack parts of the plate not being subject to the same stretching action. The machine shown is designed to operate on sheet iron from No. 7 to No. 30 gauge, and up to 36 in. wide, the limit for length being 120 in. About a dozen sheets can be operated on at once. The machine appears to have met with considerable success in America, and has been used for mild steel, iron, galvanized or tinned sheets, copper, brass, and zinc. The details of this machine are given in Figs. 1 to 8. Figs. 1 and 2 are a plan and side elevation of the bed of the machine, showing the position of the hydraulic ram. Fig. 3 shows the bars used for holding the back jaws in position, with the holes for adjusting to different lengths of the plates. Fig. 4 is a back view and section of the crosshead and one of the bolts that connect the moving grip with the hydraulic ram. Fig. 5 gives a plan and cross section of the back grip, and Fig. 6 is a back elevation of the same, with a front view and section of the gripping part. Fig. 7 shows the gear by which the jaws are opened and closed.

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THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.

Among the numerous arrangements that have been devised for drawing circles in diagrams, sketches, etc., one of the simplest is doubtless that which is represented in the accompanying figure, and which is known in England as the "scholar's compasses." It consists of a socket into which slides a pencil by hard friction, and to which is hinged a tapering, pointed leg. This latter and the pencil are held at the proper distance apart by means of a slotted strip of metal and a binding screw. When the instrument is closed, as shown in the figure to the left, it takes up but little space, and may be easily carried in the pocket without the point tearing the clothing, as the binding screw holds the leg firmly against the pencil.

The mode of using the apparatus is so well shown in the figure to the right that it is unnecessary to enter into any explanation.--_La Nature_.

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THE INTEGRAPH.

In scientific researches in the domain of physics we often meet with the following problem: Being given any function whatever, y = f(x), to find a curve whose equation shall be

_
/
|
y = | f(x)dx + C.
|
_/

[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.]

Let us take an example that touches us more closely; let us suppose that we know an induced current, and that we can represent it by a curve y=f(x). The question is to find the inductive current, that is to say, the curve represented by the equation

_
/
|
y = | f(x)dx + C.
|
_/

[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.]

The apparatus called an integraph, constructed by Messrs. Napoli and Abdank-Abakanowicz, is designed for solving this problem mechanically, by tracing the curve sought. Let us take another example from the domain of electricity, in order to better show the utility of the apparatus; let us suppose that we have a curve representing the discharge of a pile or of an accumulator. The abscisses represent the times, and the ordinates the amperes. The question is to know at every moment the quantity of coulombs produced by the pile. The apparatus traces a curve whose ordinates give the number of coulombs sought. We might find a large number of analogous applications.

The apparatus is represented in the accompanying figure. An iron ruler, I, parallel with the axis of the X's, is fixed upon a drawing-board, and is provided with a longitudinal groove in its upper surface. In this groove move two rollers, which, in the center of the piece that connects them, carry two brass T-squares that are parallel with each other and at right angles with the first, or parallel with the axis of the Y's. Between these two rulers move two carriages, the first of which (nearest the axis of the X's) carries a point, A, designed to follow the contour of the curve to be integrated, while the second, which is placed further away, is provided at the center with a drawing-pen, A', whose point is guided by two equidistant wheels, R, R', that roll over the paper in such a way as to have their plane parallel with a given straight line, and that have always a direction such that the tangent of the point's angle with the axes of the X's is constantly proportional to the ordinate of the primitive curve.

The carriages are rendered very movable by substituting rolling for a sliding friction of the axes. To this effect, the extremities of the axes of the wheels that support and guide them are made thin, and roll over the plane surface of recesses formed for the purpose in the lateral steel surfaces of the carriages, while the circumference of the wheels rolls in grooves along the two T-squares.

These latter are, on the one hand, carried by rollers that run in the groove of the iron, I, and, on the other, by a single roller that runs over the paper. At right angles with one of these bars is fixed a divided ruler, through one point of which continually passes a third ruler, whose extremity pivots upon the point, A, of the first carriage.

