Chapter XVII: Section XIV: Helpful Appliances in Kiln-Drying

The Humidity Diagram

Some simple means of determining humidities and changes in humidity brought about by changes in temperature in the dry kiln without the use of tables is almost a necessity. To meet this requirement the United States Forestry Service has devised the Humidity Diagram shown in Figure 93. It differs in several respects from the hydrodeiks now in use.

The purpose of the humidity diagram is to enable the dry-kiln operator to determine quickly the humidity conditions and vapor pressure, as well as the changes which take place with changes of temperature. The diagram above is adapted to the direct solution of problems of this character without recourse to tables or mathematical calculations.

The humidity diagram consists of two distinct sets of curves on the same sheet. One set, the convex curves, is for the determination of relative humidity of wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer or psychrometer; the other, the concave curves, is derived from the vapor pressures and shows the amount of moisture per cubic foot at relative humidities and temperatures when read at the dew-point. The latter curves, therefore, are independent of all variables affecting the wet-bulb readings. They are proportional to vapor pressures, not to density, and, therefore, may be followed from one temperature to another with correctness. The short dashes show the correction (increase or decrease) which is necessary in the relative humidity, read from the convex curves, with an increase or decrease from the normal barometric pressure of 30 inches, for which the curves have been plotted. This correction, except for very low temperatures, is so small that it may usually be disregarded.

The ordinates, or vertical distances, are relative humidity expressed in per cent of saturation, from 0 per cent at the bottom to 100 per cent at the top. The abscissae, or horizontal distances, are temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit from 30 degrees below zero, at the left, to 220 degrees above, at the right.

Examples of Use

The application of the humidity diagram can best be understood by sample problems. These problems also show the wide range of conditions to which the diagram will apply.

EXAMPLE 1. To find the relative humidity by use of
wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer or psychrometer:

Place the instrument in a strong circulation of air, or wave
it to and fro. Read the temperature of the dry bulb and the
wet, and subtract. Find on the horizontal line the
temperature shown by the dry-bulb thermometer. Follow the
vertical line from this point till it intersects with the
convex curve marked with the difference between the wet and
dry readings. The horizontal line passing through this
intersection will give the relative humidity.

Example: Dry bulb 70°, wet bulb 62°, difference 8°. Find 70°
on the horizontal line of temperature. Follow up the
vertical line from 70° until it intersects with the convex
curve marked 8°. The horizontal line passing through this
intersection shows the relative humidity to be 64 per cent.

EXAMPLE 2. To find how much water per cubic foot is
contained in the air:

Find the relative humidity as in example 1. Then the nearest
concave curve gives the weight of water in grains per cubic
foot when the air is cooled to the dew-point. Using the same
quantities as in example 1, this will be slightly more than
5 grains.

EXAMPLE 3. To find the amount of water required to saturate
air at a given temperature:

Find on the top line (100 per cent humidity) the given
temperature; the concave curve intersecting at or near this
point gives the number of grains per cubic foot.
(Interpolate, if great accuracy is desired.)

EXAMPLE 4. To find the dew-point:

Obtain the relative humidity as in example 1. Then follow up
parallel to the nearest concave curve until the top
horizontal (indicating 100 per cent relative humidity) is
reached. The temperature on this horizontal line at the
point reached will be the dew-point.

Example: Dry bulb 70°, wet bulb 62°. On the vertical line
for 70° find the intersection with the hygrometer (convex)
curve for 8°. This will be found at nearly 64 per cent
relative humidity. Then follow up parallel with the vapor
pressure (concave) curve marked 5 grains to its intersection
at the top of the chart with the 100 per cent humidity line.
This gives the dew-point as 57°.

EXAMPLE 5. To find the change in the relative humidity
produced by a change in temperature:

Example: The air at 70° Fahr. is found to contain 64 per
cent humidity; what will be its relative humidity if heated
to 150° Fahr.? Starting from the intersection of the
designated humidity and temperature coordinates, follow the
vapor-pressure curve (concave) until it intersects the 150°
temperature ordinate. The horizontal line then reads 6 per
cent relative humidity. The same operation applies to
reductions in temperature. In the above example what is the
humidity at 60°? Following parallel to the same curve in the
opposite direction until it intersects the 60° ordinate
gives 90 per cent; at 57° it becomes 100 per cent, reaching
the dew-point.

EXAMPLE 6. To find the amount of condensation produced by
lowering the temperature:

Example: At 150° the wet bulb reads 132°. How much water
would be condensed if the temperature were lowered to 70°?
The intersection of the hygrometer curve for 18° (150°-132°)
with temperature line for 150° shows a relative humidity of
60 per cent. The vapor-pressure curve (concave) followed up
to the 100 per cent relative humidity line shows 45 grains
per cubic foot at the dew-point, which corresponds to a
temperature of 130°. At 70° it is seen that the air can
contain but 8 grains per cubic foot (saturation).
Consequently, there will be condensed 45 minus 8, or 37
grains per cubic foot of space measured at the dew-point.

EXAMPLE 7. To find the amount of water required to produce
saturation by a given rise in temperature:

Example: Take the values given in example 5. The air at the
dew-point contains slightly over 5 grains per cubic foot. At
150° it is capable of containing 73 grains per cubic foot.
Consequently, 73-5=68 grains of water which can be
evaporated per cubic foot of space at the dew-point when the
temperature is raised to 150°. But the latent heat necessary
to produce evaporation must be supplied in addition to the
heat required to raise the air to 150°.

EXAMPLE 8. To find the amount of water evaporated during a
given change of temperature and humidity:

Example: At 70° suppose the humidity is found to be 64 per
cent and at 150° it is found to be 60 per cent. How much
water has been evaporated per cubic foot of space? At 70°
temperature and 64 per cent humidity there are 5 grains of
water present per cubic foot at the dew-point (example 2).
At 150° and 60 per cent humidity there are 45 grains
present. Therefore, 45-5=40 grains of water which have been
evaporated per cubic foot of space, figuring all volumes at
the dew-point.

EXAMPLE 9. To correct readings of the hygrometer for changes
in barometric pressure:

A change of pressure affects the reading of the wet bulb.
The chart applies at a barometric pressure of 30 inches,
and, except for great accuracy, no correction is generally
necessary.

Find the relative humidity as usual. Then look for the
nearest barometer line (indicated by dashes). At the end of
each barometer line will be found a fraction which
represents the proportion of the relative humidity already
found, which must be added or subtracted for a change in
barometric pressure. If the barometer reading is less than
30 inches, add; if greater than 30 inches, subtract. The
figures given are for a change of 1 inch; for other changes
use proportional amounts. Thus, for a change of 2 inches use
twice the indicated ratio; for half an inch use half, and so
on.

Example: Dry bulb 67°, wet bulb 51°, barometer 28 inches.
The relative humidity is found, by the method given in
example 1, to equal 30 per cent. The barometric line--gives
a value of 3/100H for each inch of change. Since the
barometer is 2 inches below 30, multiply 3/100H by 2, giving
6/100H. The correction will, therefore, be 6/100 of 30,
which equals 1.8. Since the barometer is below 30, this is
to be added, giving a corrected relative humidity of 31.8
per cent.

This has nothing to do with the vapor pressure (concave)
curves, which are independent of barometric pressure, and
consequently does not affect the solution of the previous
problems.

EXAMPLE 10. At what temperature must the condenser be
maintained to produce a given humidity?

Example: Suppose the temperature in the drying room is to be
kept at 150° Fahr., and a humidity of 80 per cent is
desired. If the humidity is in excess of 80 per cent the air
must be cooled to the dew-point corresponding to this
condition (see example 4), which in this case is 141.5°.

Hence, if the condenser cools the air to this dew point the
required condition is obtained when the air is again heated
to the initial temperature.

EXAMPLE 11. Determination of relative humidity by the
dew-point:

The quantity of moisture present and relative humidity for
any given temperature may be determined directly and
accurately by finding the dew-point and applying the concave
(vapor-pressure) curves. This does away with the necessity
for the empirical convex curves and wet-and-dry-bulb
readings. To find the dew-point some form of apparatus,
consisting essentially of a thin glass vessel containing a
thermometer and a volatile liquid, such as ether, may be
used. The vessel is gradually cooled through the evaporation
of the liquid, accelerated by forcing air through a tube
until a haze or dimness, due to condensation from the
surrounding air, first appears upon the brighter outer
surface of the glass. The temperature at which the haze
first appears is the dew-point. Several trials should be
made for this temperature determination, using the average
temperature at which the haze appears and disappears.

