Chapter II: Part 2

When the construction is changed from the negative to the affirmative, repeat the subject pronoun; or, if a noun is the subject, insert the personal pronoun before the second verb. Thus: “He does not walk, but _he_ rides.” With _whosoever_, _whoever_, &c., as subjects, it is not necessary to use the pronoun before the affirmative verb. _E.g._: “That whosoever believeth on Him might not perish, _but have_ everlasting life.” When a change of tense, mood or voice occurs, it is generally advisable to insert the pronoun before the second verb, although--as is elsewhere explained--it is necessary to do so only when the verbs are emphatically distinguished or contrasted. [When the change is from the affirmative to the negative, the repetition of the subject or the insertion of the pronoun is not necessary. Indeed, the the repetition of the subject depends largely on the emphasis desired or on the “sound” of the sentence.]

Say, “Solomon, _son_ of David,” rather than, “Solomon, _the_ son of David.” [The rule is that the article ought not to be used before those appositive nouns which are strictly limited by other definite words.] The insertion of the article before _David_ is not absolutely incorrect; but the omission of it produces a good effect and sometimes prevents ambiguity, as in, “John, [the] son of Smith, and Jones, are here.” Where a second addition occurs, the article must be omitted even although it has been used before the first addition. Thus: “The Apostle James, son (or, the son) of Zebedee, and _brother_ (not, _the_ brother) of St John”.

Say, “The eldest son of a duke is called Marquis [not _a_ Marquis].” The article is not to be used before titles as titles, or names as names. [_E.g._: “Derive Thames.”] With two or more nouns, the article need not be repeated when there is no ambiguity. When there is, it should be repeated. Thus: “The Queen and King are here,” is correct. [The repetition of the article would, of course, add emphasis to the expression, _i.e._, it would draw attention to each individual person or thing. _E.g._: “A cool temper, a sound judgment, a kindly disposition.”]

“The European and _the_ African _race_;” or, “The European _race_ and _the_ African _race_.” Here two races are meant: the one European, and the other African. “The European and African _races_,” has the same meaning. “The European and _the_ African races,” means there are two or more European and two or more African races. This latter meaning would be more clearly expressed by inserting the word _races_ after the word _European_.

“The conductor and _the_ driver,” implies two men. “The conductor and driver,” implies one man. Say, therefore: “Solomon, the historian and builder;” not, “Solomon, the historian and _the_ builder.”

“The bay or lame horse,” refers to one horse. “The bay _or the_ lame horse,” refers to two horses. [In the former sentence, it would be better to put a comma after _bay_.] The rule in all these cases is, that the article must be repeated when there are two or more persons or things. With but one person or thing, the article _may_ be repeated, as in poetry or for the sake of emphasis. _E.g._: “A sadder and _a_ wiser man.” It follows from the foregoing rule, that there should be no repetition of the article in such a phrase as, “He is a better poet than _musician_.” “He is a better poet than _a_ musician,” would mean, “He is a better poet than a musician _is_.”

“The logical and grammatical analysis of a language is [are]” &c. If but one analysis is meant--_i.e._, if there is but one subject--the verb should be in the singular, _is_. If two analyses are meant--_i.e._, if there are two subjects--the verb may be in the plural, _are_. In the latter case, however, it is better to supply the article before _grammatical_. [“The logical and _the_ grammatical analysis are,” &c.] It is still better to supply the first subject [“The logical _analysis_ and” &c.]: the verb being made plural. The supplying of this ellipsis [_analysis_] avoids the clash between a singular subject alone and a plural verb. Upon the same principle, “The position of the materialist and _that_ of the idealist are reconcilable,” is to be preferred to, “The position of the materialist and of the idealist are reconcilable.” [The determining principle in all these cases is not whether the adjectives have the same meaning, but whether they qualify the same subject.]

Do not say, “No greater or wiser _a_ man ever lived.” Say, “No greater or wiser man” &c.

The gerundial noun with _the_ is generally to be preferred to the simple gerund. _E.g._: “The eating of meat is forbidden,” is better than, “Eating meat” &c. [In some instances the latter form would cause confusion of meaning.]

An excellent, but rather loosely worded, rule for the use of _shall_ and _will_ is as follows: “If the speaker is nominative to the verb, and also determines the accomplishment of the idea expressed by the verb; or if the speaker neither is nominative to the verb nor determines the accomplishment of the idea expressed by the verb, use _will_. In all other cases, use _shall_.”

Say, “It _should_ seem that he has done so.” [Not, “It _would_ seem” &c.]