When the divided ruler is placed upon the axis of the X's, and the point, A, of this carriage is following the contours of the figure to be integrated, the tangent of the angle made by the inclined ruler with the axis of the X's will be proportional to the ordinate of the figure. The wheels, R and R', of the drawing-pen, A', of the second carriage must move parallel with this ruler. In order to obtain such parallelism, we employ a parallelogram formed as follows: Two gear-wheels of the same diameter are fixed upon the ruler that ends at the point, A, of the first carriage, and their line of centers is parallel with the latter. The second carriage likewise carries two drums equal in diameter to those of the toothed wheels. These are fixed, and their line of centers must remain constantly parallel with the line of centers of the gear-wheels, and consequently with the straight line which passes through the point, A. This parallelism is obtained by means of a weak steel spring, or of a silken thread passing over the four wheels, the two first of which (the gear-wheels) hold it taut by means of a barrel and spring placed in the center of one of them.

The edge of the wheels, R, R', of the second carriage prevents the latter from giving way to the traction of the threads, permitting it thus to move only in the direction of their plane.

It will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two cog wheels, which latter, gearing with each other, allow of the escape of but the same length of the two threads.

It will be observed that in this system integration is effected by forcing the pen to follow a certain direction, and that consequently the curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the different parts of the apparatus.--_La_ _Lumiere Electrique_.

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APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES.

The apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed for the manufacture of gaseous beverages, and is of Messrs. Boulet & Co.'s make. Fig. 1 represents the apparatus complete, with gasometer and bottling machine. Fig. 2 gives a vertical section of the apparatus properly so called, including the producer, the purifier, and the saturator, all grouped upon a cast-iron column.

The producer, A, is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and carbonate of lime. A mixer, F, revolves in the interior of this, and effects an intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the necessity of the former being pulverized beforehand. The carbonate of lime (usually in the form of chalk) is introduced directly into the producer through the aperture, K, while the acid contained in the receptacle, B, at the side of the column and above the producer flows put through a curved pipe in the bottom. The flow is regulated by the valve, C. The receptacle, B, is lined with platinum. As soon as the acid comes into contact with the carbonate, there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas, which flows directly through the pipe, F, into the purifier at the upper part of the column. From thence the gas passes into a third washer, D, of glass. When thoroughly washed, it flows through the pipe, L, into the gasometer, which is of galvanized iron, and is very carefully balanced.

The saturator, which is the most important part of the apparatus, comprises a pump, a feed reservoir, and a sphere. The pump, which is of bronze, is placed at the side of the column, at the lower part (Fig. 1). This sucks up the gas stored in the gasometer and the water contained in the reservoir, and forces them into the sphere. This latter is of bronze, cast in a single piece, and the thickness of its sides prevents all danger of explosion. It is silvered internally, and provided with a powerful rotary agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas.

The apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine, which is placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it. This machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin pipe.--_Chronique Industrielle_.

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APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.

Among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for determining the power of powder, those designed for military purposes are the ones most extensively used. Up to the present, very few experimental apparatus have been constructed for civil uses, although such are no less necessary than the others. Mr. D'O. Guttman has examined the principal types of dynamometers with respect to their use for testing explosive materials, and, after ascertaining wherein they are defective, has devised an apparatus in which the principle is the same as that employed by Messrs. Montluisant and Reffye at Meudon, that is to say, one in which the force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed in a conical channel. Mr. Desortiaux objects that in this system, when it is employed with charges for cannons, the action has already begun when only a portion of the powder is burned. To this, Mr. Guttman responds that his apparatus operates only with small charges (300 grains), which practically inflame simultaneously in every part when the igniting is done in a closed space. In order that the force may not be made to act in one direction only, the inventor uses two leaden cylinders. His apparatus is shown in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, and 3. It consists of a median piece, a, and of two heads, b, of an external diameter of four inches. These pieces are of tempered Bessemer steel. The two heads are four inches in length, one inch of which is provided with a screw thread. Each of them contains an aperture, c, 1.34 inches wide below, 1.3 inches wide above, and 1.18 inches deep. This aperture is followed by another and conical one, d, 1.38 inches deep, and 0.4 inch wide at its narrowest end, and finally by another one, e, 0.4 inch wide, which runs to the exterior. The median piece, a, is 4 inches long. It is provided at the two sides with nuts, between which there is a cylindrical space, f, 1.8 inches long, designed to receive the charge. The inflaming plug, g, is screwed into the exact center of the median piece, a, which it enters to a depth of one inch. Into the space that still remains free is screwed a plug, h. The lower surface of the plug, g, contains a hollow space, 0.6 inch wide and deep. This hollow is prolonged by another one, 0.24 inch wide, and contains a valve, i, which has a play of about 0.08 inch. The three parts are connected by a key which passes into the holes, x, and are rendered tight by copper rings, y.

