Chapter III: Part 3

Yet even under these arrangements, I have found a beginner sitting huddled in a corner of the railway carriage when we have started before dawn for a big tour. "Where are you off to?" I said, thinking he was out with a Guide. "With your party," was the reply. What could I do? It is not easy to turn a person out of a train at 5.45 a.m. on a cold morning. I said weakly, "Did you not see the notice which said this was a run for 3rd-class runners only?" He said, "Yes, but I thought I could keep up." So there he was, and we took him through and though he was very slow uphill and kept us all back in this case, he ran down without delaying us. People often put their own capacity higher than do the people they want to run with and it is very difficult to be tactful.

Again most people would not think it necessary to warn runners against deserting their party. Yet they often do and it is not usually the beginner who is the culprit here. Perhaps he cannot run quick enough to get away! I shall always remember a run in charge of a tour when I was with a lot of novices. Another experienced runner accompanied me officially to help. I chose what I thought the easiest way to start, and he wanted to try another route at the top and went off saying he would join us below a wood. When we reached the part where I thought we should rejoin, I waited and shouted, but he did not appear. So we went on to another post where we had lunch, and then I began to get anxious as this runner never turned up. Anything might have happened to him. He might have gone over a rock or into a tree or even only be tied up in one of those tangled falls when it is practically impossible to extricate oneself. It was no good our trying to look for him then, so after about two hours' delay, I took my party down to the valley and the first person who met us in the village was our lost companion. He chaffed us for being so late as he had run down very quickly and had had his tea ages ago.

No party going beyond the Nursery slopes should consist of fewer than three. One to go for help in case of need, the other to stay with the third runner, who may need help. Needless to say, people who know the mountains well, go off alone with impunity. When I asked one of these lonely runners what would happen if he hurt himself and was benighted, he told me he always carried sufficient morphia to put him out of his agony in case of need. This was, no doubt, all right from his point of view, but what of the people who might go out to look for him among the infinite possible runs with Ski tracks in every direction.

No sporting runner would ever refuse help to a lame duck, though pretty bad cases of selfishness have been recorded.

There is one point, which does not always strike people, and that is the danger of cutting a track over a difficult place. Beginners will usually follow a track instead of working by their map. For instance on the Muottas Muraigl run at Pontresina, if once a rash runner cuts a track straight across from the restaurant to the valley, crowds will probably follow it, though they may be warned against it. This is a very dangerous slope under certain conditions as was shown this Winter, when a runner going along its top was carried down to the bottom of the valley by the avalanche he started.

I have one track left on my conscience; when a few of us went down what might have been a dangerous place under different conditions to those we found. Luckily it was not a way most people would have wished to follow as it apparently led nowhere and hardly looked attractive.

The slower mover always has the right of way when Ski-ing, so that no runner ought to shout to those ahead of him to get out of his way. Needless to say this does not apply to a runner out of control, who may be dashing unwillingly into someone in front of him when, for both their sakes, a friendly warning is advisable!

It is the business of every Ski-er to avoid obstacles and the slower mover may be looked on as such in just the same way as a rock or a tree. I was amused one day at Pontresina when a crowd of us were going up the village street and met a lady on Skis being held back as she went downhill by two friends on either side of her. It was the first time I had ever thought of someone going down hill being the slower mover in relation to those climbing.

Nursery slopes are for the practice of turns and the individual who uses them for straight running while a lot of people are practising is abhorred. The same applies to jumps on the Nursery slopes. These are so easily made where other people are not practising that it is selfish to come plunging down into a crowd of devotees to turns. When the Nursery slopes are empty, it is great fun to practise straight running down them and no one will object.

One jolly thing about Ski runners is that they seldom ridicule one another or laugh at falls in any but a friendly way. There is great rivalry and daring to greater effort, but ill-natured ridicule is seldom heard. Perhaps this is due to the fact that most people who live in glass houses do not throw stones. Everybody who tries to improve his Ski-ing is bound to fall and it is better not to set the fashion of laughing at others in difficulties.

There will always be some people who like to look on at tests as "Free entertainment without tax," but if they could hear the comments on their behaviour and probably on their own lack of prowess they would soon give up the habit.

Anyone who is really keen to get on and who will go on practising and accept advice may be sure of sympathy and help. Ski-ing with all its dangers and need for combined effort seems to bring out the best of people and to produce the very best spirit of goodwill and tolerance.

Going uphill in soft snow, every strong member should take a turn at cutting the track. It is often heavy work, and an energetic leader may not like to ask for help. The best plan is to work by time, the leader falling out at the end of his shift and letting the party pass him till he takes his position at the rear and the second man becomes the leader and so on.