To determine the relative humidity of the surrounding air by
means of the dew-point thus determined, find the concave
curve intersecting the top horizontal (100 per cent
relative humidity) line nearest the dew-point temperature.
Follow parallel with this curve till it intersects the
vertical line representing the temperature of the
surrounding air. The horizontal line passing through this
intersection will give the relative humidity.

Example: Temperature of surrounding air is 80; dew-point is
61; relative humidity is 53 per cent.

The dew-point determination is, however, not as convenient
to make as the wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer readings.
Therefore, the hygrometer (convex) curves are ordinarily
more useful in determining relative humidities.

The Hygrodeik

In Figure 94 will be seen the Hygrodeik. This instrument is used to determine the amount of moisture in the atmosphere. It is a very useful instrument, as the readings may be taken direct with accuracy.

To find the relative humidity in the atmosphere, swing the index hand to the left of the chart, and adjust the sliding pointer to that degree of the wet-bulb thermometer scale at which the mercury stands. Then swing the index hand to the right until the sliding pointer intersects the curved line, which extends downwards to the left from the degree of the dry-bulb thermometer scale, indicated by the top of the mercury column in the dry-bulb tube.

At that intersection, the index hand will point to the relative humidity on scale at bottom of chart (for example see Fig. 94). Should the temperature indicated by the wet-bulb thermometer be 60 degrees, and that of the dry-bulb 70 degrees, the index hand will indicate humidity 55 degrees, when the pointer rests on the intersecting line of 60 degrees and 80 degrees.

The Recording Hygrometer

In Figure 95 is shown the Recording Hygrometer complete with wet and dry bulbs, two connecting tubes and two recording pens and special moistening device for supplying water to the wet bulb.

This equipment is designed particularly for use in connection with dry rooms and dry kilns and is arranged so that the recording instrument and the water supply bottle may be installed outside of the dry kiln or drying room, while the wet and dry bulbs are both installed inside the room or kiln at the point where it is desired to measure the humidity. This instrument records on a weekly chart the humidity for each hour of the day, during the entire week.

The Registering Hygrometer

In Figure 96 is shown the Registering Hygrometer, which consists of two especially constructed thermometers. The special feature of the thermometers permits placing the instrument in the dry kiln without entering the drying room, through a small opening, where it is left for about 20 minutes.

The temperature of both the dry and wet bulbs are automatically recorded, and the outside temperature will not affect the thermometers when removed from the kiln. From these recorded temperatures, as shown when the instrument is removed from the kiln, the humidity can be easily determined from a simple form of chart which is furnished free by the makers with each instrument.

The Recording Thermometer

In Figure 97 is shown the Recording Thermometer for observing and recording the temperatures within a dry kiln, and thus obtaining a check upon its operation. This instrument is constructed to record automatically, upon a circular chart, the temperatures prevailing within the drying room at all times of the day and night, and serves not only as a means of keeping an accurate record of the operation of the dry kiln, but as a valuable check upon the attendant in charge of the drying process.

The Registering Thermometer

In Figure 98 is shown the Registering Thermometer, which is a less expensive instrument than that shown in Figure 97, but by its use the maximum and minimum temperatures in the drying room during a given period can be determined.

The Recording Steam Gauge

In Figure 99 is shown the Recording Steam Pressure Gauge, which is used for accurately recording the steam pressures kept in the boilers. This instrument may be mounted near the boilers, or may be located at any distance necessary, giving a true and accurate record of the fluctuations of the steam pressure that may take place within the boilers, and is a check upon both the day and night boiler firemen.

The Troemroid Scalometer

In Figure 100 is shown the Troemroid Scalometer. This instrument is a special scale of extreme accuracy, fitted with agate bearings with screw adjustment for balancing. The beam is graduated from 0 to 2 ounces, divided into 100 parts, each division representing 1-50th of an ounce; and by using the pointer attached to the beam weight, the 1-100th part of an ounce can be weighed.

The percentage table No. II has a range from one half of 1 per cent to 30 per cent and is designed for use where extremely fine results are needed, or where a very small amount of moisture is present. Table No. III ranges from 30 per cent up to 90 per cent. These instruments are in three models as described below.

MODEL A. (One cylinder) ranges from 1/2 of 1 per cent to 30
per cent and is to be used for testing moisture contents in
kiln-dried and air-dried lumber.

MODEL B. (Two cylinders) ranges from 1/2 of 1 per cent up to
90 per cent and is to be used for testing the moisture
contents of kiln-dried, air-dried, and green lumber.

MODEL C. (One cylinder) ranges from 30 per cent to 90 per
cent and is applicable to green lumber only.

=Test Samples.=--The green boards and all other boards intended for testing should be selected from boards of fair average quality. If air-dried, select one about half way up the height of the pile of lumber. If kiln-dried, two thirds the height of the kiln car. Do not remove the kiln car from the kiln until after the test. Three of four test pieces should be cut from near the middle of the cross-wise section of the board, and 1/8 to 3/16 inch thick. Remove the superfluous sawdust and splinters. When the test pieces are placed on the scale pan, be sure their weight is less than two ounces and more than 1-3/4 ounces. If necessary, use two or more broken pieces. It is better if the test pieces can be cut off on a fine band saw.

=Weighing.=--Set the base of the scale on a level surface and accurately balance the scale beam. Put the test pieces on the scale pan and note their weight on the lower edge of the beam. Set the indicator point on the horizontal bar at a number corresponding to this weight, which may be found on the cylinder at the top of the table.

Dry the test pieces on the Electric Heater (Fig. 101) 30 to 40 minutes, or on the engine cylinder two or three hours. Weigh them at once and note the weight. Then turn the cylinder up and at the left of it under the small pointer find the number corresponding to this weight. The percentage of moisture lost is found directly under pointer on the horizontal bar first mentioned. The lower portion on the cylinder Table No. II is an extension of the upper portion, and is manipulated in the same manner except that the bottom line of figures is used for the first weight, and the right side of cylinder for second weight. Turn the cylinder down instead of up when using it.

Examples (Test Pieces)

MODEL A. Table No. II, Kiln-dried or Air-dried Lumber:

If first weight is 90-1/2 and the second weight is 87, the
cylinder table will show the board from which the test
pieces were taken had a moisture content of 3.8 per cent.

MODEL B. Tables No. II and III, Air-dried (also Green and
Kiln-dried) Lumber.

If the first weight on lower cylinder is 97 and the second
weight is 76, the table will show 21.6 per cent of moisture.

MODEL C. Table III, Green Lumber:

If the first weight is 94 and the second weight is 51, the
table shows 45.8 per cent of moisture.

Keep Records of the Moisture Content

=Saw Mills.=--Should test and mark each pile of lumber when first piled in the yard, and later when sold it should be again tested and the two records given to the purchaser.

=Factories.=--Should test and mark the lumber when first received, and if piled in the yard to be kiln-dried later, it should be tested before going into the dry kiln, and again before being removed, and these records placed on file for future reference.

Kiln-dried lumber piled in storage rooms (without any heat) will absorb 7 to 9 per cent of moisture, and even when so stored should be tested for moisture before being manufactured into the finished product.

Never work lumber through the factory that has more than 5 or 6 per cent of moisture or less than 3 per cent.

Dry storage rooms should be provided with heating coils and properly ventilated.

Oak or any other species of wood that shows 25 or 30 per cent of moisture when going into the dry kiln, will take longer to dry than it would if it contained 15 to 20 per cent, therefore the importance of testing before putting into the kiln as well as when taking it out.

The Electric Heater

In Figure 101 is shown the Electric Heater. This heater is especially designed to dry quickly the test pieces for use in connection with the Scalometer (see Fig. 100) without charring them. It may be attached to any electric light socket of 110 volts direct or alternating current. A metal rack is provided to hold the test pieces vertically on edge.

Turn the test pieces over once or twice while drying.

It will require from 20 minutes to one hour to remove all the moisture from the test pieces when placed on this heater, depending on whether they are cut from green, air-dried, or kiln-dried boards.

Test pieces cut from softwoods will dry quicker than those cut from hardwoods.

When the test pieces fail to show any further loss in weight, they are then free from all moisture content.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AMERICAN BLOWER COMPANY, Detroit, Mich.