When it is desired to charge the apparatus, a leaden cylinder, 1.34 inches long and 1.3 inches in diameter, is placed in one of the heads, and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made still tighter by a few turns. Then a steel plate, k, 1.3 inches wide by 0.2 inch thick, is placed against the cylinder, and against this plate again is placed a cardboard disk, 1.34 inches wide by 0.4 inch thick. This completely closes the hollow space. The steel plates and heads are marked with the figures 1 and 2, which, through the pressure, are impressed upon the leaden cylinders. Then the charge of powder, weighing exactly 300 grains, is introduced, and a new cardboard disk, a steel plate, and a leaden cylinder are inserted, and the second head is screwed up. The apparatus is now ready to operate. An ordinary priming is placed on the pyramid, h, and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way that the latter shall have a little play. By means of a hammer, m, a smart blow is given the valve i, and this detonates the priming, and causes an explosion of the charge. The gases make their exit through the pyramid, h, and lift the valve and press it against the plug, so that their escape is effectually prevented. In fact, the explosion takes place without noise. A slight whistling, only, indicates that the capsule has not missed fire, and that the apparatus may be immediately opened, the gases having condensed in the interior. It is well, however, to place the closed apparatus in water, in order that the residua that have entered the threads of the screw may become detached, and that the apparatus may be opened easily. Although there is no danger in standing alongside the apparatus, it is much better to spring the hammer by means of a cord of a certain length, since the valve and especially the pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out. With some kinds of powder the pyramid rapidly melts, and must be frequently replaced.

The two cones of lead obtained are then measured to 0.004 of an inch by means of a gauge (Fig. 3).

The inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus, and thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by powder very perfectly.

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SANDMANN'S VINEGAR APPARATUS.

For obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly from pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single distillation, Mr. D. Sandmann, of Charlottenburg, employs the apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving. It consists of a double-bottomed copper or enameled iron boiler, A, arranged for being heated by steam, and the upper part of which is protected against the action of the acid vapors disengaged during distillation by a lining of refractory clay. The stone cover, B, is provided with an aperture, b, through which the boiler is filled. The steam pipe, k, is inclosed in a second pipe, f, provided with radii. This tube serves as a stirrer; and is set in motion by means of a pulley, g. The tube, c, is connected with a worm, h, and the tube, d, which is provided with a valve, leads to the second boiler, C. The head, D, which acts, by reason of its internal arrangement, as a dephlegmator, is of enameled iron, and is provided with a thermometer, f, and an aperture, p. Above the spirals of the worm, e, are placed strips of glass, the free intervals between which are filled in with pieces of glass, porcelain, or any other material not attackable by acids. The arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface. The condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler. The worm, e, debouches into a cooler, F, fed with water through the cock, n.

At the bottom of the boiler, A, there is fixed a tubulure, r, closed by a lever, s, and having a fastening device, o. This tubulure permits of emptying the boiler into the reservoir, L.

A like arrangement is found in the boiler, C. The valves, V, serve to introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the two boilers. The water of condensation flows out through the tubes, u. The water for cooling enters the coolers, F, J, and Z, through the cocks, n, and flows out through the tubes, v.

The acetate, previously crushed, is placed in the boiler, A, and the quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added. The mass is afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer, and the distillation may then proceed at once.

The vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler, C, through the tube, d, and are kept hot by the steam. In the head, D, they are separated into two portions, viz., into concentrated acetic acid, which condenses by reason of its high boiling point, and into steam, which distills and carries along but a very small amount of acetic acid. This steam passes through the pipe, G, into the worm, H, condenses, and afterward flows into the vessel, N.

The acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler, C, must be again vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all through the pipe, G. The amount of cooling water admitted into the worm, e, that traverses the head, D, is regulated according to the degree of concentration it is desired to give the acid. As soon as the steam can no longer be separated in the boiler, C, and temperature has reached 118 degrees, the anhydrous acetic acid is distilled through the tube, g, and received in the cooler, K, wherein it condenses. When the contents of the boiler, A, have been distilled to dryness, the tube, d, is closed and the cock of the tube, c, is opened. After this, steam is injected directly through the tube, k, in order to distill the acetic acid that still remains in the residuum, and which passes thus through the tube, e, into the worm, h, and flows into the two-necked bottle, S.

There may be added to the boiler, C, certain materials for purifying the acetic acid, such as permanganate of potassa or acetate of soda, so as to obtain an absolutely pure article.--_Dingler's Polytech. Journal_.

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FIELD KITCHENS.

We illustrate the field kitchens of Captain J.C. Baxter, R.E., in the Inventions Exhibition. Figs. 1 to 3 represent Captain Baxter's Telescopic Kitchen, both open for use and packed up for traveling. These kitchens, which are on an entirely new principle, consist of from three to five annular kettles, either circular or elliptical, which are placed one on another, and the fire lighted inside the central tube. The kettles are built up on the top of the outer case in which they are carried, the central tube being placed over the grate in the lid. A small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot, is placed on the top. When packed up, the annular kettles fit or nest into each other, and into the outer case; the iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle, and the top pot is placed on the outer case, being secured by a strap. This form of kitchen is intended for the use of officers, both regular and volunteer, and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active service or in camp. They are also suited for travelers, explorers, colonists, boating, shooting, and fishing parties, and in fact for all who may require to cook in the open air. Figs. 4 to 6 represent the kitchen of the field service pattern with conical kettles, while Figs. 7 and 8 represent the same pattern with elliptical kettles. These kitchens consist of five annular vessels, either circular or elliptical, which are placed one upon another, and the fire lighted in the central tube or flue. A small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot or kettle, may be placed on the top as in the other set. A small hole, 18 inches long, 6 inches deep, and of the same width as the central tube of the annular kettles, may be made for an ashpit, or the kitchen may be raised a few inches from the ground on stones or turf. The annular vessels may be made cylindrical or conical; in the latter case they will fit or nest into one another, and save space when not in use. They may be made circular or elliptical. Those intended for cavalry are provided with straps to attach them to the saddle. This form of kitchen is intended for the use of troops on active service, or in camp or barracks, workhouses prisons, schools, and soup kitchens; also for cooking food for cattle and hounds; and for all who may require to cook and distribute quickly large quantities of food, soup, or tea, or to heat water rapidly at a small cost. The manufacturers are M. Adams & Son, London.--_Iron_.

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A NEW COP-WINDER.

In Germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in which the wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw, and the position of which is horizontal. Fig. 1 shows the primitive type of the German apparatus, in which the cone that forms the cop is set in motion by a horizontal screw. It is at first the greater diameter of the cone that moves the tube, and permits the thread to accumulate beneath the narrow extremity. But, as soon as a core of thread has been formed, it is in contact with the entire surface of the cone, and thus revolves with a mean velocity until it is finished.

In the new model (Fig. 2) the arrangement is different. Here A is the paper tube, with wooden base, to which it is freely attached, and C is the cone that moves over the screw, D. The thread passes into a groove which makes one revolution of the cone, and from thence over the paper tube, where it receives the form of a cop by reason of the transverse motion of the cone upon the screw. This transverse motion is at first prevented by the click, F, which falls into the teeth of the ratchet-wheel fixed behind the cone. The shaft revolves continuously, but has, at the same time, a to and fro motion in the direction of its axis, so as to cause the thread to move forward constantly and form a cop. This to and fro motion is obtained by means of a lever and a sleeve, I, the wheel, H, of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion, J, actuated by the transmission of the machine. As the spindle advances, a core is formed; the click, F, is then pushed backward, and the cone is kept in motion by the thread until the cop is finished.

Preference is usually given to the horizontal model; but the system may likewise be applied to a vertical spindle, and the arrangement in this case is simpler, as shown in Fig. 3. A rotary motion of the shaft is useless here, as the click, F, acts in an oblique position upon the ratchet-wheel, O, and pushes it by reason of the to and fro motion of the screw.