People who are wise, will avoid stepping on the Skis of the man ahead. This is often difficult as instinct makes one want to go faster than the person ahead, just as a wheeler in a tandem will usually try to catch up the leader. The easiest way to avoid overlapping is to keep step. Push forward the right foot, when the man ahead pushes forward his right foot and then the left. This gives a rhythm to the uphill work, which also seems to minimize effort. Anyone who has experienced the irritation caused by his Skis being constantly touched by the runner behind while plodding uphill will learn to spare another the same nuisance.

When running straight down a steep slope make sure that there is no one ahead whom you might run into and no one below on either side, who might traverse across the slope you propose to run down. This is especially necessary in a gap between trees. Another member of your party might be among the trees below and suddenly come out into the open, traversing to the other side. When straight running at any speed, only the best Ski runners can turn suddenly to avoid a difficulty, and a nasty collision may occur if care be not exercised.

When a crowd of people are taking their Skis by train, a great deal of trouble may be avoided in getting the mass of Skis out of the train if these are tied neatly together.

A pair of Skis tied near the tips and behind the bindings is easy to handle, while a pair of Skis put together by slipping one through the toe-strap of the other is a great nuisance.

Skis piled together soon become very like a heap of spillikins if not carefully handled and a good deal of damage may be done to them as well as delay to the train if Ski-ers are careless in this small matter.

Another good plan is for the Ski-ers to form themselves into a queue and to hand out all the Skis along the line, till they can be easily distributed where there is space. The beginner is apt to hunt anxiously for his own pair, which may be at the bottom of the pile, and while he pulls and tugs with but little success, other people are waiting in vain for a chance to get their Skis out. This is especially the case on funicular railways, where space is very limited in the stations. Different nationalities travelling together add considerably to the confusion and the railway officials are usually thankful to anyone who will take charge and get a line formed and the Skis handed out tidily.

These hints may seem unnecessary to a great many people, but no matter. I have had so much of my own time wasted by this sort of tiresome lack of sense that I venture to suggest a means of saving time and temper for others.

Ski runners should remember that sledges and pedestrians have the right of way on a road. All the fields are open to the Ski runner and he should not monopolize a road. In most parts of Switzerland there is a law by which everyone has right of way everywhere where the snow lies--so long as it is not enclosed ground. This was brought home to my family rather vividly, when we lived at Davos, by a shooting gallery being set up on our land in front of our house. We had no power to prevent it and there it remained for the winter. At the same time, Ski runners should respect the property of other people, and here I would like to make two appeals to British runners.

Firstly, that we will do our best to avoid damaging young trees. (Old trees can probably look after themselves where the Ski-er is concerned as they are usually stronger than he is.)

Secondly, that we should treat the inhabitants of the country with as much courtesy as possible. The peasant, over whose land we run, makes very little out of the tourist business and has other things to think about rather than sport. He is usually courteous and friendly and always ready to help us when in difficulties. Let us return his hospitality be treating him with courtesy. School teachers have told me that they have great difficulty in persuading the children to greet foreigners because these so seldom respond. Yet few things are more pleasant than the friendly "Grüsse," or "Grüss Gott," or "Leb wohl," with which one is greeted by the people of the country. We can answer in English if we do not know how to answer in German, but do let us answer and, thereby, prove ourselves as friendly as our hosts.

Another matter, which is not always understood by beginners on the snow fields is that when an Alpine Club or local Ski Club hut is used, a fee should be paid to the funds which support the Hut. These Huts are expensive to build and their upkeep is a great tax on the Clubs. British runners can either join the local Club, when they can use the Huts by day for nothing, or they can pay the advertised fee for whatever use they make of them.

A notice is always posted in the Hut showing the various charges, but when no one is there to collect the money, it is left to the honour of the guests to pay it. A money-box can be found in all huts within Switzerland proper, but as these boxes are not safe from marauders near the frontier, the Ski runner has to send the money in by post. At the Boval hut, for instance, above the Morteratsch Glacier, a supply of money order forms will be found hanging near a door. All the leader of the party has to do is to collect the money from his members, take one of the forms and pay the money into any post office, whence it is sent to the H.Q. of the Club.

Huts should invariably be left tidy. This also is a matter of honour. The doors are unlocked always in order that people who may need hospitality, in case of distress, can find shelter. Blankets can be borrowed. Wood is usually provided for firing and there may even be a reserve of food, all of which should be respected. Before the party leaves, blankets should be folded, shutters should be shut, snow swept out and debris buried outside, or what can be used as fuel put away tidily in the kitchen. Then the door should be shut carefully and the hut left the better, rather than the worse off for having given hospitality.

SNOW AND LIGHT

Full descriptions of the different types of snow which must be negotiated by the Ski-runner will be found in Mr. Arnold Lunn's book, "Alpine Ski-ing."

It is only necessary for me, therefore, to describe the four main types, namely, soft, hard, crust and sticky snow.

