Chapter I: Part 1

Siouan Sociology

A Posthumous Paper - Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1893-1894, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1897, pages 205-244

by James Owen Dorsey

Edition 1, (October 10, 2006)

In 1871, at the age of 23, James Owen Dorsey, previously a student of divinity with a predilection for science, was ordained a deacon of the Protestant Episcopal church by the bishop of Virginia; and in May of that year he was sent to Dakota Territory as a missionary among the Ponka Indians. Characterized by an amiability that quickly won the confidence of the Indians, possessed of unbounded enthusiasm, and gifted with remarkable aptitude in discriminating and imitating vocal sounds, he at once took up the study of the native language, and, during the ensuing two years, familiarized himself with the Ponka and cognate dialects; at the same time he obtained a rich fund of information concerning the arts, institutions, traditions, and beliefs of the Indians with whom he was brought into daily contact. In August, 1873, his field work was interrupted by illness, and he returned to his home in Maryland and assumed parish work, meantime continuing his linguistic studies. In July, 1878, he was induced by Major Powell to resume field researches among the aborigines, and repaired to the Omaha reservation, in Nebraska, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, where he greatly increased his stock of linguistic and other material. When the Bureau of Ethnology was instituted in 1879, his services were at once enlisted, and the remainder of his life was devoted to the collection and publication of ethnologic material, chiefly linguistic. Although most of his energies were devoted to the Siouan stock, he studied also the Athapascan, Kusan, Takilman, and Yakonan stocks; and while his researches were primarily linguistic, his collections relating to other subjects, especially institutions and beliefs, were remarkably rich. His publications were many, yet the greater part of the material amassed during his years of labor remains for elaboration by others. The memoir on "Siouan Sociology," which was substantially ready for the press, is the only one of his many manuscripts left in condition for publication. He died in Washington, February 4, 1895, of typhoid fever, at the early age of 47.

WJM.

ALPHABET

a, as in _father_.

'a, an initially exploded a.

a, as in _what_, or as _o_ in _not_.

'a, an initially exploded a.

ae, as in _hat_.

c, as _sh_ in _she_. See s.

{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}, a medial _sh_, a sonant-surd

c (Dakota letter), as _ch_ in _church_.

c, as _th_ in _thin_.

{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}{~COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT~}, a medial c, sonant-surd.

c, as _th_ in _the_.

e, as in _they_.

'e, an initially exploded e.

e, as in _get_.

'e, an initially exploded e.

g, as in _go_.

g (in Dakota), _gh_. See x.

{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED H~} (in Osage), an h after a pure or nasalized vowel, expelled through the mouth with the lips wide apart.

h (in Dakota), _kh_, etc. See q.

i, as in _machine_.

'i, an initially exploded i.

i, as in _pin_.

j, as _z_ in _azure_, or as _j_ in the French _Jacques_.

{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}, a medial k, a sonant-surd,

k', an exploded k. See next letter.

k (in Dakota), an exploded k.

{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED M~} (in Kansa), a medial m, a sound between m and b.

n (in Dakota), after a vowel has the sound of _n_ in the French _bon_. See [n].

n, as _ng_ in _sing_.

hn, its initial sound is expelled from the nostrils and is scarcely heard.

o, as in _no_.

'o, an initially exploded o.

*d*, a medial b or p, a sonant-surd.

p', an exploded p.

q, as German _ch_ in _ach_. See h.

*s*, a medial z or s, a sonant-surd.

s (in Dakota), as _sh_ in _she_. See c.

{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}, a medial d or t, a sonant-surd.

t', an exploded t.

u, as _oo_ in _tool_.

'u, an initially exploded u.

u, as _oo_ in _foot_.

u{~COMBINING MACRON BELOW~}, a sound between o and u.

ue, as in German _kuehl_, _suess_.

x, _gh_, or nearly the Arabic _ghain_. See g.

z (in Dakota), as _z_ in _azure_. See j.

dj, as _j_ in _judge_.

tc, as _ch_ in _church_. See c.

tc', an exploded tc.

{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}, a medial tc, a sonant-surd.

ts', an exploded ts.

{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}s, a medial ts, a sonant-surd.

ai, as in _aisle_.

au, as _ow_ in _how_.

yu, as _u_ in _tune_, or _ew_ in _few_.

The following have the ordinary English sounds: b, d, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, y, and z. A superior n (n) after a vowel (compare the Dakota n) has the sound of the French n in _bon_, _vin_, etc. A plus sign (+) after any letter prolongs it.

The vowels 'a, 'e, 'i, 'o, 'u, and their modifications are styled initially exploded vowels for want of a better appellation, there being in each case an initial explosion. These vowels are approximately or partially pectoral sounds found in the Siouan languages and also in some of the languages of western Oregon and in the language of the Hawaiian islands.

CONTENTS

GENERAL FEATURES OF ORGANIZATION THE DAKOTA TRIBES DESIGNATION AND MODE OF CAMPING THE MDEWAKANTONWAN THE WAQPE-KUTE THE WAQPE-TONWAN OR WAHPETON THE SISITONWAN OR SISSETON THE IHANKTONWAN OR YANKTON THE IHANKTONWANNA OR YANKTONAI THE TITONWAN OR TETON TRIBAL DIVISIONS THE SITCANXU THE ITAZIPTCO THE SIHA-SAPA OR BLACKFEET THE MINIKOOJU THE OOHE-NONPA OR TWO KETTLES THE OGLALA THE HUNKPAPA DAKOTA SOCIAL CUSTOMS THE ASINIBOIN THE OMAHA THE PONKA THE QUAPAW OR KWAPA THE KANZE OR KANSA THE OSAGE THE IOWA THE OTO THE NI-U'-T'A-TCI OR MISSOURI THE HOTCANGARA OR WINNEBAGO THE MANDAN THE HIDATSA THE CROW OR ABSAROKA THE BILOXI THE TUTELO THE CATAWBA

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. 30.--Sisseton and Wahpeton camping circle. FIG. 31.--Sisseton camping circle. FIG. 32.--Sitcanxu camping circle. FIG. 33.--Oglala camping circle. FIG. 34.--Omaha camping circle. FIG. 35.--Inke-sabe gentile assembly. A, The Wacigije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-cataji, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn. FIG. 36.--Ponka camping circle. FIG. 37.--Kansa camping circle. FIG. 38.--Osage camping circle.

SIOUAN SOCIOLOGY

BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY

GENERAL FEATURES OF ORGANIZATION

In the study of the organization of societies, units of different orders are discovered. Among the tribes of the Siouan family the primary unit is the clan or gens, which is composed of a number of consanguinei, claiming descent from a common ancestor and having common taboos; the term clan implying descent in the female line, while gens implies descent in the male line. Among the Dakota, as among the cegiha and other groups, the man is the head of the family.

Several of the Siouan tribes are divided into two, and one (the Osage) is divided into three subtribes. Other tribes are composed of phratries, and each subtribe or phratry comprises a number of gentes. In some tribes each gens is made up of subgentes, and these in turn of a lower order of groups, which are provisionally termed sections for want of a better designation. The existence of these minor groups among the Omaha has been disputed by some, though other members of the tribe claim that they are real units of the lowest order. Among the Teton many groups which were originally sections have become gentes, for the marriage laws do not affect the original phratries, gentes, and subgentes.