* * * * *

[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 513, page 8191.]

THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.

[Footnote: From the Transactions of the Society.]

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ON THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER, PRESENTED AND ACCEPTED AT THE ANNUAL CONVENTION, JUNE 25, 1885.

BOUCHERIE, OR SULPHATE OF COPPER.

The name of Dr. Boucherie is generally applied to the _process_, which he invented and extensively applied, of preparing wood by forcing a solution longitudinally through the pores of the wood by means of hydraulic pressure. As, however, he also patented the use of sulphate of copper, and his name became attached to the use of that antiseptic, it will be convenient here to classify experiments made with that substance under this head.

Dr. Boucherie was a distinguished French chemist, who between 1836 and 1846 made many elaborate researches and experiments upon the preservation of timber. He tried many substances, and at first recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron, but subsequently used sulphate of copper, which he considered more effective.

His first experiments were conducted by vital suction, that is, by tapping the living tree, and allowing the ascending sap to carry up a preserving solution. This was not found to give uniform or satisfactory results, and Dr. Boucherie then invented the process which bears his name. This was practiced either by applying a cap to the end of a freshly cut log, through which the solution was allowed to flow by pressure, or by sawing a log nearly through in the middle, raising it at the center slightly, so as to open the joint, placing a strip of tarred rope or a rubber band just inside the periphery of the cut log, and letting it spring back, so as to form a tight joint by pressing upon the rope or band. An auger hole bored diagonally into the cavity so formed then served to admit the solution under pressure.

This process, applied with a solution of about one pound of sulphate of copper to one hundred pounds of water, has been extensively applied in France for many years, with satisfactory results. It was found, however, that to be successful it must be applied to freshly cut trees in the log only, and that this involved so much delay, moving about, waste, and annoyance, that it has now been abandoned. These difficulties would be still greater in this country, and in the Northern States the process could not be applied at all during the winter (or season for cutting down trees), as the solution would freeze.

On this page is a list of the experiments which your committee have been able to learn about, as having been made with sulphate of copper in this country.

RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS.

SULPHATE OF COPPER, OR BOUCHERIE.

--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- | | | | Material |Subsequent| | No| Locality |Year|Process.| Treated. | Exposure.| Results. | Authority. --+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- 1|Chili, S.A. |1857|Boucher.|Poplar |R.R. track|Favorable |W.W. Evans | | | | ties | | | 2|Cleveland, O |1870|Thilmany|Ties | " " |Favorable |J.R. Conrad | | | | | | to 1875 | 3|Washington |1872| " |Paving |Laboratory|Unfavor. |W.C. Tilden | | | | blocks | | | 4|Pensacola |1874| " |Live oak |Teredo |Failure |W.H. Varney | | | | | | | 5|Charleston, SC|1875| " |Pine block| " | " |Q.A. Gillmore | | | | | | | 6|San Francisco |1876| " | " " | " | " |C.S. Stewart | | | | | | | 7|Milwaukee |1876| " | " " |Pavement |Favorable,|Schlitz Bg. | | | | | | 1882 | Co. 8|Norfolk, Va. |1876| " |Hackmatack|Teredo |Failure |P.C. Asserson | | | | | | | 9|Charlestown, |1877| " |Various |Laboratory|Favorable |J.F. Babcock | Mass | | | | | | 10|Wabash R.R. |1877| " |Ties |R.R. track|Unfavor. |R.A. Houghton | | | | | | | 11|Wabash R.R. |1878| " | " | " " | " |W.S. Lincoln | | | | | | | 12|New York, |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer | Pennsylvania,| | | | | | | and Ohio R.R.| | | | | | 13|Lake Shore and|1879| " | " | " " | " |R.A. Houghton | Michigan | | | | | | | Southern R.R.| | | | | | 14|Cleveland and |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer |Pittsburg R.R.| | | | | | 15|Charlestown, |1879| " |Spruce |Sidewalk |Success |S.G. White | Mass | | | plank | | to 1882 | 16|Baltimore and |1879| " |Ties |R.R. track|Too recent|J.L. Randolph | Ohio | | | | | | 17|Hudson River |1869|Hamar | " | " " |Success |E.W. Vanderbilt | R.R. | | | | | | 18|St. Louis |1882|Fladd | " | " " |Too recent|H. Fladd --+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+---------------

COMMENTS ON SULPHATE OF COPPER EXPERIMENTS.