In impersonal assertions, such as: “It is hoped [desired, &c.] that all should sit down,” _shall_ and _should_ ought to be used. In direct and personal assertions, such as: “I desired that my conductor would explain,” _will_ and _would_ are to be preferred. [_Shall_ and _should_ are, in such constructions, not incorrect; but _will_ and _would_ are preferable. Perhaps the best rule, in sentences such as the foregoing, is, that when a command is intended, _shall_ and _should_ _must_ be used; when a hope or wish is intended, _will_ and _would_ _may_ be used.]

In a subordinate clause, to express simple futurity, use _shall_ and _should_ when the subject of the subordinate clause is the subject of the principal clause also; _will_ and _would_ when it is not. Thus: “I believe I shall live;” “I believe he will live;” “He believes he shall live.”

Again, in an independent clause use _shall_ and _should_ when the event spoken of is under our control; _will_ and _would_ when it is not. _E.g._: “You said it _should_ be done;” “You said it _would_ rain.”

Do not say, “I _would_ be happy to go, if” &c.; or, “I _will_ be happy to go.” Use _should_ and _shall_. [The idea of willingness, or volition, is sufficiently expressed in the word _happy_. Hence, _would_ and _will_ are tautological.]

After nouns and adjectives following intransitive and passive verbs the infinitive with _to_ is generally preferable to the gerund in _-ing_, to express purpose, end, design. _E.g._: “He has power _to_ act;” “It is fitted _to_ produce that result.”

“Solomon, son of David, who slew Goliath;” is correct. “Solomon, son of David, who built the Temple;” is incorrect. [The relative should refer to the nearest antecedent. So, change the second phrase into, “The son of David, Solomon, who” &c.; or, “Solomon, who was the son of David, and who” &c.; or employ some other form.]

Say, “He who was, and who is, and who is to come;” or, “He who was, who is and who is to come.” That is, repeat the relative, especially when a conjunction occurs. [If the sentence were to read, “He who was, is and is to come;” _He_ might seem to be the subject of the first and the second _is_, and not of some verb unexpressed.] The possessives also should be repeated before nouns that are to be distinguished. _E.g._: “Their form and _their_ use give us great trouble.”

Do not use _that_ for _who_ or _which_, when the antecedent is explicit. Say: “My father, who [not, _that_] is dead.”

_Who_ or _which_ is to be preferred to _that_ when the relative is separated from its verb or its antecedent, and is emphasized by isolation. _E.g._: “There are many persons _who_, had they opportunities, would succeed in life.”

_Who_ or _which_ is to be preferred to _that_ when the relative is governed in the objective by a preposition that has the appearance of an adverb (_beyond_, _over_, _under_, &c.). _E.g._: “The limit beyond _which_ no one has gone,” is better than, “The limit _that_ no one has gone beyond.”

Avoid the use of _than whom_ when _whom_ is not really in the objective case. Instead of _than whom_ [which is grammatically incorrect] and _than who_ [which, although grammatically correct, has a very strange sound] employ some other form. _E.g._: In place of “Nero, than whom no crueller man has ever lived, was” &c.; say, “Nero--and no crueller man has ever lived--was” &c.; or, “No crueller man than Nero has ever lived. He was” &c. [Of course, when the relative is in the objective case, _whom_ is correct after _than_; _e.g._: “My brother, than whom I love no one more dearly, is ill.”]

_Who_ or _which_ may sometimes [_e.g._, to avoid undue repetition] be used for _that_; but _that_ ought never to be used for _who_ or _which_.

After indefinite pronouns or indefinite pronominal adjectives (_others_, _several_, _many_, _some_, _none_, _one_, &c.), _who_ or _which_ is to be preferred to _that_.

After personal pronouns prefer _who_ or _which_. _E.g._: “He who is wise,” &c.

After the conjunction _that_, prefer _who_ or _which_. _E.g._: “He said _that_ the man _who_ saw him” &c.

It is not improper to follow the demonstrative _this_ by the relative _that_. _E.g._: “It was _this that_ caused his death.”

When _who_ or _which_ is used restrictively for _that_, it is well to place _the_ or _that_ before the antecedent, _e.g._: “_The_ States [or, _those_ States] _which_ border on Canada,” &c.

The objective relative may be omitted whenever the antecedent and the subject of the relative sentence come into juxtaposition; _e.g._: “Give me the book you have.”

The personal pronoun _it_ and the relative pronoun _which_ may have as antecedents a short, clear clause; but this usage is not desirable. So, although, “He gave me his word of honour: which I had not expected,” is not incorrect; yet it is better to say, “He gave me his word of honour: a thing I had” &c.; or, “He gave me his word of honour. I had never expected this.”

Avoid such a relative construction as: “That was the man _who_, the witness said, had broken into the store.” Say: “That man, the witness said, had” &c.; or: “That was the man, the witness said, who” &c.; or: “That was the man whom the witness accused of having broken” &c. [The fault of the first construction is that, for an instant, the mind is in doubt whether _who_ or _whom_ ought to be used.]