Soft snow in winter is the new powder snow, which is to be found after a fall or on North slopes where sun and wind have not spoilt it. It is the ideal snow for the luxurious runner, especially two days after it has fallen, when it has settled down and a hard frost has converted it into crystal powder. A run through crystallized snow, which tinkles as the Skis cut through it, is beyond description.

Even a bad runner will find that he can do marvels as the snow seems literally to help him in all his experiments. I have known a day when a blinding blizzard has started blowing the snow into my face and I have run fast along the bottom of a valley with my eyes shut. The Skis kept to the lowest line and ran safely and steadily through this powder snow at a low gradient. It is not suggested that blind running should be indulged in as a rule and I only quote this case to show how helpful is good powder snow.

The Telemark is the usual turn in soft snow. Christiania and jump turns can also be used by people who are proficient and strong, but they require both skill and strength.

Soft snow is usually found on North slopes or at the bottom of shady valleys or even behind any ridge which protects it from the sun or wind. Also among trees which shelter it. Tracks ruin it in time so that it is usually wise to sidle off the track and try new snow beside it.

Luckily for the experienced runner, most beginners usually behave rather like sheep, preferring tracks to exploring on their own. The result is that perfect snow can often be found alongside the beaten track, and when this gets spoilt, it is only necessary to go a little further afield in order to get a good run. Then, as more and more people beat down the track it becomes hard and very amusing running can be had there.

Hard snow is of two types--a beaten track or a hard crust where the sun has melted the surface and the frost at night has frozen it, so that it will bear the weight of the Ski-runner. When this is really solid enough to allow of side-slipping and stem, or Christiania turns, it is very trustworthy and easy to negotiate. At first, however, it intimidates the beginner, because it is very fast. As time goes on and he becomes accustomed to the skid and rattle of hard snow, he will find that his horror turns into pleasure because he can trust it. The Nursery slopes become hard after two or three days and will provide useful experience for coping with such snow on a run.

The lifted stem and Christiania are the best turns on hard snow. A Telemark is apt to skid too much.

Crust is the bugbear of all runners and is out and away the most difficult to tackle. It may be hard, and then with nothing apparent on the surface to warn you, the Skis break through and catch in the crust and down you go. When crust is about, let someone else lead, and then profit by his experience.

There are many forms of crust, all of which may be met on the same run, and when wind has been at work, there may be crust on North slopes and not on South. After rain too, when the surface has been soaked and a frost follows, crust will be found everywhere.

Sticky snow is usually due to the effect of the sun or to Fohn wind or thaw. It is easily coped with by proper waxing of the running surfaces, but the sudden sticking of the skis, which have been running well over wet snow in the open, when they get into cold powder snow under trees or in shadow, is very disconcerting.

The same is apt to happen when people have dried their Skis in the sun by sticking them on end while lunching. The sun not only dries them but warms them so that if the first run after lunch is in shadow and the snow is cold, the Skis stick because the warm surfaces melt the snow, which immediately freezes again and adheres to the Skis, so that they come to an absolute standstill.

The only way to avoid sticking is to keep the running surfaces of the Skis in good condition by oiling them thoroughly and to carry one or two different types of wax for use according to circumstances.

The great thing is to get practice on all types of snow and never to mind it. Look upon crust as a joke, and learn jump turns, which are the only safe turns for any but the strongest runners. Some of these can accomplish a Telemark, or stem-turn or even a Christiania on every sort of snow, but most people are content with the jump turn on crust. The great trouble of this turn is that it is very tiring when a heavy Rucksack is carried, but knack and good use of the stick will help it.

Light is a great factor in Ski-ing. On a fine day when visibility is good, it is easy to distinguish between the rise and fall of country ahead and, therefore, to be prepared for decrease or increase in speed. Some days when the sky is clouded, it is practically impossible to tell what is coming. This difficulty is increased in a narrow valley when the reflection of the slopes on either side make the whole surface look identical.

Coloured glasses may help a little, but it is better to run slowly and to take no risks. On these occasions tracks help immensely as they give the eye something to follow. Rocks and trees also help; anything that breaks the surface of the snow and shows up the gradient ahead.

FALLS

Falls!--what a word. When I first thought of writing this book, it struck me that the best selling title would be "Ski-ing without Falls." But then I remembered that I could never look a beginner in the face again if, knowing that he had read my book, I saw him fall.

Besides which, a Ski runner who never falls, is probably but a poor exponent of the sport. When you begin to run comfortably and can do the turns at low speeds, falls show that you are still trying to learn more of the game. It is only by trying new things that a runner becomes really proficient and you are almost certain to fall constantly as you learn. There is art in falling on Skis as well as in running and turning. Fall loose. Let yourself go; never try to save yourself when once you find the fall is inevitable and get rid of your sticks. You will have the most amazing falls on Skis and nobody will listen to your descriptions of them because they are just as eager to describe their own. The surprising thing is how little people hurt themselves--knees and ankles go most. The strain on the knee and ankle is very great in some falls, but if you let yourself go and relax your muscles as you fall, you will find that even ankles and knees survive as a rule.