The first experiment was carried out by Mr. W.W. Evans, on the Southern Railway of Chili, in 1857, and he informs your committee that in 1860, when he left that country, the ties were still good and in serviceable condition.

We give herewith, in Appendix No. 16, an interesting letter from Mr. E. Pontzen to Mr. Evans, on the subject of the Boucherie process.

Experiments Nos. 2 to 16, inclusive, were all tried with various modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by Mr. W. Thilmany in this country. They date back to 1870 (experiment No. 2), when Mr. Thilmany was working and recommending the methods of vital suction and of the Boucherie hydraulic pressure system. After describing the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of copper, he states in his first pamphlet (1870): "This process resulted very satisfactorily, but it was found that the sulphate of copper became very much diluted by the sap, and when the same liquid was used several times, the decaying substance of the sap, viz., the albumen, was reintroduced into the wood, and left it nearly in its primitive condition."

He accordingly proposed a double injection, first by muriate of barytes, and, secondly, by sulphate of copper, forced through by the Boucherie process, and it is presumed that the ties of 1870, in experiment No. 2, which showed favorable results when examined in 1875, were prepared by that process.

Subsequently Mr. Thilmany changed his mode of application to the Bethell process of injecting solutions under pressure in closed cylinders, and probably the paving blocks for experiment No. 3 were prepared in that way. The chemical examination of them by Mr. Tilden, however, showed the "saturation very uneven; absorptive power, high; block contains soluble salts of copper, removable by washing."

It was expected that the double solution, by forming an insoluble compound, would prove an effective protection against the _teredo_. Experiments Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 8, however, proved the contrary to be the fact.

The process, when well done, gave moderately satisfactory results against decay. A pavement laid in the yard of the Schlitz Brewing Company, in Milwaukee (experiment No. 7), was sound in 1882, after some six years' exposure. A report by Mr. J.F. Babcock, a chemist of Boston (experiment No. 9), indicated favorable results, and the planks in a ropewalk at Charlestown (experiment No. 15), laid in 1879, were yet sound in 1882.

The experiments on railroad ties (Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16), however, did not result satisfactorily. They seemed favorable at first, and great things were expected of them; but late examinations made on the Wabash Railroad, on the New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and on the Cleveland and Pittsburg Railroad, have shown the ties to be decaying, and the results to be unfavorable.

This applies to the sulphate of copper and barium process. Mr. Thilmany has patented still another combination, in which he uses sulphate of zinc and chloride of barium, which has been noticed under the head of burnettizing.

Experiment No. 17 was tried on the Hudson River Railroad. It consisted of 1,000 sap pine ties, which had been impregnated in the South, by the Boucherie process, with a mixture of sulphate of iron and sulphate of copper, under Hamar's patent. These ties were laid in the tunnel at New Hamburg, a trying exposure, and when examined, in 1882, several of them were still in the track. The process, however, was found to be so tedious that it was abandoned after a year's trial, and has not since been resumed.

In 1882 Mr. H. Fladd, of St. Louis, patented a method which is the inverse of the Boucherie process (experiment No. 18). To the cap fastened to the end of a freshly cut log he applies a suction pump, and placing the other end into a vat, filled with the desired solution, he sucks up the preserving fluid through the pores or sap cells of the wood.

Quite a number of experimental ties have been prepared in this way, with various chemical solutions, chief of which was sulphate of copper, and there is probably no question but that the life of the wood will be materially increased thereby.

Whether the process will prove more convenient and economical than the original Boucherie process can only be determined by practical application upon an extensive scale.

A considerable number of modifications and appliances for working the Boucherie process have been patented in this country; but none of them seems to have come into practical use, probably because of the necessity for operating upon freshly cut logs, and the inconvenience of such applications.

The table on this page gives a record of various experiments with miscellaneous substances.

RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS--MISCELLANEOUS.