The state, as existing among the Siouan tribes, may be termed a kinship state, in that the governmental functions are performed by men whose offices are determined by kinship, and in that the rules relating to kinship and reproduction constitute the main body of the recognized law. By this law marriage and the mutual rights and duties of the several members of each body of kindred are regulated. Individuals are held responsible, chiefly to their kindred; and certain groups of kindred are in some cases held responsible to other groups of kindred. When other conduct, such as the distribution of game taken in the forest or fish from the waters, is regulated, the rules or laws pertaining thereto involve, to a certain extent, the considerations of kinship.

The legislative, executive, and judicative functions have not been differentiated in Indian society as found among the Siouan groups. Two tendencies or processes of opposite character have been observed among the tribes, viz, consolidation and segregation. The effects of consolidation are conspicuous among the Omaha, Kansa, Osage, and Oto, while segregation has affected the social organization among the Kansa, Ponka, and Teton. There have been instances of emigration from one tribe to another of the same linguistic family; and among the Dakota new gentes have been formed by the adoption into the tribe of foreigners, i.e., those of a different stock.

Two classes of organization are found in the constitution of the state, viz, (1) major organizations, which relate directly to government, and (2) minor organizations, which relate only indirectly to government. The former embraces the state functionaries, the latter comprises corporations.

Although the state functionaries are not clearly differentiated, three classes of such men have been recognized: chiefs, policemen or soldiers, and young men or "the common people." The chiefs are the civil and religious leaders of the masses; the policemen are the servants of the chiefs; the young men are such as have not distinguished themselves in war or in any other way. These last have no voice in the assembly, which is composed of the chiefs alone. Among the Omaha there is no military class, yet there is a war element which is regulated by the Elk gens. The cixida gens and part of the Nika*d*a{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}na gens of the Ponka tribe are considered to be the warriors of the tribe, though members of other gentes have participated in war. In the Kansa tribe two gentes, the Large Hanga and the Small Hanga, form the phratry connected with war, though warriors did not necessarily belong to those gentes alone. In the Osage camping circle all the gentes on the right side are war gentes, but the first and second, reckoning from the van, are the soldiers or policemen; while all the gentes camping on the left are associated with peace, though their first and second gentes, reckoning from the van, are policemen or soldiers. Among the Omaha both officers and warriors must be taken from the class of "young men," as the chiefs are afraid to act as leaders in war; and among both the Omaha and the Ponka the chiefs, being the civil and religious leaders of the people, can not serve as captains, or even as members, of an ordinary war party, though they may fight when the whole tribe engages in war. Among the Dakota, however, chiefs have led in time of war.

Corporations among the Siouan tribes are minor organizations, indirectly related to the government, though they do not constitute a part of it. The Omaha, for instance, and perhaps other tribes of the family, are organized into certain societies for religious, industrial, and other ends. There are two kinds of societies, the brotherhoods and the feasting organizations. The former are the dancing societies, to some of which the physicians belong.

Social classes are undifferentiated. Any man can win a name and rank in the section, gens, phratry, tribe, or nation by bravery in war or by generosity in the bestowal of presents and the frequent giving of feasts. While there are no slaves among the Siouan tribes, there are several kinds of servants in civil, military, and religious affairs.

THE DAKOTA TRIBES

DESIGNATION AND MODE OF CAMPING

The Dakota call themselves Otceti cakowin (Oceti sakowin(1)), The Seven Fireplaces or Council-fires. This designation refers to their original gentes, the Mdewakantonwan (Mdewakan-tonwan), Waqpekute (Wahpe-kute), Waqpe-tonwan (Wahpetonwan), Sisitonwan (Sisitonwan), Ihank-tonwan (Ihanktonwan), Ihank-tonwanna (Ihanktonwanna), and Titonwan (Titonwan). They camped in two sets of concentric circles, one of four circles, consisting probably of the Mdewakantonwan, Waqpe-kute, Waqpe-tonwan and Sisitonwan; and the other of three circles, including the Ihanktonwan, Ihanktonwanna, and Titonwan, as shown by the dialectal resemblances and variations as well as by the relative positions of their former habitats.

THE MDEWAKANTONWAN

The Mdewakantonwan were so called from their former habitat, Mdewakan, or Mysterious lake, commonly called Spirit lake, one of the Mille Lacs in Minnesota. The whole name means Mysterious Lake village, and the term was used by De l'Isle as early as 1703. The Mdewakantonwan were the original Santee, but the white people, following the usage of the Ihanktonwan, Ihanktonwanna, and Titonwan, now extend that name to the Waqpekute, Waqpetonwan, and Sisitonwan. The gentes of the Mdewakantonwan are as follows:(2)

1. Kiyuksa, Breakers (of the law or custom); so called because members of this gens disregarded the marriage law by taking wives within the gens.

2. Qe-mini-tcan (He-mini-can) or Qemnitca (Hemnica), literally, "Mountain-water-wood;" so called from a hill covered with timber that appears to rise out of the water. This was the gens of Red Wing, whose village was a short distance from Lake Pepin, Minnesota.

3. Kap'oja (Kap{~COMBINING DOT BELOW~}oza), Not encumbered-with-much-baggage; "Light Infantry." "Kaposia, or Little Crow's village," in Minnesota, in 1852.

4. Maxa-yute-cni (Maga-yute-'sni), Eats-no-geese.

5. Qeyata-otonwe (Heyata-otonwe), of-its-chief-Hake-wacte (Hake waste); Qeyata-tonwan (Heyata-tonwan) of Reverend A.L. Riggs, Village-back-from-the-river.

6. Oyate-citca (Oyate sica), Bad nation.

7. Tinta-otonwe (Tinta-otornwe), of Hake-wacte, or Tinta tonwan (Tintatonwan) of A.L. Riggs, Village on-the-prairie (tinta).

These seven gentes still exist, or did exist as late as 1880.

THE WAQPE-KUTE

The name waqpe-kute is derived from waqpe (wahpe), leaf, and kute, to shoot at, and signifies Shooters-among-the-leaves, i.e., among the deciduous trees, as distinguished from Wazi-kute, Shooters-at-or-among-the-pines. The gentes exist, but their names have not been recorded.

THE WAQPE-TONWAN OR WAHPETON

The name of this people signifies Yillage-among-the-leaves (of deciduous trees), the gens being known to the whites as Leaf Village or Wahpeton. The gentes of this people, as given in 1884 by Reverend Edward Ashley, are the following:

FIG. 30.--Sisseton and Wahpeton camping circle.

13. Inyan-tceyaka-atonwan (Inyan-ceyaka-atonwan), Village-at-the-dam-or-rapids.

14. Takapsin-tonwanna (Takapsin-tonwanna), Village-at-the-shinny-ground.

15. Wiyaka-otina, Dwellers-on-the-sand (wiyaka).

16. Oteqi-atonwan (Otehi-atonwan),Village-in-the-thicket (otehi).

17. Wita-otina, Dwellers-on-the-island (wita).

18. Wakpa-atonwan (Wakpa-atonwan), Village-on-the-river.

19. Tcan-kaxa-otina (Can-kaga-otina), Dwellers-in-log (-huts?).

The numbers prefixed to the names of these gentes denote their respective places in the camping circle of the Sisseton and Wahpeton, as shown in figure 30.