IMRE, JAMES E., "The Kiln-drying of Gum," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry.

NATIONAL DRY KILN COMPANY, Indianapolis, Ind.

PRICHARD, REUBEN P., "The Structure of the Common Woods," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 3.

ROTH, FILIBERT, "Timber," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 10.

STANDARD DRY KILN COMPANY, Indianapolis, Ind.

STURTEVANT COMPANY, B. F., Boston, Mass.

TIEMAN, H. D., "The Effects of Moisture upon the Strength and Stiffness of Wood," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 70.

TIEMAN, H. D., "Principles of Kiln-drying Lumber," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry.

TIEMAN, H. D., "The Theory of Drying and its Application, etc.," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 509.

THE UNITED STATES DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE, DIVISION OF FORESTRY, "Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States."

THE UNITED STATES DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE, DIVISION OF FORESTRY, Bulletin No. 37.

VON SCHRENK, HERMAN, "Seasoning of Timbers," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 41.

WAGNER, J. B., "Cooperage," 1910.

GLOSSARY

=Abnormal.= Differing from the usual structure.

=Acuminate.= Tapering at the end.

=Adhesion.= The union of members of different floral whorls.

=Air-seasoning.= The drying of wood in the open air.

=Albumen.= A name applied to the food store laid up outside the embryo in many seeds; also nitrogenous organic matter found in plants.

=Alburnam.= Sapwood.

=Angiosperms.= Those plants which bear their seeds within a pericarp.

=Annual rings.= The layers of wood which are added annually to the tree.

=Apartment kiln.= A drying arrangement of one or more rooms with openings at each end.

=Arborescent.= A tree in size and habit of growth.

=Baffle plate.= An obstruction to deflect air or other currents.

=Bastard cut.= Tangential cut. Wood of inferior cut.

=Berry.= A fruit whose entire pericarp is succulent.

=Blower kiln.= A drying arrangement in which the air is blown through heating coils into the drying room.

=Box kiln.= A small square heating room with openings in one end only.

=Brittleness.= Aptness to break; not tough; fragility.

=Burrow.= A shelter; insect's hole in the wood.

=Calorie.= Unit of heat; amount of heat which raises the temperature.

=Calyx.= The outer whorl of floral envelopes.

=Capillary.= A tube or vessel extremely fine or minute.

=Case-harden.= A condition in which the pores of the wood are closed and the outer surface dry, while the inner portion is still wet or unseasoned.

=Cavity.= A hollow place; a hollow.

=Cell.= One of the minute, elementary structures comprising the greater part of plant tissue.

=Cellulose.= A primary cell-wall substance.

=Checks.= The small chinks or cracks caused by the rupture of the wood fibres.

=Cleft.= Opening made by splitting; divided.

=Coarse-grained.= Wood is coarse-grained when the annual rings are wide or far apart.

=Cohesion.= The union of members of the same floral whorl.

=Contorted.= Twisted together.

=Corolla.= The inner whorl of floral envelopes.

=Cotyledon.= One of the parts of the embryo performing in part the function of a leaf, but usually serving as a storehouse of food for the developing plant.

=Crossers.= Narrow wooden strips used to separate the material on kiln cars.

=Cross-grained.= Wood is cross-grained when its fibres are spiral or twisted.

=Dapple.= An exaggerated form of mottle.

=Deciduous.= Not persistent; applied to leaves that fall in autumn and to calyx and corolla when they fall off before the fruit develops.

=Definite.= Limited or defined.

=Dew-point.= The point at which water is deposited from moisture-laden air.

=Dicotyledon.= A plant whose embryo has two opposite cotyledons.

=Diffuse.= Widely spreading.

=Disk.= A circular, flat, thin piece or section of the tree.

=Duramen.= Heartwood.

=Embryo.= Applied in botany to the tiny plant within the seed.

=Enchinate.= Beset with prickles.

=Expansion.= An enlargement across the grain or lengthwise of the wood.

=Fibres.= The thread-like portion of the tissue of wood.

=Fibre-saturation point.= The amount of moisture wood will imbibe, usually 25 to 30 per cent of its dry-wood weight.

=Figure.= The broad and deep medullary rays as in oak showing when the timber is cut into boards.

=Filament.= The stalk which supports the anther.

=Fine-grained.= Wood is fine-grained when the annual rings are close together or narrow.

=Germination.= The sprouting of a seed.

=Girdling.= To make a groove around and through the bark of a tree, thus killing it.

=Glands.= A secreting surface or structure; a protuberance having the appearance of such an organ.

=Glaucous.= Covered or whitened with a bloom.

=Grain.= Direction or arrangement of the fibres in wood.

=Grubs.= The larvae of wood-destroying insects.

=Gymnosperms.= Plants bearing naked seeds; without an ovary.

=Habitat.= The geographical range of a plant.

=Heartwood.= The central portion of tree.

=Hollow-horning.= Internal checking.

=Honeycombing.= Internal checking.

=Hot-blast kiln.= A drying arrangement in which the air is blown through heating coils into the drying room.

=Humidity.= Damp, moist.

=Hygroscopicity.= The property of readily imbibing moisture from the atmosphere.

=Indefinite.= Applied to petals or other organs when too numerous to be conveniently counted.

=Indigenous.= Native to the country.

=Involute.= A form of vernation in which the leaf is rolled inward from its edges.

=Kiln-drying.= Drying or seasoning of wood by artificial heat in an inclosed room.

=Leaflet.= A single division of a compound leaf.

=Limb.= The spreading portion of the tree.

=Lumen.= Internal space in the spring- and summer-wood fibres.

=Median.= Situated in the middle.

=Medulla.= The pith.

=Medullary rays.= Rays of fundamental tissue which connect the pith with the bark.

=Membranous.= Thin and rather soft, more or less translucent.

=Midrib.= The central or main rib of a leaf.

=Moist-air kiln.= A drying arrangement in which the heat is taken from radiating coils located inside the drying room.

=Mottle.= Figure transverse of the fibres, probably caused by the action of wind upon the tree.

=Non-porous.= Without pores.

=Oblong.= Considerably longer than broad, with flowing outline.

=Obtuse.= Blunt, rounded.

=Oval.= Broadly elliptical.

=Ovary.= The part of the pistil that contains the ovules.

=Parted.= Cleft nearly, but not quite to the base or midrib.

=Parenchyma.= Short cells constituting the pith and pulp of the tree.

=Pericarp.= The walls of the ripened ovary, the part of the fruit that encloses the seeds.

=Permeable.= Capable of being penetrated.

=Petal.= One of the leaves of the corolla.

=Pinholes.= Small holes in the wood caused by worms or insects.

=Pistil.= The modified leaf or leaves which bear the ovules; usually consisting of ovary, style and stigma.

=Plastic.= Elastic, easily bent.

=Pocket kilns.= Small drying rooms with openings on one end only and in which the material to be dried is piled directly on the floor.

=Pollen.= The fertilizing powder produced by the anther.

=Pores.= Minute orifices in wood.

=Porous.= Containing pores.

=Preliminary steaming.= Subjecting wood to a steaming process before drying or seasoning.

=Progressive kiln.= A drying arrangement with openings at both ends, and in which the material enters at one end and is discharged at the other.

=Rick.= A pile or stack of lumber.

=Rift.= To split; cleft.

=Ring shake.= A large check or crack in the wood following an annual ring.

=Roe.= A peculiar figure caused by the contortion of the woody fibres, and takes a wavy line parallel to them.

=Sapwood.= The outer portions of the tree next to the bark; alburnam.

=Saturate.= To cause to become completely penetrated or soaked.

=Season checks.= Small openings in the ends of the wood caused by the process of drying.

=Seasoning.= The process by which wood is dried or seasoned.

=Seedholes.= Minute holes in wood caused by wood-destroying worms or insects.

=Shake.= A large check or crack in wood caused by the action of the wind on the tree.

=Shrinkage.= A lessening or contraction of the wood substance.

=Skidways.= Material set on an incline for transporting lumber or logs.

=Species.= In science, a group of existing things, associated according to properties.

=Spermatophyta.= Seed-bearing plants.

=Spring-wood.= Wood that is formed in the spring of the year.

=Stamen.= The pollen-bearing organ of the flower, usually consisting of filament and anther.

=Stigma.= That part of the pistil which receives the pollen.

=Style.= That part of the pistil which connects the ovary with the stigma.