I once saw a really good runner turn three somersaults while nose-driving down a steep slope at high speed in soft snow. And all the damage done was two hat-pins snapped! Moral, don't wear hat-pins.

People are so tangled up sometimes that they do not know whether the Ski tip sticking out of the snow belongs to their right or left foot, and they have to dig with their sticks before they can extricate themselves. And sometimes the results of a fall are so intricate that the runner could never extricate himself, but needs the help of a friend, who will undo a binding so as to free him. The most curious fall I ever saw was when a man, running down a steep slope among trees, ran into a fir tree on the upper side where the snow was lying well up the trunk. He then fell head downwards into the hole below the tree where the snow had not penetrated and, his Skis being caught in the branches, there he hung. Had he been alone, I doubt whether he would ever have succeeded in getting free. As it was, we undid a binding quickly and no damage was done.

Not only is there art in falling but there is a technique of getting up. Before attempting to get up, arrange your Skis so that they are ready to stand on. Suppose they are crossed below you on a steep slope, lie on the slope, raise the Skis in the air, uncross them, set them parallel across the slope below you, facing the way you want to go, and get up. This fall is sometimes used as a turn and may be very useful, though not considered the best possible form if done intentionally.

Never attempt to get up on to Skis facing downhill. They will only go off with you the moment you begin to rise, and then down you flop again.

If you fall head downwards down a slope, you still have to get your Skis parallel across the slope below you before you can stand up, and the only thing to be done is to turn a somersault uncrossing your Skis in the air if they are crossed and getting them below you and then standing up. All of which is extremely easy, but it is very necessary to ensure that clothes are so made that the powder snow cannot slip into crevices while you are gambolling in this fashion. The first thing I do before getting up from a fall is to put up my hands and let the snow shake out of my glove gauntlets.

If you are so tangled up in a fall that it is almost impossible to get out, just undo a binding, slip off a Ski and get up easily with a free foot to stand on. And, if you see anyone else so tangled up that he does not begin to get up immediately, hurry to his assistance, because his ankle or knee may be in a very strained position and he may be thankful to you for undoing a binding and releasing him. It is in these falls that the leather heel bindings so often prove better than a rigid toe binding. The leather will ease a little or slip and allow the foot to turn a fraction of an inch so that the strain is not maintained long enough to cause real damage.

Falls are often half the fun of Ski-ing, and every runner who is trying something new will sometimes fall in the endeavour. So never lose hope, however much you fall. If you have been running rather well, and then get a day when you do nothing but only means that you are stale and that your muscles and nerves need a rest. This is where the all-round Winter sportsman gains. He can spend a day on the rink or curling or tobogganing and not feel that he has wasted time.

Never scoff at people because they fall. A first-class runner is supposed to be able to run at high speed, using turns without falling. So he will, probably, if he intends to, but no first-class runner worth his salt would always run like this. He will always be trying something more difficult, turns at higher speed or in difficult snow, and consequently he will often be seen to fall, and the beginner who scoffs is merely voted an ignoramus. Here again a runner will be judged by his tracks. Look carefully at the place where he ran and try to make out what turn he was trying and what the snow was like, and why he fell. You can learn a great deal from other people's tracks.

Falls in deep snow are always a little more risky than on hard snow, because there is greater strain on muscles and ligaments. On hard snow you get many a bump and scratch, but the results are less lasting than a torn ligament.

Having got up safely from your fall, look on the snow and see what you have dropped before starting off again. Even pockets with flaps may allow of leakage.

It is wise to tie your Rucksack firmly with a strap round your waist because, if it is loose, anything heavy inside may give you a nasty bump on the head as you fall.

TESTS

There are three British Ski tests under the Federal Council of British Ski Clubs. In addition to these, different centres and local clubs often set an elementary test for beginners in order that these may be sorted into various standards for expeditions.

Hitherto the Elementary test has usually been a run down a certain distance within a time set by the judges. This is not an altogether satisfactory test, as the beginner, who goes straight down sitting on his Skis may get through, while another, who conscientiously tries to run standing, falls the whole time and fails. Style might be judged and the sitting candidate disqualified, but when, as often happens, some seventy or eighty people enter for an Elementary test, the judges have their hands full enough with starting and timing, apart from watching individual running critically as in the 2nd-class test.

A better way, therefore, is to flag a line, which must be followed, providing traverses across slopes, which soon catch out the sitting novice.