THE SISITONWAN OR SISSETON

It is evident that the Sisseton were formerly in seven divisions, the Wita-waziyata-otina and the Ohdihe being counted as one; the Basdetce-cni and Itokaq-tina as another; the Kaqmi-atonwan, Maniti, and Keze as a third, and the Tizaptan and Okopeya as a fifth. When only a part of the tribe journeyed together, the people camped in the following manner: The Amdo-wapuskiyapi pitched their tents between the west and north, the Wita-waziyata-otina between the north and east, the Itokaq-tina between the east and south, and the Kap'oja between the south and west. The following are the Sisseton gentes (figure 31):

1. Wita-waziyata-otina, Village-at-the-north-island.

2. Ohdihe (from ohdihan, to fall into an object endwise). This gens is an offshoot of the Wita-waziyata-otina.

3. Basdetce-cni (Basdece-sni), Do-not-split (the body of a buffalo)-with-a-knife (but cut it up as they please).

4. Itokaq-tina (Itokali-tina), Dwellers-at-the-south (itokaga). These are an offshoot of the Basdetce-cni.

5. Kaqmi-atonwan (Kalimi-atonwan), Village-at-the-bend (kalimin).

6. Mani-ti, Those-who-camp (ti)-away-from-the-village. An offshoot of the Kaqmi-atonwan.

7. Keze, Barbed-like-a-fishhook. An offshoot of the Kaqmi-atonwan.

8. Tcan-kute (Can kute), Shoot-in-the-woods (among the deciduous trees); a name of derision. These people, according to Ashley, resemble the Keze, whom he styles a "cross clan."

9. Ti-zaptan (Ti-zaptan), Five-lodges.

10. Okopeya, In-danger. An offshoot of the Ti-zaptan.

11. Kap'oja (Kapoza), Those-who-travel-with-light-burdens. (See number 3 of the Mdewakantonwan.)

12. Amdo-wapuskiyapi, Those-who-lay-meat-on-their-shoulders (amdo)-to-dry-it (wapuskiya)-during-the-hunt.

FIG. 31.--Sisseton camping circle.

THE IHANKTONWAN OR YANKTON

The Yankton and Yanktonai speak the Yankton dialect, which has many words in common with the Teton.

In 1878 Walking Elk wrote the names of the Yankton gentes in the following order: 1, Tcan-kute (Can kute), Shoot-in-the-woods; 2, Tcaxu (Cagu), Lights or lungs; 3, Wakmuha-oin (Wakmuha oin),Pumpkin-rind-earring; 4, Ihaisdaye, Mouth-greasers; 5, Watceunpa (Waceunpa), Roasters; 6, Ikmun (Ikmun), An animal of the cat kind (lynx, panther, or wildcat); 7, Oyate-citca (Oyate-sica), Bad-nation; 8, Wacitcun-tcintca (Wasican-cinca) (a modern addition), Sons-of-white-men, the "Half-blood band." But in 1891 Reverend Joseph W. Cook, who has been missionary to the Yankton since 1870, obtained from several men the following order of gentes (ignoring the half-bloods): On the right side of the circle were, 1, Iha isdaye; 2, Wakmuha-oin; 3, Ikmun. On the left side of the circle were, 4, Watceunpa; 5, Tcan-kute; 6, Oyate-citca; and, 7, Tcaxu.

THE IHANKTONWANNA OR YANKTONAI

The Yanktonai are divided into the Upper and Lower Yanktonai, the latter being known as the Hunkpatina, Those-camping-at-one-end (or "horn")-of-the-tribal-circle.

The Upper Yanktonai geutes are as follows: 1, Tcan-ona (Can ona), Shoot-at-trees, or Wazi-kute, Shooters-among-the-pines; from these the Ho-he or Asiniboin have sprung. 2, Takini, Improved-in-condition (as a lean animal or a poor man). 3, Cikcitcena (Siksicena), Bad-ones-of-different-sorts. 4, Bakihon (Bakihon), Gash-themselves-with-knives. 5, Kiyuksa, Breakers (of the law or custom); see Mdewakantonwan gens number 1. 6, Pa-baksa, Cut-heads; some of these are on Devils Lake reservation, North Dakota. 7, Name forgotten.

The following are the gentes of the Lower Yanktonai, or Hunkpatina: 1, Pute-temini, Sweat-lips; the gens of Maxa-bomdu or Drifting Goose. 2, Gun-iktceka (Sun ikceka), Common dogs. 3, Taquha-yuta (Tahuha-yuta), Eat-the-scrapings-of-hides. 4, San-ona (San-ona), Shot-at-some-white-object; this name originated from killing an albino buffalo; a Hunkpapa chief said that refugees or strangers from another tribe were so called. 5, Iha-ca (Iha-sa), Red-lips. 6, Ite-xu (Ite-gu), Burned-face. 7, Pte-yute-cni (Pte-yute-sni), Eat-no-buffalo-cows.

THE TITONWAN OR TETON

TRIBAL DIVISIONS

The Teton are divided into seven tribes, which were formerly gentes. These are the Sitcanxu (Sicangu), Itaziptco (Itazipco), Siha-sapa, Minikooju (Minikoozu), Oohe-nonpa (Oohe-nonpa), Oglala, and Hunkpapa.

THE SITCANXU

The Sitcanxu, Bois Brules or Burned Thighs, are divided locally into (1) Qeyata-witcaca (Heyata wicasa), People-away-from-the-river, the Highland or Upper Brule, and (2) the Kud (Kuta or Kunta)-witcaca, the Lowland or Lower Brule. The Sitcanxu are divided socially into gentes, of which the number has increased in recent years. The following names of their gentes were given to the author in 1880 by Tatanka-wakan, Mysterious Buffalo-bull: 1, Iyak'oza (Iyakoza), Lump (or wart)-on-a-horse's-leg. 2, Tcoka-towela (Coka-towela), Blue-spot-in-the-middle. 3, Ciyo-tanka (Siyo-tanka), Large grouse or prairie chicken. 4, Ho-mna, Fish-smellers. 5, Ciyo-subula (Siyo-subula), Sharp-tail grouse. 6, Kanxi-yuha (Kangi-yuha), Raven keepers. 7, Pispiza-witcaca (Pispiza-wicasa), Prairie-dog people. 8, Walexa-un-wohan (Walega un wohan), Boil-food-with-the-paunch-skin (walega). 9, Watceunpa (Waceunpa), Roasters. 10, Cawala (Sawala), Shawnee; the descendants of a Shawnee chief adopted into the tribe. 11, Ihanktonwan (Ihanktonwan), Yankton, so called from their mothers, Yankton women; not an original Sitcanxu gens. 12, Naqpaqpa (Nahpahpa), Take-down (their)-leggings (after returning from war). 13, Apewan-tanka (Apewan tanka), Big manes (of horses).

In 1884 Reverend W.J. Cleveland sent the author the accompanying diagram (figure 32) and the following list of Sitcanxu gentes, containing names which he said were of very recent origin; 1, Sitcanxu proper. 2, Kak'exa (Kakega),Making-a-grating-sound. 3a, Hinhan-cun-wapa (Hinhan-sun-wapa), Toward-the-owl-feather. 3b, Cunikaha-napin (Sunkaha napin), Wears-a-dogskin-around-the-neek, 4, Hi-ha kanhanhan win (Hi-ha kanhanhan win), Woman (win) -the-skin (ha) -of-whose-teeth (hi) -dangles (kanhanhan). 5, Hunku-wanitca (Hunku-wanica), Without-a-mother. 6, Miniskuya-kitc'un (Miniskuya kicun), Wears salt. 7a, Kiyuksa, Breaks-or-cuts-in-two-his-own (custom, etc; probably referring to the marriage law; see Mdewakantonwan gens number 1). 7b, Ti-glabu, Drums-iu-his-own-lodge. 8, Watceunpa (Waceunpa), Boasters. 9, Wagluqe (Wagluhe), Followers, commonly called loafers; A.L. Riggs thinks the word means "in-breeders." 10, Isanyati (Isanyati), Santee (probably derived from the Mdewakantonwan). 11, Wagmeza-yuha, Has corn. 12a, Walexa-on-wohan (Walega-on-wohan), Boils-with-the-paunch-skin. 12b, Waqna (Wahna), Snorts. 13, Oglala-itc'itcaxa (Oglala-icicaga), Makes-himself-an-Oglala. 14, Tiyotcesli (Tiyocesli), Dungs-in-the-lodge. 15, Wajaja (Wazaza), Osage (?). 16, Ieska-tcintca (Ieska-cinca), Interpreter's sons; "half-bloods." 17, Ohe-nonpa (Ohe-nonpa), Two boilings or kettles. 18, Okaxa-witcaca (Okaga-wicasa), Man-of-the-south.