=Taproot.= The main root or downward continuation of the plant axis.

=Temporary checks.= Checks or cracks that subsequently close.

=Tissue.= One of the elementary fibres composing wood.

=Thunder shake.= A rupture of the fibres of the tree across the grain, which in some woods does not always break them.

=Tornado shake.= (See Thunder shake.)

=Tracheids.= The tissues of the tree which consist of vertical cells or vessels closed at one end.

=Warping.= Turning or twisting out of shape.

=Wind shake.= (See Thunder shake.)

=Working.= The shrinking and swelling occasioned in wood.

=Wormholes.= Small holes in wood caused by wood-destroying worms.

=Vernation.= The arrangement of the leaves in the bud.

=Whorl.= An arrangement of organs in a circle about a central axis.

INDEX OF LATIN NAMES

Abies amabalis, 21 Abies balsamea, 20 Abies concolor, 20 Abies grandis, 20 Abies magnifica, 21 Abies nobilis, 21 Acer macrophyllum, 69 Acer negundo, 69 Acer Pennsylvanicum, 70 Acer rubrum, 69 Acer saccharinum, 69 Acer saccharum, 68 Acer spicatum, 69 Æsculus flava, 45 Æsculus glabra, 45 Æsculus octandra, 45 Ailanthus glandulosa, 37 Asimina triloba, 76

Betula lenta, 41 Betula lutea, 42 Betula nigra, 43 Betula papyrifera, 43 Betula populifolia, 42 Betula rubra, 43 Buxus sempervirens, 77

Carpinus Caroliana, 44 Castanea Americana, 48 Castanea chrysophylla, 49 Castanea dentata, 48 Castanea pumila, 48 Castanea vesca, 48 Castanea vulgaris, 48 Catalpa bignonioides, 46 Catalpa speciosa, 46 Celtis occidentalis, 62 Chamæcyparis Lawsonia, 18 Chamæcyparis thyoides, 17 Cladrastis lutea, 85 Cornus florida, 49 Cupressus nootkatensis, 18

Diospyros Virginia, 77

Evonymus atropurpureus, 82

Fagus ferruginea, 40 Fraxinus Americana, 37 Fraxinus Caroliniana, 39 Fraxinus nigra, 38 Fraxinus Oregana, 38 Fraxinus Pennsylvanica, 38 Fraxinus pubescens, 38 Fraxinus quadrangulata, 38 Fraxinus sambucifolia, 38 Fraxinus viridis, 38

Gleditschia triacanthos, 66 Gymnocladus dioicus, 49

Hicoria alba, 64 Hicoria glabra, 64 Hicoria minima, 64 Hicoria ovata, 64 Hicoria pecan, 64

Ilex monticolo, 65 Ilex opaca, 64

Juglans cinerea, 45 Juglans nigra, 82 Juniperus communis, 19 Juniperus Virginiana, 18

Larix Americana, 22 Larix laricina, 22 Larix occidentalis, 22 Libocedrus decurrens, 18 Liquidamber styraciflua, 54 Liriodendron tulipfera, 81

Maclura aurantiaca, 76 Magnolia acuminata, 67 Magnolia glauca, 67 Magnolia tripetala, 67 Morus rubra, 70

Nyssa aquatica, 60 Nyssa sylvatica, 62

Ostrya Virginiana, 65 Oxydendrum arboreum, 80

Picea alba, 28 Picea canadensis, 28 Picea engelmanni, 28 Picea mariana, 27 Picea nigra, 27 Picea rubens, 28 Picea sitchensis, 28 Pinus banksiana, 27 Pinus cubensis, 26 Pinus divaricata, 27 Pinus enchinata, 26 Pinus flexilis, 24 Pinus inops, 27 Pinus Jeffreyi, 25 Pinus Lambertiana, 24 Pinus monticolo, 24 Pinus Murryana, 27 Pinus palustris, 24 Pinus ponderosa, 25 Pinus resinosa, 25 Pinus rigida, 26 Pinus strobus, 23 Pinus tæda, 25 Pinus Virginiana, 27 Platanus occidentalis, 80 Platanus racemosa, 81 Populus alba, 79 Populus angulata, 77 Populus balsamifera, 79 Populus fremontii, 78 Populus grandidentata, 79 Populus heteropylla, 78 Populus monilifera, 77 Populus nigra italica, 79 Populus tremuloides, 79 Populus trichocarpa, 78 Populus Wislizeni, 78 Prunus Pennsylvanica, 47 Prunus serotina, 47 Pseudotsuga douglasii, 29 Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 29 Pyrus coronaria, 49

Quercus acuminata, 73 Quercus alba, 71 Quercus aquatica, 73 Quercus bicolor, 72 Quercus chrysolepis, 76 Quercus coccinea, 75 Quercus digitata, 75 Quercus durandii, 71 Quercus falcata, 75 Quercus garryana, 71 Quercus ilicijolia, 74 Quercus imbricaria, 75 Quercus lobata, 72 Quercus lyrata, 73 Quercus macrocarpa, 72 Quercus marilandica, 75 Quercus Michauxii, 74 Quercus minor, 74 Quercus nigra, 75 Quercus obtusiloda, 74 Quercus palustris, 73 Quercus phellos, 72 Quercus platanoides, 72 Quercus prinoides, 74 Quercus prinus, 73 Quercus pumila, 74 Quercus rubra, 74 Quercus tinctoria, 74 Quercus velutina, 74 Quercus virens, 75

Rhamnus Caroliniana, 45 Robinia pseudacacia, 66 Robinia viscosa, 66

Salix alba, 83 Salix amygdaloides, 84 Salix babylonica, 84 Salix bebbiana, 84 Salix discolor, 84 Salix fluviatilis, 84 Salix fragilis, 84 Salix lucida, 84 Salix nigra, 83 Salix rostrata, 84 Salix vitellina, 83 Sassafras sassafras, 80 Sequoia sempervirens, 19

Taxodium distinchum, 19 Taxus brevifolia, 30 Thuya gigantea, 17 Thuya occidentalis, 17 Tilia Americana, 39 Tilia heterophylla, 39 Tilia pubescens, 39 Tsuga canadensis, 21 Tsuga mertensiana, 21

Ulmus alata, 51 Ulmus Americana, 50 Ulmus crassifolia, 51 Ulmus fulva, 51 Ulmus pubescens, 51 Ulmus racemosa, 50 Umbellularia Californica, 65