--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+---------------
| | | |Material |Subsequent| |
No| Locality |Year| Process. | Treated.| Exposure | Results.| Authority.
--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+---------------
1|Chestnut |1839|Earle's |Hemlock |Paving |Failure |S.V. Beuet
| Street, | | | blocks | | |
| Philadelpha| | | | | |
| | | | | | |
2|Watervliet |1840| " |Oak |Gun | " | "
| Arsenal | | | timber | carriage | |
| | | | | | |
3|Delaware & |1840| " |Rope |Fungus |Favorable| "
| Hudson | | | | pit | |
| Canal | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
4|Philadelphia|1840|Lime bath |Pine |Railroad |Unfavor. |M. Coryell
| & Columbia | | |stringers| track | |
| Railroad | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
5|Boston & |1844|Sulphate |Ties | " | " |I. Hinckley
| Providence | | of iron | | | |
| Railroad | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
6|Belvedere |1850|Salt |Hemlock | " | " |M. Coryell
| Railroad | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
7|Baltimore |1850|Lime |Ties | " | " |J.L. Randolph
| & Ohio | | | | | |
| Railroad | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
8|Rochester |1852|Payenizing |Ties | " | " |T. Hilliard
| | | | | | |
9|Germantown, |1855|Charring |Fence |Fence |Favorable|G. McGrew
| Ind. | | | posts | | 1879 |
| | | | | | |
10|Pottsville, |1857|Pyrolig'ite|Timber |Railroad |Unfavor. |H.K. Nichols
| Pa. | | of iron | | sills | |
| | | | | | |
11|Erie Railway|1858|Boring | " |Bridges |Favorable|H.D.V. Prait
| | | | | | |
12|Galveston |1867|Casing |Piles |Bridge |Failure |W.H. Smith
| | | | | | |
13|New York |1868|Beerizing |Lumber |Signs |Doubtful |S. Beer
| | | | | | |
14|Wyoming |1868|Natural |Ties |Railroad |Preserved|J.
| Territory | | soil | | track | | Blinkinsderfer
| | | | | | |
15|Chicago, |1870|Foreman- |Timber |Steamboat |Favorable|M.B. Brown
| Ill. | | izing | | | 1879 |
| | | | | | |
16|Illinois |1871| " |Ties |Railroad |Failure |L.P. Morehouse
| Central | | | | track | |
| Railroad | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
17|St. Louis |1871| " |Shingles |Roof | " |F. De Funiak
| | | | | | |
18|Memphis & |1871| " |Ties |Railroad | " |F. De Funiak
| Charleston | | | | track | |
| | | | | | |
19|Washington, |1871|Tripler |Paving |Laboratory| " |W.C. Tilden
| D.C. | | | blocks | | |
| | | | | | |
20| " |1872|Samuel | " | " | " | "
| | | | | | |
21| " |1872|Taylor | " | " | " | "
| | | | | | |
22| " |1872|Waterbury | " | " | " | "
| | | | | | |
23| " |1872|Sulphate | " |Pennsyl- | " |J.A. Partridge
| | | of iron | | vania Ave| |
| | | | | | |
24| " |1872|Samuel | " |F. Street | " | "
| | | | | | |
25| " |1872|Samuel | " |16th St. | " | "
| | | | | | |
26|Norvolk, Va.| - |Red lead |Pine and |Teredo | " |P.C. Asserson
| | | | oak | | |
| | | | | | |
27| " | - |White zinc | " | " | " | "
| | | | | | |
28| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | "
| | | plaster | | | |
| | | | | | |
29| " | - |Kerosene | " | " | " | "
| | | | | | |
30| " | - |Rosin and | " | " | " | "
| | | tallow | | | |
| | | | | | |
31| " | - |Fish oil & | " | " | " | "
| | | tallow | | | |
| | | | | | |
32| " | - |Verdigris | " | " | " | "
| | | | | | |
33| " | - |Bark on | " | " |Good for | "
| | | pile | | | 5 years |
| | | | | | |
34| " | - |Carbolic | " | " |Failure | "
| | | acid | | | |
| | | | | | |
35| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | "
| | | cement | | | |
| | | | | | |
36| " | - |Davis' | " | " | " | "
| | | compound | | | |
| | | | | | |
37| " | - |Carbolized | " | " | " | "
| | | paper | | | |
| | | | | | |
38| " | - |Paint | " | " | " | "
| | | | | | |
39| " | - |Thilmany | " | " | " | "
| | | | | | |
40| " | - |Vulcanized | " | " | " | "
| | | fiber | | | |
| | | | | | |
41| " | - |Charring | " | " |Good for | "
| | | | | | 9 years |
| | | | | | |
42|New Orleans |1872| " |Piles | " |Failure |J.W. Putnam
| & Mobile | | | | | |
| R.R. | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
43| " |1872| " & | " | " |Temporary| "
| | | oiling | | | prot'n |
| | | | | | |
44|Galveston & |1870|Charring | " | " | " | "
| Houston |1874| | | | |
| R.R. | | | | | |
--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+---------------