FIG. 32.--Sitcanxu camping circle.

THE ITAZIPTCO

The Itaziptco (Itazipco), in full, Itazipa-tcodan (Itazipa-codan), Without-bows or Sans Arcs, had seven gentes, according to Waanatan or Charger, in 1880 and 1884: 1, Itaziptco-qtca (Itazipco-hca), Real Itaziptco, also called Mini-cala (Mini-sala), Red water. 2, Cina-luta-oin (Sina-luta-oin), Scarlet-cloth-earring. 3, Woluta-yuta, Eat-dried-venison (or buffalo meat) -from-the-hind-quarter. 4, Maz-peg-naka, Wear (pieces-of) -metal-in-the-hair. 5, Tatanka-tcesli (Tatanka-cesli), Dung-of-a-buffalo-bull. 6, Cikcitcela (Siksicela), Bad-ones-of-different-kinds. 7, Tiyopa-otcannunpa (Tiyopa-ocannunpa), Smokes-at-the-entrance-to-the-lodge.

THE SIHA-SAPA OR BLACKFEET

The following are the gentes of the Siha-sapa or Blackfeet as given by Peji or John Grass, in 1880: 1, Siha-sapa-qtca, Real Blackfeet. 2, Kanxi-cun-pegnaka (Kangi-sun-pegnaka), Wears-raven-feathers-in-the-hair. 3, Glagla-hetca (Glagla-heca), Untidy, slovenly ("Too lazy to tie their moccasins"). 4, Wajaje (Wazaze; Kill Eagle's band; named affcer Kill Eagle's father, who was a Wajaje of the Oglala tribe). 5, Hohe, Asiniboin. 6, Wamnuxa-oin (Wamnuga-oin), Shell-ear-pendant. In 1884 Reverend H. Swift obtained the following from Waanatan or Charger as the true list of Siha-sapa gentes: 1, Ti-zaptan (Ti-zaptan), Five lodges. 2, Siha-sapa-qtca, Heal Blackfeet. 3, Hohe, Asiniboin. 4, Kanxi-cun-pegnaka (as above). 5, Wajaje (as above). 6, Wamnuxa-oin (as above). Mr Swift stated that there was no Siha-sapa division called Glagla-hetca.

THE MINIKOOJU

In 1880 Tatanka-wanbli, or Buffalo-bull Eagle, gave the author the names of numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the following list of the Minikooju (Minikoozu), Minikanye-woju (Minikanye-wozu), or Minneconjou gentes. These were given in 1884, with numbers 4 and 9, to Reverend H. Swift by No Heart (Cante-wanica): 1, Unktce-yuta (Unkce-yuta), Eat-dung. 2, Glagla-hetca (Glagla-heca), Slovenly. 3, Cunka-yute-cni (Sunka yute-sni), Eat-no-dogs. 4, Nixe-tanka (Nige-tanka), Big-belly. 5, Wakpokinyan (Wakpokinyan), Flies-along-the-creek (wakpa). 6, Inyan-ha-oin (Inyan-h-oin), Musselshell-earring. 7, Cikcitcela (Siksicela), Bad-ones-of-different-sorts. 8, Wagleza-oin, Watersnake-earring. 9, Wan-nawexa (Wan-nawega), Broken-arrows. The Wannawexa are nearly extinct.

THE OOHE-NONPA OR TWO KETTLES

Of the Oohe-nonpa (Oohe-nonpa), Two Boilings or Two Kettles, Charger knew the names of only two gentes, which he gave to Reverend H. Swift in 1884, as follows: 1, Oohe-nonpa, Two-boilings. 2, Ma-waqota (Ma-wahota), Skin-smeared-with-whitish-earth.

THE OGLALA

The first list of Oglala gentes was obtained in 1879 from Reverend John Robinson and confirmed in 1880 by a member of the tribe. These gentes are as follows: 1, Payabya, Pushed-aside. 2, Tapicletca (Tapisleca), Spleen (of an animal). 3, Kiyuksa, Breaks-his-own (marriage custom). 4, Wajaja (Wazaza. See the Siha-sapa list of gentes). 5, Ite-citca (Ite-sica), Bad-face, or Oglala-qtca (Oglala-hca), Real Oglala. 6, Oyuqpe (Oyuhpe); identical with Oiyuqpe of the next list. 7, Wagluqe (Wagluhe). Followers or Loafers. These were probably the earlier divisions of the Oglala, but by 1884 considerable segregation had been accomplished, as shown by the following list furnished by Reverend W.J. Cleveland: 1, Ite-citca (Ite-sica), Bad-face, under Maqpiya-luta, Scarlet Cloud ("Red Cloud"). 2, Payabyeya, Pushed-aside (under Tasunka-kokipapi, They-fear-even-his-horse; wrongly rendered Man-afraid-of-his-horses). 3, Oyuqpe (Oyuhpe), Thrown down or unloaded. 4, Tapicletca, Spleen (of an animal). 5, Pe-cla (Pe-sla), Baldhead. 6, Tceq-huha-ton (Ceh-huha-ton), Kettle-with-legs. 7, Wablenitca (Wablenica), Orphans. 8, Pe-cla-ptcetcela (Pe-sla-ptecela), Short-baldhead. 9, Tacnahetca (Tasnaheca), Gopher. 10, I-wayusota, Uses-up-by-begging-for, "Uses-up-with-the-mouth." 11, Wakan (Wakan), Mysterious. 12a, Iglaka-teqila (Iglaka-tehila), Refuses-to-move-camp. 12b, Ite-citca, Bad-face (as number 1). 13, Ite-citca-etanhan (Ite-sica-etanhan), "From-bad-face," Part-of-bad-face. 14, Zuzetca-kiyaksa (Zuzeca kiyaksa), Bit-the-snake-in-two. 15, Watceonpa (Wace-onpa), Boasters. 16, Watcape (Wacape), Stabber. 17, Tiyotcesli (Tiyocesli), Dungs-in-the-lodge. 18 and 19, Wagluqe, Followers or Loafers. 20, Oglala, Scattered-her-own. 21, Ieska-tcintca (Ieska-cinca), Interpreter's sous, "Half-bloods."

According to Mr Cleveland the whole Oglala tribe had two other names, Oyuqpe, Thrown-down or unloaded, and Kiyaksa, Bit-it-in-two.