INDEX

Abele, Tree, 79

Absorption of water by dry wood, 124

Acacia, 66

Acacia, false, 66

Acacia, three-thorned, 66

According to species, different kiln drying, 170

Advantages in seasoning, 128

Advantages of kiln-drying over air-drying, 156

Affect drying, properties of wood that, 156

Ailanthus, 37

Air circulation, 173

Air-drying, advantages of kiln-drying over, 156

Alaska cedar, 18

Alaska cypress, 18

Alcoholic liquids, stave and heads of barrels containing, 112

Almond-leaf willow, 84

Ambrosia or timber beetles, 99

American box, 49

American elm, 50

American larch, 22

American linden, 39

American oak, 71

American red pine, 25

Anatomical structure, 14

Annual ring, the yearly or, 10

Apartment dry kiln, 198

Apple, crab, 49

Apple, custard, 76

Apple, wild, 49

Appliances in kiln-drying, helpful, 237

Arborvitæ, 17

Ash, 37

Ash, black, 38

Ash, blue, 38

Ash, Carolina, 39

Ash, green, 38

Ash, ground, 38

Ash, hoop, 38

Ash-leaved maple, 69

Ash, Oregon, 38

Ash, red, 38

Ash, white, 37

Aspen, 39, 79

Aspen, large-toothed, 78

Aspen-leaved birch, 42

Aspen, quaking, 79

Atmospheric pressure, drying at, 146

Bald Cypress, 19

Ball tree, button, 80

Balm of gilead, 79

Balm of gilead fir, 20

Balsam, 20, 79

Balsam fir, 20

Bark and pith, 8

Bark on, round timber with, 106

Barrels containing alcoholic liquids, staves and heads of, 112

Barren oak, 75

Bar willow, sand, 84

Basket oak, 74

Basswood, 39

Basswood, small-leaved, 39

Basswood, white, 39

Bastard pine, 26

Bastard spruce, 29

Bay poplar, 60

Bay, sweet, 67

Bear oak, 74

Beaver wood, 67

Bebb willow, 84

Bee tree, 39

Beech, 40

Beech, blue, 44

Beech, red, 40

Beech, water, 44, 80

Beech, white, 40

Berry, sugar, 62

Beetles, ambrosia or timber, 99

Big bud hickory, 64

Bilsted, 54

Birch, 41

Birch, aspen-leaved, 42

Birch, black, 41

Birch, canoe, 43

Birch, cherry, 41

Birch, gray, 42

Birch, mahogany, 41

Birch, old field, 42

Birch, paper, 43

Birch, red, 42

Birch, river, 43

Birch, silver, 42

Birch, sweet, 41

Birch, white, 42, 43

Birch, wintergreen, 41

Birch, yellow, 42

Bird cherry, 47

Bitternut hickory, 64

Black ash, 38

Black birch, 41

Black cherry, 47

Black cottonwood, 78

Black cypress, 19

Black gum, 62

Black hickory, 64

Black jack, 75

Black larch, 22

Black locust, 66

Black nut hickory, 64

Black oak, 74

Black pine, 25, 27

Black spruce, 27

Black walnut, 44, 82

Black willow, 83

Blower dry kiln, operation of, 186

Blower or hot blast dry kiln, 185

Blue ash, 38

Blue beech, 44

Blue poplar, 81

Blue willow, 83

Bois d'Arc, 45, 76

Bolts, stave, heading and shingle, 109

Borers, flat-headed, 103

Borers, powder post, 105

Borers, round-headed, 101

Box, American, 49

Box elder, 69

Box dry kiln, 204

Broad-leaved maple, 69

Broad-leaved trees, 31

Broad-leaved trees, list of most important, 37

Broad-leaved trees, wood of, 31

Brown hickory, 64

Brown locust, 66

Buckeye, 45

Buckeye, fetid, 45

Buckeye, Ohio, 45

Buckeye, sweet, 45

Buckthorne, 45

Bud hickory, big, 64

Bull nut hickory, 64

Bull pine, 25

Bur oak, 72

Burning bush, 82

Bush, burning, 82

Bush, juniper, 18

Butternut, 45

Button ball tree, 80

Button wood, 80

California Redwood, 19

California white pine, 25

Canadian pine, 25

Canary wood, 81

Canoe birch, 43

Canoe cedar, 17

Carolina ash, 39

Carolina pine, 26

Carolina poplar, 77

Cars, method of loading kiln, 206

Catalpa, 46

Cedar, 17

Cedar, Alaska, 18

Cedar, canoe, 17

Cedar, elm, 51

Cedar, ground, 19

Cedar, incense, 18

Cedar of the West, red, 17

Cedar, Oregon, 18

Cedar, pencil, 18

Cedar, Port Orford, 18

Cedar, red, 18, 19

Cedar, white, 17, 18

Cedar, yellow, 18

Changes rendering drying difficult, 140

Characteristics and properties of wood, 1

Checking and splitting, prevention of, 129

Cherry, 47

Cherry birch, 41

Cherry, bird, 47

Cherry, black, 47

Cherry, Indian, 45

Cherry, red, 47

Cherry, rum, 47

Cherry, wild, 47

Cherry, wild red, 47

Chestnut, 48

Chestnut, horse, 45, 65

Chestnut oak, 73

Chestnut oak, rock, 73

Chestnut oak, scrub, 74

Chinquapin, 48, 49

Chinquapin oak, 73, 74

Chinquapin oak, dwarf, 74

Choice of drying method, 195

Circassian walnut, 60

Circulation, air, 173

Clammy locust, 66

Classes of trees, 5

Cliff elm, 50

Coast redwood, 19

Coffee nut, 49

Coffee tree, 49

Color and odor of wood, 89

Color, odor, weight, and figure in wood, grain, 86

Composition of sap, 116

Conditions and species, temperature depends on, 171

Conditions favorable for insect injury, 106

Conditions governing the drying of wood, 156

Conditions of success in kiln-drying, 169

Coniferous trees, 8

Coniferous trees, wood of, 8

Coniferous woods, list of important, 17

Containing alcoholic liquids, staves and heads of barrels, 112

Cooperage stock and wooden truss hoops, dry, 112

Cork elm, 50

Cotton gum, 60

Cottonwood, 49, 77, 78

Cottonwood, black, 78

Cottonwood, swamp, 78

Cow oak, 74

Crab apple, 49

Crab, fragrant, 49

Crack willow, 84

Crude products, 106

Cuban pine, 26

Cucumber tree, 49, 67

Cup oak, mossy, 72

Cup oak, over-, 72, 73

Custard apple, 76

Cypress, 19

Cypress, Alaska, 18

Cypress, bald, 19

Cypress, black, 19

Cypress, Lawson's, 18

Cypress, pecky, 19

Cypress, red, 19

Cypress, white, 19

D'Arc, Bois, 45, 76

Deal, yellow, 23

Demands upon soil and moisture of red gum, 56

Depends on conditions and species, temperature, 171

Description of the forest service kiln, theory and, 161

Diagram, the uses of the humidity, 237

Difference between seasoned and unseasoned wood, 121

Different grains of wood, 86

Different kiln-drying according to species, 170

Different species, weight of kiln-dried wood of, 95

Different types, kilns of, 196

Different types of dry kilns, 185

Different types of kiln doors, 231

Difficult, changes rendering drying, 140

Difficulties of drying wood, 138

Distribution of water in wood, 114

Distribution of water in wood, local, 114

Distribution of water in wood seasonal, 115

Dogwood, 49

Doors, different types of kiln, 231

Douglas spruce, 29

Downy linden, 39

Downy poplar, 78

Dry cooperage stock and wooden truss hoops, 112

Drying according to species, different kiln, 170

Drying, advantages of kiln-drying over air, 156

Drying at atmospheric pressure, 146

Drying by superheated steam, 150

Drying, conditions of success in kiln, 169

Drying difficult, changes rendering, 140

Drying gum, kiln, 180

Drying, helpful appliances in kiln, 237

Drying, kiln, 164, 177

Drying, losses due to improper kiln, 141

Drying method, choice of, 185

Drying, methods of kiln, 145

Drying, objects of kiln, 168

Drying of green red gum, kiln, 183

Drying of wood, kiln, 156

Drying of wood, physical conditions governing the, 156

Drying, physical properties that influence, 125

Drying, properties of wood that effect, 141

Drying, theory of kiln, 157

Drying, underlying principles of kiln, 166

Drying under pressure and vacuum, 146

Drying, unsolved problems in kiln, 143

Drying wood, difficulties of, 138

Drying 100 lb. of green wood in the kiln, pounds of water lost, 179

Dry kiln, apartment, 198

Dry kiln, box, 204

Dry kiln, operation of the blower, 186

Dry kiln, operation of the moist-air, 192

Dry kiln, moist-air or pipe, 188

Dry kiln, pocket, 200

Dry kiln, progressive, 196