COMMENTS ON MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS.

Experiments Nos. 1, 2, and 3 relate to the Earle process, from which great results were expected from 1839 to 1844. It consisted in immersing timber, rope, canvas, etc., in a hot solution of one pound of sulphate of copper and three pounds of sulphate of iron mixed in twenty gallons of water. It was first tested on some hemlock paving blocks on Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, and for a time seemed to promise good results. Experiments with prepared rope, exposed in a fungus pit, by Mr. James Archbald, Chief Engineer of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, seemed also favorable.

The process was, therefore, thoroughly tried at the Watervliet Arsenal, where it was applied to some 63,000 cubic ft. of timber, at a cost of about seven cents per cubic foot. The timber was used for various ordnance purposes, and while it was found to have its life extended, as would naturally be expected from the known character of the antiseptics used, its strength was so far impaired, and it checked and warped so badly, that the process was abandoned in 1844.

The committee is indebted to General S.V. Benet, Chief of Ordnance, for a full copy of the reports upon these experiments.

Experiments Nos. 4 and 7 represent the lime process, which has been applied to a considerable extent in France. The fact that platforms and boxes used for mixing lime mortar seem to resist decay has repeatedly suggested the use of lime for preserving timber. In 1840 Mr. W.R. Huffnagle, Engineer of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, laid a portion of its track on white pine sills, which had been soaked for three months in a vat of lime-water as strong as could be maintained. Similar experiments were tried on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1850. The result was not satisfactory, as might be expected from the fact that lime is a comparatively weak antiseptic (52.5 by atomic weight, while creosote is 216), and from the extreme tediousness of three months' soaking.

Experiments Nos. 5 and 8 were tried with sulphate of iron, sometimes known as payenizing, and the particulars of the former have been furnished by Mr. I. Hinckley, President of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad, to whom your committee is much indebted for a large mass of information on the subject of timber preservation.

Mr. Hinckley has had longer and more varied experience on this subject than any other person in this country. Beginning with sulphate of copper in 1846, following with chloride of mercury in 1847, and chloride of zinc in 1852, going back to chloride of mercury, and again to chloride of zinc, using the latter until 1865, then using creosote to protect the piles against the _teredo_ at Taunton Great River (experiment No. 2. creosoting), he has had millions of feet of timber and lumber prepared by the various processes, and has kindly placed at our disposal many original reports in manuscript and pamphlets which are now very rare.

Experiment No. 6 was made by Mr. Ashbel Welch, former President of this Society, and consisted in boring hemlock track sills 6 × 12 with a 1-1/8 inch auger-hole 10 inches deep every 15 inches. These were filled with common salt and plugged up, as is not infrequently done in ship-building, but while the life of the timber was somewhat lengthened, it was concluded that the process did not pay.

Salt has been experimented with numberless times. It is cheap, but is a comparatively weak antiseptic, its atomic weight being 58.8 in the hydrogen scale, as against 135.5 for chloride of mercury.

Experiment No. 9 is included in order to notice the well-known and most ancient process of charring the outside of timber. In this particular case, the fence posts after charring were dipped for about three feet into a hot mixture of raw linseed oil and pulverized charcoal, which probably acted by closing the sap cells against the intrusion of moisture, which, as is well known, much hastens decay. The posts, which had been set butt-end upward, were mostly sound in 1879, after 24 years' exposure.

Experiments Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44 did not, however, result as well, and numberless failures throughout the country attest that charring is uncertain and disappointing in its results.