THE HUNKPAPA

The name Hunkpapa (sometimes corrupted into Uncpapa, Oncpapa, etc), should be compared with the Yanktonai name Hunkpatina; both refer to the hunkpa or ends of a tribal circle. A Hunkpapa man in 1880 gave the following as the names of the gentes: 1, Tcanka-oqan (Canka-ohan) Sore-backs (of horses), not the original name. 2, Tce-oqba (Ce-ohba), in which tce (ce) has either a vulgar meaning or is a contraction of tceya (ceya), to weep, and oqba (ohba), sleepy. 3, Tinazipe-citca (Tinazipe-sica), Bad-bows. 4, Talo-nap'in (Talo-napin), Fresh-meat-necklace. 5, Kiglacka (Kiglaska), Ties-his-own. 6, Tcegnake-okisela (Cegnake-okisela), Half-a-breechcloth. 7, Cikcitcela (Siksicela), Bad-ones-of-different-sorts. 8, Wakan (Wakan), Mysterious. 9, Hunska-tcantojuha (Hunska-cantozuha), Legging-tobacco-pouch.

FIG. 33.--Oglala camping circle.

The real foundation for the totemic system exists among the Dakota, as well as among the other Siouan tribes and the Iroquois, in the names of men often being taken from mythical animals, but, in the opinion of Dr S.R. Riggs, the system was never carried to perfection.

DAKOTA SOCIAL CUSTOMS

Among the eastern Dakota the phratry was never a permanent organization, but it was resorted to on special occasions and for various purposes, such as war or the buffalo hunt. The exponent of the phratry was the tiyotipi or "soldiers' lodge," which has been described at length by Dr Riggs.(3)

While no political organization has been known to exist within the historic period over the whole Dakota nation, the traditional alliance of the "Seven Council-fires" is perpetuated in the common name Dakota, signifying allied, friendly.

Among the Dakota it is customary for the rank and title of chief to descend from father to son, unless some other near relative is ambitious and influential enough to obtain the place. The same is claimed also in regard to the rank of brave or soldier, but this position is more dependent on personal bravery. While among the Omaha and Ponka a chief can not lead in war, there is a different custom among the Dakota. The Sisseton chief Standing Buffalo told Little Crow, the leader of the hostile Santee in the Minnesota outbreak of 1862, that, having commenced hostilities with the whites, he must fight it out without help from him, and that, failing to make himself master of the situation, he should not flee through the country of the Sisseton.

Regarding chieftainship among the Dakota, Philander Prescott(4) says:

The chieftainship is of modern date, there being no chiefs hefore
the whites came. The chiefs have little power. The chief's band is
almost always a kin totem which helps to sustain him. The chiefs
have no votes in council; there the majority rules and the voice
of the chief is not decisive till then.

On the death of a chief, the nearest kinsman in the right line is
eligible. If there are no kin, the council of the band can make a
chief. Civil chiefs scarcely ever make a war party.

The Dakota woman owns the tipi. If a man has more wives than one, they have separate tipis, or they arrange to occupy different sides of one. Sometimes the young man goes to live with his wife's kindred, but in such matters there is no fixed rule. To purchase a wife was regarded the most honorable form of marriage, though elopement was sometimes resorted to.

THE ASINIBOIN

The Asiniboin were originally part of the Wazi-kute gens of the Yanktonai (Ihanktonwanna) Dakota. According to the report of E.T. Denig to Governor I.I. Stevens,(5) "the Asiniboin call themselves Dakota, meaning Our people." The Dakota style them Hohe, "rebels," but Denig says the term signifies "fish eaters," and that they may have been so called from the fact that they subsisted principally on fish while in British territory.

Lists of the gentes of this people have been recorded by Denig, Maximilian, and Hayden, but in the opinion of the present writer they need revision.

_Asiniboin gentes_

_Denig_ _Maximilian_ _Hayden_ We-che-ap-pe-nah, Itschcabine, Les Wi-ic-ap-i-nah, 60 lodges, under gens des filles. Girls' band. Les Yeux Gris E-an-to-ah, Stone Jatonabine, Les I'-an-to'-an. Indians, the gens des roches, Either Inyan original the Stone Indians tonwan, Stone appellation for of the English. Village or the whole nation; Call themselves Ihanktonwan, End 50 lodges, under "Eascab." village or Premier qui Voile. Yankton. J.O.D.) Wah-to-pan-ah, Otaopabine, Les Wah-to'-pap-i-nah Canoe Indians, 100 gens des canots. lodges, under Serpent. Wah-to-pah-han-da-toh, Watopachnato, Les Wah-to'-pah-an-da-to, Old Gauche's gens, gens de l'age. Gens du Gauche or i.e., Those who Left Hand. row in canoes; 100 lodges, under Trembling Hand. Wah-ze-ah we-chas-ta, O-see-gah (of Wah-zi-ah, or Northern People (so Lewis and Clark, To-kum-pi, Gens du called because they Discoveries, p. Nord. came from the north in 43, 1806). 1839); 60 lodges, under Le Robe de Vent.

The following gentes have not been collated: Of Maximilian's list, Otopachgnato, les gens du large, possibly a duplication, by mistake, of Watopachnato, les gens de l'age; Tschantoga, les gens des bois; Tanin-tauei, les gens des osayes; Chabin, les gens des montagnes. Of Hayden's list, Min'-i-shi-nak'-a-to, gens du lac.

The correct form in the Yankton dialect of the first name is Witcinyanpina (Wicinyanpina), girls; of the second, probably Inyantonwan (Inyan tonwan); the third and fourth gentes derive their names from the verb watopa, to paddle a canoe; the fifth is Waziya witcacta (Waziya wicasta). Tschan in Tschantoga is the German notation of the Dakota tcan (can), tree, wood. Cha in Chabin is the German notation of the Dakota word he, a high ridge of hills, a mountain.

In his report to Governor Stevens, from which the following information respecting the Asiniboin is condensed, Denig used the term "band" to denote a gens of the tribe, and "clans" instead of corporations, under which latter term are included the feasting and dancing societies and the orders of doctors, shamans, or theurgists.

These bands are distinct and occupy different parts of the country, although they readily combine when required by circumstances, such as scarcity of game or an attack by a large body of the enemy.

The roving tribes call no general council with other nations; indeed, they are suspicious even of those with whom they have been at peace for many years, so that they seldom act together in a large body. With the exception of the Hidatsa, Mandau, and Arikara, who are stationary and live in a manner together, the neighboring tribes are quite ignorant of one another's government, rarely knowing even the names of the principal chiefs and warriors.

In all these tribes there is no such thing as hereditary rank. If a son of a chief is wanting in bravery, generosity, or other desirable qualities, he is regarded merely as an ordinary individual; at the same time it is true that one qualification for the position of chief consists in having a large number of kindred in the tribe or gens. Should there be two or more candidates, equally capable and socially well connected, the question would be decided on the day of the first removal of the camp, or else in council by the principal men. In the former case, each man would follow the leader whom he liked best, and the smaller body of Indians would soon adhere to the majority.

Women are never acknowledged as chiefs, nor have they anything to say in the council. A chief would be deposed for any conduct causing general disgust or dissatisfaction, such as incest (marrying within his gens) or lack of generosity. Though crime in the abstract would not tend to create dissatisfaction with a chief, yet if he murdered, without sufficient cause, one whose kindred were numerous, a fight between the two bodies of kindred would result and an immediate separation of his former adherents would ensue; but should the murdered person be without friends, there would be no attempt to avenge the crime, and the people would fear the chief only the more. To preserve his popularity a chief must give away all his property, and he is consequently always the poorest man in the band; but he takes care to distribute his possessions to his own kindred or to the rich, from whom he might draw in times of need.