Beginners usually hate traversing because they dislike the look of a steep slope and do not know how to prevent the instinctive pointing straight downwards of the Skis. They do not realize yet that if they would stand upright on their Skis while traversing, and lead with the upper foot while they put their weight on the lower foot and keep their whole weight somewhat on their heels, they will traverse quite easily at a gentle angle.

The Elementary test ought to be so planned as to force this type of running.

Another way of running an Elementary test is for a judge to lead at a steady easy pace for an hour's cross-country run, including both up and downhill, as well as level running and obstacles. The test would be timed, an ample margin being allowed beyond the judge's time. All those, who finished within the time would pass.

This would probably not be nearly so popular a Test with the candidates as the short downhill run, but it would be a far better test of their capacity for touring.

The British Ski tests consist of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd-Class Tests, the Regulations for which will be found in the Ski Year Book, which can be obtained from the Hon. Secretary, Federal Council of British Ski Clubs, Essex Court, Temple, London, E.C. They can also be obtained from any official representative of one of the British Clubs in Switzerland, and are printed as an Appendix at the end of this book.

In the 3rd class test, which is the first and which has to be passed before the runner can go up for his 2nd class, there are three parts.

Part (a) is a climb of 1,500 feet in not more than 1-1/2 hours and a run down 1,500 feet in a time set by the judges. The time may not be less than seven, or more than twenty minutes. It should not be more than 12 minutes under good conditions.

Men must carry Rucksacks weighing not less than 6 lbs., and women 3 lbs. Sealskins may be used for the climb.

Part (b) consists of four consecutive lifted stem-turns on a slope of 15° to 20°, and Part (c) four consecutive Telemark turns on a slope of the same gradient. Parts (b) and (c) are often used as a qualifying test before Part (a) is run, in order to limit the entries for Part (a), which may otherwise be a very difficult test to run when a large field enters for it.

Candidates who enter for this test should really take pains to ensure that their bindings fit their boots and that they have everything necessary for a run as well as being up to the standard. Speaking as a judge of four years' standing, who has run innumerable tests, I may say that it is pitiable to see the number of casual people who will come up for a test without reading the regulations and without being in any way prepared for a 1,500 ft. climb. Few things are more disagreeable than having to disqualify a candidate, who turns up without a Rucksack, or more miserable than having to shepherd down beginners who are worn out by a run for which they are quite out of training. The one comfort is that a candidate, who is pertinacious and courageous enough to face this test five or six times without passing and goes in again, is almost sure to pass in the end.

For the judge's sake, however, I strongly urge such a candidate to time himself over similar runs with his friends and to persist in this until he proves that he is up to 3rd-class standard, when he will be a very welcome candidate in the test itself.

A course is easily found by using an aneroid, or it may also be worked off the Ordnance Map. Any ordinary watch with a second hand will suffice for the timing of one's own run.

Some people may think that I am a little harsh in my reasons for suggesting that beginners should not enter for the running part of the 3rd-class test so lightheartedly. It is really for their own sakes as much as for that of the judge's. Failure is very discouraging, and I have known people's nerve quite upset by one of these runs. They have tried to race down and have taken really nasty tosses in their rush, while the fatigue of constant falling and getting up out of deep snow, becoming more and more out of breath in the anxiety to compete, is very bad for their running. I have often wanted to hide my head in shame when coming home after such a test with a lot of worn-out people, wet through, who have failed. And yet, such is life, that many with the first breath, after they finish exhausted, will ask when the next Test takes place in order that they may compete again. Such a candidate really does one's heart good.

Tests have probably done more than anything else to improve the standard of British running. We all have a liking for competition, and here is our chance. Having succeeded in passing the 3rd-class test, we can wear a badge and then we have to ski better in order to prove worthy of it, and presently we see no reason against qualifying for the 2nd-class test before going home. "After all, the turns only have to be done on a steeper slope." "The run can be put off till next Winter, and passed the moment we come out," they say.

The 1st-class standard is rising higher and higher as British Ski runners become more proficient. The runner who passed a year or two ago now hesitates to wear the gold badge, because he often realizes that his speed and turns are not good enough for what is now required.

Judges of the British Ski tests may be found in most well-known centres, but, as there are very few 1st-class people, the tests for this class are usually run in one or two districts only.

GUIDES AND SKI INSTRUCTORS

Swiss Guides are certificated by the Swiss Alpine Club and are the only people permitted by law to guide parties among the higher mountains. A tariff exists in every district showing the fees which these Guides must charge. In addition to the fee, the client usually gives a gratuity and also pays for the Guide's accommodation and provisions on the tour. A percentage may be added for numbers greater than those provided for in the tariff, while on a really difficult tour, the Guide will probably refuse to take more than two or three runners unless a second Guide or porter be engaged. The Certificated Guides wear a badge issued by the Swiss Alpine Club and any man wearing this may be depended upon to be a good fellow, a careful Guide, and a philosopher and friend. Most of them can now ski well, though a few of the older ones may not be very proficient in technique and may be stick riders.