Dry kiln, requirements in a satisfactory, 160

Dry kilns, different types of, 185

Dry kiln specialties, 206

Dry kilns, types of, 185

Dry kiln, tower, 202

Dry wood, absorption of water by, 124

Duck oak, 73

Due to improper kiln-drying, losses, 141

Dwarf chinquapin oak, 74

Effects of Moisture on Wood, 117

Elder, box, 69

Electric heater, the, 250

Elimination of stain and mildew, 136

Elm, 50

Elm, American, 50

Elm, cedar, 51

Elm, cliff, 50

Elm, cork, 50

Elm, hickory, 50

Elm, moose, 51

Elm, red, 51

Elm, rock, 50

Elm, slippery, 51

Elm, water, 50

Elm, winged, 51

Elm, white, 50

Enemies of wood, 98

Evaporation of water, manner of, 123

Evaporation, rapidity of, 124

Expansion of wood, 135

Factories, Scalometer in, 249

False acacia, 66

Favorable for insect injury, conditions, 106

Fetid buckeye, 45

Fibre saturation point in wood, 118

Field birch, old, 42

Field pine, old, 25, 26

Figure in wood, 96

Figure in wood, grain, color, odor, weight, and, 86

Final steaming of gum, 182

Fir, 20

Fir, balm of gilead, 20

Fir balsam, 20

Fir, noble, 21

Fir, red, 21, 29

Fir tree, 20

Fir, white, 20, 21

Fir, yellow, 29

Flat-headed borers, 103

Forest service kiln, theory and description of, 161

Form of the red gum, 55

Fragrant crab, 49

Gauge, the Recording Steam, 246

Georgia pine, 24

Gilead, balm of, 79

Gilead fir, balm of, 20

Ginger pine, 18

Glaucous willow, 84

Governing the drying of wood, physical conditions, 156

Grain, color, odor, weight, and figure in wood, 86

Grains of wood, different, 86

Gray birch, 42

Gray pine, 27

Green ash, 38

Green red gum, kiln-drying, 183

Green wood in the kiln, pounds of water lost in drying 100 lbs., 179

Ground ash, 38

Ground cedar, 19

Growth red gum, second, 59

Gum, 52

Gum, black, 62

Gum, cotton, 60

Gum, demands upon soil and moisture of red, 56

Gum, final steaming of, 182

Gum, form of red, 55

Gum, kiln-drying, 180

Gum, kiln-drying of green red, 183

Gum, method of piling, 180

Gum, preliminary steaming of, 182

Gum, range of red, 55

Gum, range of tupelo, 61

Gum, red, 54, 79

Gum, reproduction of red, 57

Gum, second-growth red, 59

Gum, sour, 62, 80

Gum, sweet, 54, 80

Gum, tolerance of the red, 56

Gum, tupelo, 60

Gum, uses of tupelo, 61

Hackberry, 62

Hacmatac, 22

Hard maple, 68

Hard pine, 26

Hard pines, 24

Hard pine, southern, 24

Hardwoods, 37

Hazel pine, 54, 60

Headed borers, flat, 103

Headed borers, round, 101

Heading, stave and shingle bolts, 109

Heads and staves of barrels containing alcoholic liquids, 112

Heart hickory, white, 64

Heartwood, sap and, 8

Heater, the electric, 250

Helpful appliances in kiln-drying, 237

Hemlock, 21

Hemlock spruce, 21

Hickory, 63

Hickory, big bud, 64

Hickory, bitternut, 64

Hickory, black, 64

Hickory, black nut, 64

Hickory, brown, 64

Hickory, bull nut, 64

Hickory elm, 50

Hickory, mockernut, 64

Hickory, pignut, 64

Hickory, poplar, 81

Hickory, scalybark, 64

Hickory, shagbark, 64

Hickory, shellbark, 64

Hickory, swamp, 64

Hickory, switchbud, 64

Hickory, white heart, 64

Holly, 64, 65

Holly, mountain, 65

Honey locust, 66

Honey shucks, 66

Hoop ash, 38

Hoops, dry cooperage stock and wooden truss, 112

Hop hornbeam, 65

Hornbeam, 44

Hornbeam, hop, 65

Horse chestnut, 45, 65

Hot blast or blower kiln, 185

Humidity, 174

Humidity diagram, uses of the, 237

How to prevent insect injury, 107

How wood is seasoned, 145

Hygrodeik, the, 242

Hygrometer, the recording, 242

Hygrometer, the registering, 244

Illinois Nut, 64

Important broad-leaved trees, list of most, 37

Important coniferous woods, list of, 17

Impregnation methods, 151

Improper kiln-drying, losses due to, 141

Incense cedar, 18

Indian bean, 46

Indian cherry, 45

Influence drying, physical properties that, 125

Injury, conditions favorable for insect, 106

Injury from insects, how to prevent, 107

Insect injury, conditions favorable for, 106

Insects, how to prevent injury from, 107

Iron oak, 74

Ironwood, 44, 65

Jack, Black, 75

Jack oak, 75

Jack pine, 27

Jersey pine, 27

Juniper, 18

Juniper bush, 18

Juniper, red, 18

Juniper, savin, 18

Keep Records of the Moisture Content, 249

Kiln, apartment dry, 198

Kiln, blower or hot blast, 185

Kiln, box dry, 204

Kiln cars and method of loading, 206

Kiln doors, different types, 231

Kiln-dried wood of different species, weight of, 95

Kiln-drying, 164, 177

Kiln-drying according to species, different, 170

Kiln-drying, conditions of success in, 169

Kiln-drying gum, 180

Kiln-drying, helpful appliances in, 237

Kiln-drying, losses due to improper, 141

Kiln-drying, objects of, 168

Kiln-drying of green red gum, 183

Kiln-drying of wood, 156

Kiln-drying of wood, 156

Kiln-drying over air-drying, advantages of, 156

Kiln-drying, theory of, 157

Kiln-drying, underlying principles of, 166

Kiln-drying, unsolved problems in, 143

Kiln, operation of the blower dry, 186

Kiln, operation of the moist-air dry, 192

Kiln, pipe or moist-air dry, 188

Kiln, pocket dry, 200

Kiln, progressive dry, 196

Kiln, requirements in a satisfactory dry, 160

Kilns, different types of dry, 185

Kilns of different types, 196

Kiln specialties, dry, 206

Kiln, theory and description of the forest service, 161

Kilns, types of dry, 185

Kiln, tower dry, 202

Land Spruce, Tide, 28

Larch, 22

Larch, American, 22

Larch, black, 22

Larch, western, 22

Large-toothed aspen, 79

Laurel, 65

Laurel oak, 75

Lawson's cypress, 18

Leaf pine, long-, 24

Leaf pine, short-, 26

Leaf willow, long, 84

Leaved basswood, small, 39

Leaved birch, aspen, 42

Leaved maple, ash, 69

Leaved maple, broad, 69

Leaved maple, silver, 69

Leaved trees, broad, 31

Leaved trees, list of most important broad, 37

Leaved trees, wood of broad, 31

Leverwood, 65

Life, tree of, 17

Lime tree, 39

Lin, 39

Linden, 39

Linden, American, 39

Linden, downy, 39

Liquidamber, 54

Liquids, staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic, 112

List of important coniferous trees, 17

List of most important broad-leaved trees, 37

Live oak, 75, 76

Loading, kiln cars and method of, 206

Loblolly pine, 25

Local distribution of water in wood, 114

Locust, 66

Locust, black, 66

Locust, brown, 66

Locust, clammy, 66

Locust, honey, 66

Locust, sweet, 66

Locust, yellow, 66

Lodge-pole pine, 27

Lombardy poplar, 79

Long-leaf pine, 24

Long-leaf willow, 84

Long-straw pine, 24

Losses due to improper kiln-drying, 141

Lost in kiln-drying 100 lb. green wood in the kiln, pounds of water, 179

Magnolia, 67

Magnolia, small, 67

Magnolia, swamp, 67

Mahogany, birch, 41

Mahogany, white, 45

Manner of evaporation of water, 123

Maple, 67

Maple, ash-leaved, 69

Maple, broad-leaved, 69

Maple, hard, 68

Maple, mountain, 69

Maple, Oregon, 69

Maple, red, 69

Maple, rock, 68

Maple, silver, 69

Maple, silver-leaved, 69

Maple, soft, 69

Maple, striped, 70

Maple, sugar, 68

Maple, swamp, 69

Maple, water, 69

Maple, white, 69

Maul oak, 75, 76

Meadow pine, 26

Method, choice of drying, 195

Method of loading kiln cars, 206

Method of piling gum, 180

Methods, impregnation, 151

Methods of drying, 154

Mildew, elimination of stain and, 136

Minute structure, 34

Mockernut hickory, 64

Moist-air dry kiln, operation of, 192

Moist-air or pipe kiln, the, 188

Moisture content, keep records of the, 249