The duties of a leading chief are to study the welfare of his people, by whom he is regarded as a father, and whom he addresses as his children. He must determine where the camp should be placed and when it should be moved; when war parties are advisable and of whom they should be composed--a custom radically different from that of the Omaha and Ponka,--and all other matters of like character. Power is tacitly committed to the leading chief, to be held so long as he governs to general satisfaction, subject, however, to the advice of the soldiers. Age, debility, or any other natural defect, or incapacity to act, advise, or command, would lead a chief to resign in favor of a younger man.

When war is deemed necessary, any chief, soldier, or brave warrior has the privilege of raising and leading a war party, provided he can get followers. The powers of a warrior and civil chief may be united in one person, thus differing from the Omaha and Ponka custom. The leading chief may and often does lead the whole band to war; in fact, it devolves on him to lead any general expedition.

The Akitcita (Akicita), soldiers or guards (policemen), form an important body among the Asiniboin as they do among the other Siouan tribes. These soldiers, who are chosen from the band on account of their bravery, are from 25 to 45 years of age, steady, resolute, and respected; and in them is vested the power of executing the decisions of the council. In a camp of 200 lodges these soldiers would number from 50 to 60 men; their lodge is pitched in the center of the camp and is occupied by some of them all the time, though the whole body is called together only when the chief wishes a public meeting or when their hunting regulations are to be decided. In their lodge all tribal and intertribal business is transacted, and all strangers, both white men and Indians, are domiciled. The young men, women, and children are not allowed to enter the soldiers' lodge during the time that tribal matters are being considered, and, indeed, they are seldom, if ever, seen there. All the choicest parts of meat and the tongues of animals killed in hunting are reserved for the soldiers' lodge, and are furnished by the young men from time to time. A tax is levied on the camp for the tobacco smoked there, which is no small quantity, and the women are obliged to furnish wood and water daily. This lodge corresponds in some degree to the two sacred lodges of the Hanga gens of the Omaha.

Judging from the meager information which we possess concerning the Asiniboin kinship system, the latter closely resembles that of the Dakota tribes, descent being in the male line. After the smallpox epidemic of 1838, only 400 thinly populated lodges out of 1,000 remained, relationship was nearly annihilated, property lost, and but few, the very young and very old, were left to mourn the loss. Remnants of bands had to be collected and property acquired, and several years elapsed ere the young people were old enough to marry.

The names of the wife's parents are never pronounced by the husband; to do so would excite the ridicule of the whole camp. The husband and the father-in-law never look on each other if they can avoid it, nor do they enter the same lodge. In like manner the wife never addresses her father-in-law.

A plurality of wives is required by a good hunter, since in the labors of the chase women are of great service to their husbands. An Indian with one wife can not amass property, as she is constantly occupied in household labors, and has no time for preparing skins for trading. The first wife and the last are generally the favorites, all others being regarded as servants. The right of divorce lies altogether with the husband; if he has children by his wife, he seldom puts her away. Should they separate, all the larger children--those who require no further care--remain with the father, the smaller ones departing with the mother. When the women have no children they are divorced without scruple.

After one gets acquainted with Indians the very opposite of taciturnity exists. The evenings are devoted to jests and amusing stories and the days to gambling. The soldiers' lodge, when the soldiers are not in session, is a very theater of amusement; all sorts of jokes are made and obscene stories are told, scarcely a woman in the camp escaping the ribaldry; but when business is in order decorum must prevail.

The personal property of these tribes consists chiefly of horses. Possession of an article of small value is a right seldom disputed, if the article has been honestly obtained; but the possession of horses being almost the principal object in life of an Indian of the plains, the retention of them is a matter of great uncertainty, if he has not the large force necessary to defend them. Rights to property are based on the method of acquirement, as (1) articles found; (2) those made by themselves (the sole and undisputed property of the makers); (3) those stolen from enemies, and (4) those given or bought. Nothing is given except with a view to a gift in return. Property obtained by gambling is held by a very indefinite tenure.

Murder is generally avenged by the kindred of the deceased, as among the Omaha and Ponka. Goods, horses, etc, may be offered to expiate the crime, when the murderer's friends are rich in these things, and sometimes they are accepted; but sooner or later the kindred of the murdered man will try to avenge him. Everything except loss of life or personal chastisement can be compensated among these Indians. Rape is nearly unknown, not that the crime is considered morally wrong, but the punishment would be death, as the price of the woman would be depreciated and the chances of marriage lessened. Besides, it would be an insult to her kindred, as implying contempt of their feelings and their power of protection. Marriage within the gens is regarded as incest and is a serious offense.

THE OMAHA

The gentes keeping the sacred pipes and those having the sacred tents are designated among the Omaha by appropriate designs. The sacred tent of the Wejincte was the tent of war, those of the Hanga were the tents associated with the buffalo hunt and the cultivation of the soil. The diameter of the circle (figure 34) represents the road traveled by the tribe when going on the buffalo hunt, numbers 1 and 10 being the gentes which were always in the van. The tribe was divided into half tribes, each half tribe consisting of five gentes. The sacred tents of the Omaha and all the objects that were kept in them are now in the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge, Massachusetts.

FIG. 34.--Omaha camping circle.

The two groups of gentes forming the half tribes or phratries, sometimes composed of subgentes or sections, are as follows:

_Hangacenu gentes_--1, Wejincte, Elk. 2, Inke-sabe, Black shoulder, a Buffalo gens; the custodian of the real pipes of peace. 3, Hanga or Ancestral, a Buffalo gens; the regulator of all the so-called pipes of peace and keeper of two sacred tents. 4, catada, meaning uncertain; in four subgentes: _a_, Wasabe hit'aji, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear; _b_, Wajinga cataji, Eat-no-small-birds; Bird people; _c_, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}e-*d*a it'aji, Touch-no-buffalo-head; Eagle people; _d_, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}e-'in, Carry-a-turtle-on-the-back; Turtle people. 5, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}anze, Wind people.

_Ictasanda gentes_--6, Mancinka-gaxe, Earth-lodge-makers; coyote and wolf people. 7, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}e-sinde, Buffalo-tail; a Buffalo-calf people. 8, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}a-*d*a, Deer-head; Deer people. 9, Ingce-jide, Red dung; a Buffalo-calf gens. 10, Icta-sanda, meaning uncertain ("gray eyes"?), said to refer to the effect of lightning on the eyes. This last gens consists of Thunder and Reptile people.

The Inke-sabe formerly consisted of four subgentes. When the gens met as a whole, the order of sitting was that shown in figure 35. In the tribal circle the Wacigije camped next to the Hanga gens, and the other Inke-sabe people came next to the Wejincte; but in the gentile "council fire" the first became last and the last first.

The Iekice or Criers.

The Naqceit'a-baji, Those-who-touch-no-charcoal.

The three subgentes here named sat on the same side of fireplace.

The Hanga formerly had four subgeutes, but two of them, the Waciitan or Workers, and the Ha-{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}u-it'aji, Touches-no-green(-corn)-husks, are extinct, the few survivors having joined the other subgentes. The remaining subgentes are each called by several names: 1, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}csanha-{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}acican, pertaining to the sacred skin of an albino buffalo cow, or Wacabe, Dark buffalo; or Hanga-qti, real Hanga; or {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}e-ceze-cataji, Do-not-eat-buffalo-tongues. 2, Janha-{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}acican, pertaining to the sacred (cottonwood) bark; or Waqcexe-acin, Keeps-the-"spotted-object" (the sacred pole); or Jan-waqube-acin, Keeps-the-sacred-or-mysterious-wood (pole); or {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}a-waqube-cataji, Does-not-eat-the-sacred (mysterious)-buffalo-sides; or Minxa-san-cataji-ki *P*etan-cataji, Eat-no-geese-or-swans-or-cranes.