When on tour with a Guide, he is responsible for the safety of the party, and every member should do his best to help him by carrying out any instructions he may give for their greater safety. This is not always appreciated by people who do not know the Alps and their unwritten laws, and the Guides complain somewhat bitterly that they are often put in very difficult positions. For instance, on one occasion, when a party was crossing an avalanche slope, the Guide asked them to go singly at intervals of 20 metres, so that if anyone was carried away, the others would not be involved and could go to his rescue. One of the party was overheard saying: "Oh! he is only trying to prove how careful he is in order to get a higher tip," and they were careless in their carrying out of the instructions.

In any case it is discourteous not to do what the Guide prescribes and he is put in a very false position as he is held responsible.

Ski Instructors belong to a different category, unless they are also Certificated Guides, which is often the case. In some Cantons, such as Graubünden, the Instructors have to pass an examination showing their capacity to ski and also to teach. Many of them are perfectly beautiful runners, but they should not be pressed to conduct tours where glacier work or rock climbing is involved. They are not examined for this and they hold no credentials, and if an accident occurs, everyone is blamed. There are a great many other runs they are allowed to lead and they will set as good a course as anyone would wish for.

Before engaging a Guide, or an Instructor on the recommendation of the concierge, get some expert advice as to who is the best. The Secretary of the local Ski Club would advise or some good runner in the neighbourhood.

In some parts of Switzerland the Guides and Instructors have taken to touting for clients. They hang about the hotels and try to induce the unwary to engage them and to go for tours for which they are often not fit. The better Swiss Guides are the first to want the public to discourage this type of behaviour, as it is doing a lot of harm to their good name.

When a Guide is engaged, treat him as a friend and trust him. They are usually a most obliging and reliable set of men, who will do everything in their power for their clients, such as carrying food and spare clothing, waxing skis, attaching skins and even making terms in inns, and cooking the food in huts when on tour. Their knowledge of the mountains and their experiences are well worth probing, and they will usually talk willingly when kindly dealt with. They are quick judges of character and if the younger ones are sometimes a little inclined to take advantage of the people who do not treat them suitably, only those people themselves can be blamed. The old-fashioned Guides are never familiar, though they are very friendly and will always do their best for the entertainment of their party. They should not be petted and flattered, neither should they be treated as inferiors. A happy medium is easily found which is what the Guide will prefer, because in his heart of hearts, he has the whole of the Swiss characteristics--great dignity, independence and respect for wise people.

On a long and dangerous tour the safety of the party may ultimately depend upon the trust and confidence placed in the Guide in charge, and by him in his clients, and this should be remembered in all negotiations. These men often have to risk their lives for the sake of the people who employ them, and their staunch unselfishness is a fine example of human endeavour for the benefit of others. Their fees may appear to be high, but when everything is taken into consideration, including the shortness of their Winter and Summer Seasons, it is soon realized that the fees are not exorbitant.

MAPS AND FINDING THE WAY

Every Ski runner going across country should carry a map. Even on a short run a great deal can be learnt from a map, which will prove useful later on a longer run. Both time and risk can be saved by people who run by their map and who know how to avoid dangerous places and how to take advantage of narrow safe openings.

There are different types of maps to be had in Switzerland. The best are the official Ordnance Maps published by the Eidg. Landestopographie at Bern. The mountain districts are produced at a scale of 1 centimetre in 50,000 centimetres or 2 centimetres in one kilometre, and large or small sheets can be bought almost everywhere. The gradients are clearly shown by contour lines. The equidistance being 30 metres, or roughly 100 feet, the dotted contour lines when height is marked some every 8 or 10 ordinary contour lines. This differs according to the edition. Cliff and rock are shown grey, while glacier contour lines are blue.

Some districts, such as the Bernese Oberland, have produced this map with red lines showing all the Ski runs. In other places they also provide Ski-ing maps, but on a different scale and not as good as the Ordnance Map.

All maps are best when mounted on linen, as the weathering they receive on a run may reduce a paper map to pulp or rag.

It is easy to work out the distance of runs or the gradient of slopes from the large scale Ordnance Map. 1 in 50,000 metres means that 1 centimetre on the map equals a run of 50,000 metres; 2 centimetres equal a kilometre or 100,000 metres; 8 kilometres equal five English miles. Therefore, if a centimetre measure be carried, the distances are soon ascertained with a minimum of arithmetic.

Throughout this chapter I have taken the mathematical or map gradient and not the engineer's gradient. The latter is generally used, I understand, to measure the gradients of roads, railways, etc.

To avoid confusion when Ski-ing, the gradient is usually named by the angle of the slope.