Moisture, demands upon soil and, 56

Moisture on wood, effects of, 117

Moose elm, 51

Moose-wood, 70

Mossy-cup oak, 72

Most important broad-leaved trees list of, 37

Mountain holly, 65

Mountain maple, 69

Mulberry, 70

Mulberry, red, 70

Myrtle, 65, 70

Nettle Tree, 62

Noble fir, 21

Norway pine, 25

Nut, coffee, 49

Nut hickory, black, 64

Nut hickory, bull, 64

Nut, Illinois, 64

Nyssa, 60

Oak, 70

Oak, American, 71

Oak, barren, 75

Oak, basket, 74

Oak, bear, 74

Oak, black, 74

Oak, bur, 72

Oak, chestnut, 73

Oak, chinquapin, 73, 74

Oak, cow, 74

Oak, duck, 73

Oak, dwarf chinquapin, 74

Oak, iron, 74

Oak, jack, 75

Oak, laurel, 75

Oak, live, 75, 76

Oak, maul, 75, 76

Oak, mossy-cup, 72

Oak, over-cup, 72, 73

Oak, peach, 72

Oak, pin, 73

Oak, possum, 73

Oak, post, 74

Oak, punk, 73

Oak, red, 74, 75

Oak, rock, 73

Oak, rock chestnut, 73

Oak, scarlet, 75

Oak, scrub, 74

Oak, scrub chestnut, 74

Oak, shingle, 75

Oak, Spanish, 75

Oak, swamp post, 73

Oak, swamp Spanish, 73

Oak, swamp white, 72, 73

Oak, water, 73

Oak, western white, 71

Oak, white, 71, 72

Oak, willow, 72

Oak, yellow, 73, 74

Oak, Valparaiso, 76

Objects of kiln-drying, 168

Odor and color of wood, 89

Odor, weight, and figure in wood, grain, color, 86

Ohio buckeye, 45

Old field birch, 42

Old field pine, 25, 26

Operation of the blower kiln, 186

Operation of the moist-air kiln, 192

Orange, osage, 76

Oregon ash, 38

Oregon cedar, 18

Oregon maple, 69

Oregon pine, 29

Orford cedar, Port, 18

Osage orange, 76

Out-of-door seasoning, 154

Over-cup oak, 72, 73

Papaw, 76

Paper birch, 43

Peach oak, 72

Pecan, 64

Pecky cypress, 19

Pencil cedar, 18

Pepperidge, 60

Perch willow, 84

Persimmon, 77

Peruche, 21

Physical conditions governing the drying of wood, 156

Physical properties that influence drying, 125

Pignut hickory, 64

Piling gum, methods of, 180

Pine, American red, 25

Pine, bastard, 26

Pine, black, 25, 27

Pine, bull, 25

Pine, California white, 25

Pine, Canadian, 25

Pine, Carolina, 26

Pine, Cuban, 26

Pine, Georgia, 24

Pine, ginger, 18

Pine, gray, 27

Pine, hard, 26

Pine, hazel, 54, 60

Pine, jack, 27

Pine, Jersey, 27

Pine, loblolly, 25

Pine, lodge-pole, 27

Pine, long-leaf, 24

Pine, long-straw, 24

Pine, meadow, 26

Pine, Norway, 25

Pine, old field, 25, 26

Pine, Oregon, 29

Pine, pitch, 26

Pine, Puget Sound, 29

Pine, pumpkin, 23, 24

Pine, red, 29

Pine, rosemary, 25

Pine, sap, 25

Pine, scrub, 27

Pines, hard, 24

Pine, short-leaf, 26

Pine, short-straw, 25

Pine, slash, 25, 26

Pine, soft, 23, 24

Pine, southern, 24

Pine, southern hard, 24

Pine, spruce, 26

Pine, sugar, 24

Pine, swamp, 26

Pine, torch, 26

Pine, Weymouth, 23

Pine, western, 25

Pine, western white, 25

Pine, western yellow, 25

Pine, white, 23, 24

Pine, yellow, 24, 25, 26

Pin oak, 73

Pipe or moist-air kiln, 188

Pitch pine, 26

Pith and bark, 8

Plane tree, 80

Pocket dry kiln, the, 200

Point in wood, the fibre saturation, 118

Pole pine, lodge, 27

Poplar, 67, 77, 79, 81

Poplar, bay, 60

Poplar, blue, 81

Poplar, Carolina, 77

Poplar, downy, 78

Poplar, hickory, 81

Poplar, Lombardy, 79

Poplar, swamp, 60

Poplar, white, 79, 81

Poplar, yellow, 81

Port Orford cedar, 18

Possum oak, 73

Post borers, powder, 105

Post oak, 74

Post oak, swamp, 73

Pounds of water lost in drying 100 lb. green wood in the kiln, 179

Powder post borers, 105

Preliminary steaming of gum, 182

Preliminary treatments, 151

Pressure and vacuum, drying under, 146

Pressure, drying at atmospheric, 146

Prevent injury from insects, how to, 107

Prevention of checking and splitting, 129

Principles of kiln-drying, underlying, 166

Problems in kiln-drying, unsolved, 143

Products, crude, 106

Products in the rough, seasoned, 112

Products in the rough, unseasoned, 109

Progressive dry kiln, the, 196

Properties, characteristics and, 1

Properties of wood, 4

Properties of wood that affect drying, 141

Properties that influence drying, physical, 125

Puget Sound pine, 29

Pumpkin pine, 23, 24

Punk oak, 73

Pussy willow, 84

Quaking Aspen, 79

Range of Red Gum, 55

Range of tupelo gum, 61

Rapidity of evaporation, 124

Recording hygrometer, the, 242

Recording steam gauge, the, 246

Recording thermometer, the, 245

Records of the moisture content, keep, 249

Red ash, 38

Red beech, 40

Red birch, 43

Red cedar, 18, 19

Red cedar of the West, 17

Red cherry, 47

Red cherry, wild, 47

Red cypress, 19

Red elm, 51

Red fir, 21, 29

Red gum, 54, 79

Red gum, demands upon soil and moisture of, 56

Red gum, form of the, 55

Red gum, kiln-drying of green, 183

Red gum, range of, 55

Red gum, reproduction of, 57

Red gum, second-growth, 59

Red gum, tolerance of, 56

Red juniper, 18

Red maple, 69

Red mulberry, 70

Red oak, 74, 75

Red pine, 29

Red pine, American, 25

Red spruce, 28

Redwood, 19, 27

Redwood, California, 19

Redwood, Coast, 19

Registering hygrometer, the, 244

Registering thermometer, the, 246

Rendering drying difficult, changes, 140

Reproduction of red gum, 57

Requirements in a satisfactory dry kiln, 160

Ring, the annual or yearly, 10

River birch, 43

Rock chestnut oak, 73

Rock elm, 50

Rock maple, 68

Rock oak, 73

Rosemary pine, 25

Rough, seasoned products in the, 112

Rough, unseasoned products in the, 109

Round-headed borers, 101

Round timber with bark on, 106

Rum cherry, 47

Samples for Scalometer Test, 248

Sand bar willow, 84

Sap and heartwood, 8

Sap, composition of, 116

Saplings, 108

Sap pine, 25

Sassafras, 80

Satin walnut, 54

Satisfactory dry kiln, requirements in a, 160

Saturation point in wood, fibre, 118

Sawmills, scalometer in, 249

Savin juniper, 18

Scalometer in factories, 249

Scalometer in sawmills, 249

Scalometer, test samples for, 248

Scalometer, the troemroid, 247

Scalometer, weighing with, 248

Scalybark hickory, 64

Scarlet oak, 75

Scrub chestnut oak, 74

Scrub oak, 74

Scrub pine, 27

Seasonal distribution of water in wood, 115

Seasoned and unseasoned wood, difference between, 121

Seasoned, how wood is, 145

Seasoned products in the rough, 112

Seasoning, advantages in, 128

Seasoning is, what, 119

Seasoning, out-of-door, 154

Second-growth red gum, 59

Sequoia, 19

Service kiln, theory and description of forest, 161

Shagbark hickory, 64

Shellbark hickory, 64

Shingle, heading and stave bolts, 109

Shingle oak, 75

Shining willow, 84

Short-leaf pine, 26

Short-straw pine, 25

Shrinkage of wood, 130

Shucks, honey, 66

Sitka spruce, 28

Silver birch, 42

Silver-leaved maple, 69

Silver maple, 69

Slash pine, 25, 26

Slippery elm, 51

Small-leaved basswood, 39

Small magnolia, 67

Soft maple, 69

Soft pine, 23, 24

Soil and moisture, demands upon, 56

Sorrel-tree, 80

Sound pine, Puget, 29

Sour gum, 62, 80

Sourwood, 80

Southern hard pine, 24

Southern pine, 24

Spanish oak, 75

Spanish oak, swamp, 73

Specialties, dry-kiln, 206

Species, different kiln-drying according to, 170

Species, temperature depends upon condition and, 171

Species, weight of kiln-dried wood of different, 95

Spindle tree, 82

Splitting, prevention of checking and, 129

Spring and summer-wood, 12

Spruce, 27

Spruce, bastard, 29

Spruce, black, 27

Spruce, Douglas, 29

Spruce, hemlock, 21

Spruce pine, 26

Spruce, red, 28

Spruce, Sitka, 28

Spruce, tide-land, 28