FIG. 35.--Inke-sabe gentile assembly. A, The Wacigije, Maze or Whorl,
or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The
Watanzi-jide-cataji, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.

In the tribal circle the Wacabe camped next to the Inke-sabe, and the Waqecxe-acin were next to the Wasabe-hit'aji subgens of the catada; but in the Hanga gentile assembly the positions were reversed, the Wacabe sitting on the right side of the fire and the Waqcexe-acin on the left.

The Wasabe-hit'aji subgens of the catada was divided into four sections: Black-bear, Raccoon, Grizzly-bear, and Porcupine. The only survivors are the Black-bear and Raccoon (Singers).

The Wajinga cataji subgens was divided into four sections: 1, Hawk people, under the chief Standing Hawk (now dead). 2, Blackbird people, under the chief Wajina-gahiga. B, Starling or Thunder people. 4, Owl and Magpie people.

The {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}anze gens was divided into at least two subgentes, the Keepers of the pipe and the Wind people. Lion, of the Deer-head gens, said that there were four subgentes, but this was denied in 1882 by Two Crows of the Hanga gens.

The Mancinka-gaxe subgentes, as given by Lion, were: 1, Coyote and Wolf people. 2, In'e-waqube-acin, Keepers-of-the-mysterious-stones. 3, Niniba-t'an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 4, Minxa-san-wet'aji. Touch(es)-not-swans. Cange-ska, White Horse, chief of the Mancin-ka-gaxe (in 1878-1880) named three subgentes, thus: 1, Qube, Mysterious person, a modern name (probably including the Mi{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}asi and In'e-waqube-acin, and certainly consisting of the descendants of the chief Wa-jinga-sabe or Blackbird). 2, Niniba-t'an. 3, Minxa-san-wet'aji.

The {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}a-*d*a were divided into four parts: 1, Niniba-t'an, Keepers-of-the-pipe, under Lion. 2, Naqce-it'aji, Touches-no-charcoal, under Boy Chief. 3, Thunder-people, under Pawnee Chief. 4, Deer-people, under Sinde-xanxan (Deer's-)tail-shows-red-at-intervals (-as-it-bounds-away).

The Ictasanda gens also was in four parts: 1, Niniba-t'an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 2, Real Ictasanda people, (Numbers 1 and 2 were consolidated prior to 1880.) 3, Wacetan or Reptile people, sometimes called Keepers-of-the-claws-of-a-wildcat. 4, Real Thunder people, or Those-who-do-not-touch-a-clamshell, or Keepers-of-the-clamshell-and-the-tooth-of-a-black-bear.

The social organization of the Omaha has been treated at length by the author in his paper on Omaha Sociology.(6)

THE PONKA

The Ponka tribal circle was divided equally between the Tcinju and Wajaje half-tribes. To the former belonged two phratries of two gentes each, i.e., numbers 1 to 4, inclusive, and to the latter two similar phratries, including gentes 5 to 8.

FIG. 36.--Ponka camping circle.

Tcinju half-tribe--Thunder or Fire phratry: Gens 1, Hisada, Legs-stretched-ont-stiff (refers to a dead quadruped); Thunder people. Gens 2, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear. Wind-makers or War phratry: Gens 3, cixida, Wildcat (in two subgentes: 1, Sinde-agce, Wears-tails, i.e., locks of hair; Naqce-it'aji, Does-not-touch-charcoal; and Wasc{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}u-it'aji, Does-not-tonch-verdigris. 2, Wami-it'aji, Does-not-touch-blood). Gens 4, Nika-*d*a-{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}na, "Bald human-head;" Elk people (in at least three subgentes: 1, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}e-sinde-it'aji, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-tail; 2, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}e ceze cataji, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues; 3, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}aqti ki Anpan cataji, Does-not-eat-deer-and-elk).

Wajaje half-tribe--Earth phratry: Gens 5, Ma{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}an, Medicine, a buffalo gens, also called {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}e-sinde it'aji, Does-not-touch-buffalo-tails (in two subgentes: 1, Real Ponka, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe; 2, Gray Ponka). Gens 6, Wacabe, Dark buffalo (in two subgentes: 1, Buffalo tail, or,{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}e-ceze cataji, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues, or {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}e-jinga cataji, Does-not-eat-a-very-young-buffalo-calf; 2, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}e-*d*a it'aji, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-head or skull). Water phratry (?): Gens 7, Wajaje, Osage (in two subgentes at present: 1, Dark Osage, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe, or Wase{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}u-it'aji, Does-not-touch-verdigris, or Naqce-it'aji, Does-not-touch-charcoal; 2, Gray Osage, or Wes'a wet'aji, Does-not-touch-serpents; 3, Necta, an Owl subgens, now extinct). Gens 8, Nuqe, Reddish-yellow buffalo (miscalled Nuxe, Ice). Subgentes uncertain, but there are four taboo names: Does-not-touch-a-Buffalo-head (or skull), Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-calf, Does-not-touch-the-yellow-hide-of-a-buffalo-calf, and Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues.

THE QUAPAW OR KWAPA

When the Kwapa were discovered by the French they dwelt in five villages, described by the early chroniclers as the Imaha (Imaham, Imahao), Capaha, Toriman, Tonginga (Doginga, Topinga), and Southois (Atotchasi, Ossouteouez). Three of these village names are known to all the tribe: 1, U{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a'qpa-qti, Real Kwapa; 2, Ti'-u-a'-dci-man (Toriman), Ti'-u-a-dci' man (of Mrs Stafford); 3, U-zu'-ti-u'-we (Southois, etc). The fourth was Tan'wan ji'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Small village. Judging from analogy and the fact that the fifth village, Imaha, was the farthest up Arkansas river, that village name must have meant, as did the term Omaha, the upstream people.

The following names of Kwapa gentes were obtained chiefly from Alphonsus Valliere, a full-blood Kwapa, who assisted the author at Washington, from December, 1890, to March, 1891:

Nan'panta, a Deer gens; Onphun enikaci{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Elk gens; Qidc e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Eagle gens; Wajin'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a enikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Small-bird gens; Han'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Han'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a or Ancestral gens; Wasa' e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Black-bear gens; Mantu' e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Grizzly-bear (?) gens; Te e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Buffalo gens (the ordinary buffalo); Tuqe'-nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Reddish-yellow Buffalo gens (answering to Nuqe of the Ponka, Yuqe of the Kansa, cuqe of the Osage); Jawe' nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Beaver gens; Hu i'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Fish gens; Mika'q'e ni'kaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Star gens; Pe'tan e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Crane gens; Can{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}e'-nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Dog (or Wolf?) gens; Wakan'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}a e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Thunder-being gens; Tandcan' e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a or Tan'dcan tan'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Panther or Mountain-lion gens; Ke-ni'kaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Turtle gens; Wes'a e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Serpent gens; Mi e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, the Sun gens. Valliere was unable to say on which side of the tribal circle each gens camped, but he gave the personal names of some members of most of the gentes.