The gradient of slopes is shown by the contour lines, the drop between each being 30 metres or approximately 100 feet. The table on p. 92 was got out by Commander Merriman, R.N., and has proved very useful to me in setting tests as well as in judging whether slopes are comparatively safe from avalanche or not.

A slope showing eight 30-metre contour lines in one centimetre works out roughly at 27°, which is a steeper slope than most people care to take straight, running over unknown country. Anything steeper than this is apt to avalanche in certain conditions, though a 30° slope should usually be safe. (A 25° slope may be dangerous under some conditions.)

A comfortable slope is 5 contour lines in 1 centimetre, or a gradient of 17°. Taking English measurements as in Commander Merriman's scale, 16 contour lines in one inch on the map.

The beginner will probably content himself with slopes where 10 contour lines are shown in one inch, or a gradient of about 13°.

ROUGH TABLE OF GRADIENTS.

Assuming 30 metre contours to be equal to 100 feet contours (actually this is 98.4 feet). Natural Scale 1: 50,000.

--------------------------------------------
Drop per inch | Average angle | Gradient
on map. | of slope. | 1 in.
--------------------------------------------
100' | 1° 24' | 40.9
200' | 2° 45' | 20.8
300' | 4° 07' | 13.9
400' | 5° 29' | 10.4
500' | 6° 50' | 8.3
600' | 8° 12' | 6.9
700' | 9° 33' | 5.9
800' | 10° 52' | 5.2
900' | 12° 11' | 4.6
1,000' | 13° 30' | 4.2
1,100' | 14° 47' | 3.8
1,200' | 16° 04' | 3.5
1,300' | 17° 20' | 3.2
1,400' | 18° 34' | 3.0
1,500' | 19° 48' | 2.8
1,600' | 21° 00' | 2.6
1,700' | 22° 11' | 2.5
1,800' | 23° 22' | 2.3
1,900' | 24° 30' | 2.2
2,000' | 25° 39' | 2.1
2,100' | 26° 45' | 2.0
2,200' | 27° 50' | 1.9
2,300' | 28° 53' | 1.8
2,400' | 29° 56' | 1.7
2,500' | 30° 58' | 1.6
--------------------------------------------

Up till now I have only been describing the official Ordnance Maps. There are several other maps which may also be useful.

The Dufour maps are good for direction and lie of country, but their scale being 1 in 100,000 they are not much help for actual running.

The local Ski Tour Map is useful to show where the usual tours go, but cannot always be trusted for gradients or cliffs and rocks. The Pontresina map, for instance, though showing an equidistance of 30 metres as in the Ordnance Maps, really has 50 metres contour lines, which might be a terrible snare to the unwary, who would confidently run towards a slope, thinking it was about 20° and find that it was nearer 35°, or an avalanche slope. In a case like this the Ordnance Map must be used for actual running, while the Ski Tour Map is used to show the line to be followed.

In some districts, such as the Bernese Oberland, the Ordnance map has been used for the local Ski tour map, and the tours shown on it in red. This is a great saving of weight and money for the runner, who then only has one map to carry.

Most Ski maps show dangerous avalanche slopes. The local Summer map published in most tourist centres in Switzerland is not much use to the Ski runner, because it shows walks which may be along slopes or down cliffs, which are perfectly safe in Summer and very dangerous in Winter.

I strongly advise all beginners who are bitten by the joy of Ski-ing to buy, at any rate, the small local sheet of the Ordnance Map which usually only costs Frs. 1.30, or roughly 1s., and to study it carefully, noticing the contour lines on the well-known Nursery slopes, and gradually realizing the gradient represented by the different widths between them.

Let him also notice the difference between a hill and a hole on the map. This is easily recognized either by the thin blue line of a stream emerging from a lake, or by comparing the nearest heights shown on the dotted lines or some marked point. Contours are often puzzling to a beginner in map reading, but knowledge of what they represent may save a party from a weary climb back up a place they have gaily ski-ed down, thinking they could get through but finding an impossible slope or fall of rock which forced them to retrace their steps.

Before going on tour even with a Guide, it is wise to study the map with a view to knowing where an Alpine hut can be found in case of need, or where a hay châlet could offer shelter.

When once the Ski runner has begun to appreciate the fun and interest of running by a map, he will never leave it behind, and he will be able to enjoy all sorts of runs he would never know of if he were content with the sheep habit of "following tracks."

The greatest fun of Ski-ing is in finding one's own way, and this one can never hope to do without a map.