Spruce, white, 28

Stain and mildew, elimination of, 136

Stave, heading and shingle bolts, 109

Staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic liquids, 112

Steam, drying by superheated, 150

Steam gauge, the recording, 246

Steaming of gum, preliminary, 182

Steaming of gum, final, 182

Stock and wooden truss hoops, dry cooperage, 112

Straw pine, long, 24

Straw pine, short, 25

Striped maple, 70

Structure, anatomical, 14

Structure, minute, 34

Structure of wood, 4

Stump tree, 49

Success in kiln-drying, conditions of, 169

Sugar berry, 62

Sugar maple, 68

Sugar pine, 24

Summerwood, spring and, 12

Superheated steam, drying by, 150

Swamp cottonwood, 78

Swamp hickory, 64

Swamp magnolia, 67

Swamp maple, 69

Swamp pine, 26

Swamp poplar, 60

Swamp post oak, 73

Swamp Spanish oak, 73

Swamp white oak, 72, 73

Sweet bay, 67

Sweet buckeye, 45

Sweet birch, 41

Sweet gum, 54, 80

Sweet locust, 66

Switchbud hickory, 64

Sycamore, 80, 81

Tacmahac, 79

Tamarack, 22, 27, 29

Temperature depends upon conditions and species, 171

Test samples for scalometer, 248

Theory and description of the forest service kiln, 161

Theory of kiln-drying, 157

Thermometer, the recording, 245

Thermometer, the registering, 246

Thorned acacia, three, 66

Three-thorned acacia, 66

Tide-land spruce, 28

Timber, 1

Timber beetles, ambrosia or, 99

Timber with bark on, round, 106

Timber worms, 103

Tolerance of red gum, 56

Toothed aspen, large-, 79

Torch pine, 26

Tower dry kiln, the, 202

Treatments, preliminary, 151

Tree, abele, 79

Tree, bee, 39

Tree, button ball, 80

Tree, coffee, 49

Tree, cucumber, 49, 67

Tree, fir, 20

Tree, lime, 39

Tree, nettle, 62

Tree of life, 17

Tree, plane, 80

Trees, broad-leaved, 31

Trees, classes of, 5

Trees, coniferous, 8

Trees, list of important coniferous, 17

Trees, list of most important broad-leaved, 37

Tree, sorrel, 80

Tree, spindle, 82

Tree, stump, 49

Trees, wood of broad-leaved, 31

Trees, wood of the coniferous, 8

Tree, tulip, 81

Tree, umbrella, 67

Troemroid Scalometer, the, 247

Truss hoops, dry cooperage stock and, 112

Tulip tree, 81

Tulip wood, 67, 81

Tupelo, 82

Tupelo gum, 60

Tupelo gum, range of, 61

Tupelo gum, uses of, 61

Types of dry kilns, different, 185

Types of kiln doors, different, 231

Types, kilns of different, 196

Umbrella Tree, 67

Underlying principles of kiln-drying, 166

Unseasoned products in the rough, 109

Unseasoned wood, difference between seasoned and, 121

Unsolved problems in kiln-drying, 143

Uses of the humidity diagram, 237

Uses of tupelo gum, 61

Vacuum, Drying under Pressure and, 146

Valparaiso oak, 76

Virgilia, 85

Wahoo, 51, 82

Walnut, 45, 82

Walnut, black, 44, 82

Walnut, circassian, 60

Walnut, satin, 54

Walnut, white, 45, 83

Water beech, 44, 80

Water by dry wood, absorption of, 124

Water elm, 50

Water in wood, 114

Water in wood, distribution of, 114

Water in wood, local distribution of, 114

Water in wood, seasonal distribution of, 115

Water lost in drying 100 lb. of green wood in the kiln, pounds of, 179

Water, manner of evaporation of, 123

Water maple, 69

Water oak, 73

Weeping willow, 84

Weighing with scalometer, 248

Weight, and figure in wood, grain, color, odor, 86

Weight of kiln-dried wood of different species, 95

Weight of wood, 91

Western larch, 22

Western pine, 25

Western white oak, 71

Western white pine, 25

Western yellow pine, 25

West, red cedar of the, 17

Weymouth pine, 23

What seasoning is, 119

White ash, 37

White basswood, 39

White beech, 40

White birch, 42, 43

White cedar, 17, 18

White cypress, 19

White elm, 50

White fir, 20, 21

White heart hickory, 64

White mahogany, 45

White maple, 69

White oak, 71, 72

White oak, swamp, 72, 73

White oak, western, 71

White pine, 23, 24

White pine, California, 25

White pine, western, 25

White poplar, 79, 81

White spruce, 28

White walnut, 45, 83

White willow, 83

Whitewood, 39, 81, 83

Wild apple, 49

Wild cherry, 47

Wild red cherry, 47

Willow, 83

Willow, almond-leaf, 84

Willow, bebb, 84

Willow, black, 83

Willow, blue, 83

Willow, crack, 84

Willow, glaucous, 84

Willow, long-leaf, 84

Willow, oak, 72

Willow, perch, 84

Willow, pussy, 84

Willow, sand bar, 84

Willow, shining, 84

Willow, weeping, 84

Willow, white, 83

Willow, yellow, 83

Winged elm, 51

Wintergreen birch, 41

Wood, absorption of water by dry, 124

Wood, beaver, 67

Wood, canary, 81

Wood, characteristics and properties of, 1

Wood, color and odor of, 89

Wood, different grains of, 86

Wood, difference between seasoned and unseasoned, 121

Wood, difficulties of drying, 138

Wood, distribution of water in, 114

Wood, effects of moisture on, 117

Wood, enemies of, 98

Wood, expansion of, 135

Wood, figure in, 96

Wood, grain, color, odor, weight, and figure in, 86

Wood, how seasoned, 145

Wood in the kiln, pounds of water lost in drying 100 lb. of green, 179

Wood, iron, 65

Wood, kiln-drying of, 156

Wood, lever, 65

Wood, local distribution of water in, 114

Wood, moose, 70

Wood, of broad-leaves trees, 31

Wood of different species, weight of kiln-dried, 95

Wood of coniferous trees, 8

Wood, physical conditions governing the drying of, 156

Wood, properties of, 4

Wood, seasonal distribution of water in, 115

Wood, shrinkage of, 130

Woods, list of important coniferous, 17

Wood, spring and summer, 12

Wood, structure of, 4

Wood that effect drying, properties of, 141

Wood, the fibre saturation point in, 118

Wood, tulip, 67, 81

Wood, water in, 114

Wood, weight of, 89

Wood, white, 81, 83

Wood, yellow, 85

Wooden truss hoops, dry cooperage, stock and, 112

Worms, timber, 103

Yearly Ring, the Annual of, 10

Yellow birch, 42

Yellow cedar, 18

Yellow deal, 23

Yellow fir, 29

Yellow locust, 66

Yellow oak, 73, 74

Yellow pine, 24, 25, 26

Yellow pine, western, 25

Yellow poplar, 81

Yellow willow, 83

Yellow wood, 85

Yew, 29, 30

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
25 PARK PLACE
NEW YORK

SHORT-TITLE CATALOG
OF
Publications and Importations
OF
SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING
BOOKS

This list includes
the technical publications of the following English publishers:

SCOTT, GREENWOOD & CO. JAMES MUNRO & CO., Ltd.
CONSTABLE & COMPANY, Ltd. TECHNICAL PUBLISHING CO.
ELECTRICIAN PRINTING & PUBLISHING CO.

for whom D. Van Nostrand Company are American agents.

JULY, 1917

SHORT-TITLE CATALOG
OF THE
Publications and Importations
OF
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
25 PARK PLACE, N. Y.

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Abbott, A. V. The Electrical Transmission of Energy 8vo, *$5 00

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Adam, P. Practical Bookbinding. Trans. by T. E. Maw 12mo, *2 50

Adams, H. Theory and Practice in Designing 8vo, *2 50

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Aikman, C. M. Manures and the Principles of Manuring 8vo, 2 50

Aitken, W. Manual of the Telephone 8vo, *8 00

d'Albe, E. E. F., Contemporary Chemistry 12mo, *1 25

Alexander, J. H. Elementary Electrical Engineering 12mo, 2 00

Allan, W. Strength of Beams Under Transverse Loads.
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Allen, H. Modern Power Gas Producer Practice and
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