On visiting the Kwapa, in the northeastern corner of Indian Territory, in January, 1894, the author recorded the following, with the assistance of Mrs Stafford, a full-blood Kwapa of about 90 years of age: Among the Hanka gentes are the Han'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a tan{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Large Han{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a or Mancka' e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Crawfish people; Wajin{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Small-bird people; Jin'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Small-bird people; Te ni'kaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Buffalo people, or Han'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a ji'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Small Han{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a; An'pan e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Elk people; Qidca' e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Eagle people; Tuqe'-nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Reddish-yellow Buffalo people; and Can{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}e'-nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Dog (or Wolf?) people. Mrs Stafford knew that five gentes were not on the Han{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a side, three of them, Hu iŽ'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Fish people, Ni'kia'ta (meaning unknown), and Ke-ni'kaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Turtle people, being on the same side; Mantu' e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Lion people; and Ti'ju (answering to the Osage Tsi{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}u, the Kansa Tciju, and the Ponka Tcinju), meaning not obtained, which last is extinct. Mrs Stafford could not tell on which side camped any of the following gentes given by Valliere: Maqe, Wes'a, Wasa, Jawe, Mikaq'e, Mi, etc. The only persons capable of giving the needed information are among those Kwapa who reside on Osage reservation. According to George Redeagle and Buffalo Calf, two full-blood Quapaw, the Maqe-nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Upper World people, were identical with the Wakan{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}a e'nikaci'{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, Thunder-being people, of Valliere. These two men said, also, that there was no single gens known as the Han{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, that name belonging to a major division, probably a half-tribe.

THE KANZE OR KANSA

FIG. 37.--Kansa camping circle.

Among the Omaha the Yata people are those who camp on the yata or left side of the tribal circle; the Ictunga people, those who camp on the Ictunga or right side. The tribe is divided into seven phratries, or, as the Kansa style each, wayunmindan, (i.e., those who sing together), as follows:

_Phratries_ _Gentes_ _Subgentes_
I 1. Manyinka, _a_, Manyinka
Earth, or tanga, Large
Earth-lodge-makers. earth. _b_,
Manyinka
gaxe,&Manyinka
jinga, Small
earth.
II 2. Ta, Deer, or _a_, Taqtci, Real
Wajaje, Osage. deer. _b_, Ta
yatcaji,
Eats-no-deer, or
Ta ts'eye,
Kills-deer, or
Wadjueta ts'eye,
Kills-quadrupeds.
III 3. Panka, Ponka _a_, Pank
unikacinga, Ponka
people. _b_,
Qundj-alan,
Wear-red-cedar
(-fronds)-on-their-heads.
III 4. Kanze, Kansa, or _a_, Tadje unikacinga,
Tci hacin, Wind people, or Ak'a
Lodge-in-the-rear; unikacinga, South-wind
Last-lodge. people, or Tci hacinqtci,
Real Tci hacin,
Camp-behind-all. _b_,
Tadje jinga, Small-wind,
or Mannanhind-je, Makes-a
breeze-near-the-ground.
III 5. Wasabe, Black _a_, Wasabeqtci, Real
bear. Black-bear, or Sakun
wayatce, Eats-raw
(-food). _b_, Sindjale,
Wears-tails (locks of
hair) -on-the-head.
I 6. Wanaxe, Ghost Not learned.
IV 7. Ke k'in, Not learned.
Carries-a-turtle-on-his-back.
V 8. Min k'in, Not learned.
Carries-the-sun-on-his-back.
I 9. Upan, Elk _a_, Upan-qtci, Real elk,
or Mansanha, referring to
the color of the fur.
_b_, Sanhange, meaning
unknown.
VI 10. Queya, White eagle _a_, Huesada,
Legs-stretched-out-stiff;
Queyunikacinga,
White-eagle people. _b_,
Wabin ijupye,
Wade-in-blood; Wabin
unikacinga, Blood people.
VI 11. Han, Night _a_, Han nikacinga, Night
people. _b_, Dakan
manyin, Walks-shining
(Star people?)
VII 12. Ibatc'e, _a_, Queyego jinga,
Holds-the-firebrand-to-sacred-pipes, Hawk-that-has-a-tail-like-a-"king-eagle;"
or Hanga jinga, small Hanga. "Little-one-like-an-eagle."
_b_, Mika unikacinga,
Raccoon people, or Mika
qla jinga, Small lean
racoon.
VII 13. Hanga tanga, Large Hanga; Hanga A black eagle with spots. Subgentes not
utanandji, recorded.
Hanga-apart-from-the-rest, or Ta
sindje qaga, Stiff-deer-tail.
II 14. Tcedunga, Buffalo (bull), or _a_, Tcedunga, Buffalo with dark hair.
Sitanga, Big feet. _b_, Yuqe, Reddish-yellow Buffalo. (See
Ponka Nuqe, Osage cuqe, Kwapa Tuqe.)
V 15. Tci ju wactage, Tci-ju (Red-hawk people?). Subgentes not
peacemaker. recorded.
II 16. Lu nikacinga, Thunder-being Subgentes not recorded.
people; Ledan unikacinga, Gray-hawk
people.

Great changes have occurred among the Kansa since they have come in contact with the white race; but when Say visited them in the early part of the present century they still observed their aboriginal marriage laws. No Kansa could take a wife from a gens on his side of the tribal circle, nor could he marry any kinswoman, however remote the relationship might be. There are certain gentes that exchange personal names (jaje kik'uebe au), as among the Osage. Civil and military distinctions were based on bravery and generosity. Say informs us that the Kansa had been at peace with the Osage since 1806; that they had intermarried freely with them, so that "in stature, features, and customs they are more and more closely approaching that people." He states also that the head chief of the Kansa was Gahinge Wadayinga, Saucy Chief (which he renders "Fool Chief"), and that the ten or twelve underchiefs did not seem to have the respect of the people.

Unmarried females labored in the fields, served their parents, carried wood and water, and cooked. When the eldest daughter married she controlled the lodge, her mother, and all the sisters; the latter were always the wives of the same man. Presents were exchanged when a youth took his first wife. On the death of the husband the widow scarified herself, rubbed her person with clay, and became careless about her dress for a year. Then the eldest brother of the deceased married her without any ceremony, regarding her children as his own. When the deceased left no brother (real or potential) the widow was free to select her next husband. Fellowhood (as in cases of Damon and Pythias, David and Jonathan) often continues through life.

The Kansa had two kinds of criers or heralds: 1, the wadji'panyin or village crier; 2, the ie'kiye'(Omaha and Ponka i'eki'ce. In 1882, Sansile (a woman) was hereditary wadji'panyin of the Kansa, having succeeded her father, Pezihi, the last male crier. At the time of an issue (about 1882) Sansile's son-in-law died, so she, being a mourner, could not act as crier; hence her office devolved on K'axe of the Taqtci subgens. In that year one of the Ta yatcaji subgens (of the Taqtci or Deer gens) was iekiye number 1. Iekiye number 2 belonged to the Tadje or Kanze (Wind) gens.

THE OSAGE

In the Osage nation there are three primary divisions, which are tribes in the original acceptation of that term. These are known as the Tsi{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}u utse pecun*d*a, the Seven Tsi{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}u fireplaces, Han{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a utsse pecu*d*a, the Seven Han{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a fireplaces, and Wa{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}a{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}e utse pecu*d*a, the Seven Osage fireplaces. Each "fireplace" is a gens, so that there are twenty-one gentes in the Osage nation. The Seven Han{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a fireplaces were the last to join the nation, according to the tradition of the Tsi{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}u wacta{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}e people. When this occurred, the seven Han{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a gentes were reckoned as five, and the seven Osage gentes as two, in order to have not more than seven gentes on the right side of the tribal circle.