The following scale of comparative heights in metres and feet may be of use in estimating the heights of points which the Ski runner wishes to reach:

10 metres equal 33 feet (approximately).
50 " " 164 "
100 " " 328 "
250 " " 820 "
500 " " 1,640 "
1,000 " " 3,281 "
2,000 " " 6,562 "
3,000 " " 9,843 "

A compass is, of course, useful when running by map, but as precipices are apt to get in the way when running straight for any given point, a compass cannot be trusted alone. In the case of fog, it is very difficult to avoid difficulties, and points on the map can only be identified by the use of an aneroid, as well as a compass. Set the aneroid at the point you start from and check your heights by this as you climb or descend, referring constantly to the map to ensure that you are running on the right line. It is wise to practise this on clear days in order to get accustomed to running by map, compass and aneroid. As the weather also affects the aneroid, it should be constantly reset at known levels.

All this may sound very confusing, and most beginners will probably prefer to take a Guide who knows his country well rather than trust to elementary map-reading knowledge in unknown country. Most runners who go on tour will find running much more interesting, however, if instead of following a Guide blindly they also watch the map or get a knowledge of what is good or bad country to run over. There are sometimes cases also when the party must necessarily divide, and an amateur may have to take the lead over unknown country.

AVALANCHES

Much has been written on this subject. Mr. Arnold Lunn, in "The Alps," tells some extraordinary stories about these monsters of the mountains. My father, John Addington Symonds, in "Our Life in the Swiss Highlands," also describes them.

There was a very interesting article by Monsieur F. Krahnstoever in the "Swiss Ski Club Year-Book for 1923" on the subject of avalanches in relation to Ski-ing. They are an everlasting nightmare to Ski runners in high places, and beginners should at once take care to learn all they can of snow-craft in order, in so far as possible, to realize what is safe and what is dangerous.

The steepness of slopes and the condition of snow, as well as the direction of wind, are all factors affecting avalanches.

Any slope whose gradient is more than 15° may be dangerous under certain conditions, but it may be generally accepted that most long slopes under 25° are comparatively safe so long as they have not much steeper slopes immediately above or below them.

New snow is always apt to slip before it has had time to settle down. Snow blown by wind into a cornice or overhanging lip at the top of a slope or on a cliff may topple down and start an avalanche.

Wet snow, after rain, or a warm Föhn wind, becomes heavy and begins to slide.

A very dangerous condition is new soft snow lying on a slope covered with old hard snow.

Trees or rocks sticking up through the snow make such slopes safer, as they tend to prevent the snow from beginning to slip. This is why the Forestry Laws of Switzerland are so strict. In some districts the owner of a forest may not cut a tree unless it has been approved by the Government forester. This is to ensure that the forests are maintained as a protection for the villages in the valleys below.

Beginners should never go on a tour without first ascertaining that the route they propose to follow is a safe one. And if there is the slightest doubt, owing to weather conditions, they should put it off for a day or two. Some runs are perfectly safe when the snow has settled and a sharp frost has bound it, but they may become dangerous again when a thaw sets in, a Föhn wind is blowing, or rain has fallen.

The Ski runner himself may start an avalanche on a slope where the snow would lie safely if he did not pass along it. The cutting of his track, breaking the continuity of the snow, may set it going either above or below him and he will be carried away with it.

Wherever there seems to be the slightest risk of avalanche the party should separate and proceed in single file at about 20-yard intervals. Then if a runner is carried away, the others will be able to go to his assistance. In some cases, however, even this is not sufficient protection as the whole slope may go at once. In old days before the railways had tunnelled through the passes we were driving over the Fluela above Davos on our way to Italy in March. We were in the post consisting of some 20 one-horse sledges and had just left the Hospiz when we met the up-coming post, also consisting of a number of one-horse sledges. It took some time to pass, as the track was narrow and the horses floundered in the deep snow when passing each other. After we had got by and were continuing on our way down to Süs, we turned along an outstanding buttress of cliff and saw that some two miles of steep slope ahead had avalanched. The whole surface of the snow had slipped to the bottom of the valley and if either of the diligences had been on this slope when it happened, horses, sledges and all would have been carried away.

This experience fixed avalanche danger very firmly in my mind, and having also seen several large avalanches falling, as well as the immense amount of damage done to forests and châlets by these insuperable monsters, I have never wished to risk getting into a large one myself.

Even a small avalanche is very overwhelming and a beginner who has felt its effects soon realizes what it may mean. Choose a _very_ short steep slope on a day when the snow is slipping and try to get it going. Once it moves and entangles your legs and Skis, you will feel the extraordinary helplessness which results. This was one of our games when I was a child. Without Skis it is possible to float on top of a baby avalanche and to enjoy it, but with Skis on, the feet soon become entangled and helplessness results.

The first thing to do when an avalanche starts and no escape is possible is to get the Ski bindings undone and the feet free. Then "swim" with arms and legs and try to keep on top. If buried, keep one arm over nose and mouth so as to keep air space and push the other arm up, pointing the Ski stick through to the open so that it may show your whereabouts. This is easy to describe, but probably not so easy to carry out if the occasion arises.