Distinguish, according to the sense you wish to convey, between the use of the adjective and that of the adverb, after intransitive verbs expressing action [_go_, _come_, _arrive_, _depart_, &c.] _E.g._: “He arrived safe.” “He arrived safely.” The former denotes his condition upon arrival, without reference to his condition upon the way. The latter denotes his condition upon the way, without reference to his condition upon arrival. So say: “He came safely through numberless perils, but dropped dead upon the threshold of his own home.”

_Lesser_ may be used of dimensions, but not of quantity. Thus: “He is lesser than his brother,” is not incorrect; but, “He is smaller than [or, shorter than, or not so large as],” &c., is better. “There is lesser wheat than corn,” is incorrect.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS UPON COMPOSITION.

To avoid ambiguity, report a speech in the _first_, not in the _third_ person.

Try to avoid the use of words that have two or more meanings: _any_, _certain_, _left_, _lie_, &c. [_Any_ is sometimes used incorrectly for _indefinitely large_; _e.g._: “He gave me _any_ number of books.”]

Avoid using a word that leaves us for a moment doubtful what part of speech it is. _E.g._: “The good remains, he said,” &c. [Until something further is given, we are in doubt whether _remains_ is a noun, the subject of some unexpressed verb; or a verb, agreeing with its subject, _good_, used as a noun.]

_Avoid_ the excessive use of such expressions as, _of this sort_, _of this kind_, _in this way_, _in this manner_. It is better to repeat the words to which the reference is made.

Avoid what is called the prospective use of _it_. Say, “To give is good;” not, “It is good to give.”

It is often said that a sentence ought not to end with a preposition. There is no objection, however, to such an ending, provided the preposition governs a relative pronoun and is not likely to be mistaken for some other part of speech. Thus: “The rule that I always adhere to,” is quite correct. [If preferred, “The rule to which I always adhere,” may, of course, be used.] It is hardly necessary to say that the clause or sentence should not end with the _to_ of the infinitive; _i.e._, _to_, the sign of the infinitive, ought never to be used alone.

Avoid the excessive use of _there is_, _there are_, _there will be_, &c.

To relieve the monotony and to give force to the expression, change such constructions as, “He replied that he deemed it best that his example should not be followed;” into, “He deemed it best, he replied, that his example should not be followed.”

Force may often be gained by the use of particular, in place of general, terms. _E.g._: _gold_ for _great riches_, _a crust of bread_ for _poverty_. On the same principle, a particular proper name may be used _effectively_ for a common, or class, name. _E.g._: “Solomon,” is more forcible than “the wisest man;” “Nero,” than “the most cruel man.”

The great rule, however, for force, or effect, is that the reader shall be kept _in suspense_; that is, that he shall be made to feel the incompleteness of the sentence, until the end is reached. To attain this object the following directions have been given: (1) Put a conditional clause first, not last. _E.g._: “If he wishes, I will go away.” [When the conditional clause is very emphatic, it may be placed last.] (2) Let participial phrases come before the words qualified by them. _E.g._: “Wasted by disease, worn out with toil, he was fast sinking into the grave.” [This remark will often apply to adjectives and adverbs, as well as to participles. _E.g._: “Weary of life, glad to depart, he quietly passed away.”] (3) Use suspensive words: _not only_, _but also_; _either_, _or_; _partly_, _partly_; _on the one hand_, _on the other_; _in the first_, _second_, &c., _place_. Of course, this “principle of suspense” is not to be too frequently employed.

Emphatic words must be in emphatic positions; _i.e._, at the _beginning_ or at the _end_ of the proposition. “Coward though he was, he was forced to fight;” is much more striking than, “He was forced to fight, although he was a coward.”

The most emphatic place for the subject is at the end, its ordinary place being at the beginning of the proposition.

On a similar principle, the object is made emphatic by putting it before its verb.

Again, emphasis may be given by the use, before the emphatic noun, of such an expression as, _as for the_, _as to the_, _concerning_, &c.

Avoid putting a minimizing expression, such as, _at least_, _at all events_, _at any rate_, between two emphatic expressions.

Avoid the placing of an unemphatic word at the end of the proposition. The following sentence is weak, because this rule has not been observed. “The documents proved how just in all his dealings he was.”

What have been called “short, chippy endings” should be avoided, as such endings spoil the rythm which should exist even in prose. _E.g._: “The man, pierced with balls, died;” is bad.

Prepositions and pronouns attached to emphatic words need not, however, be removed from the end. So: “Bear witness how he loved him,” is correct. [In such instances the emphatic and the unemphatic word form, as it were, a compound expression.]

Avoid, on the other hand, a monotonous final emphasis.

Frequently an idea may be expressed more forcibly in the form of a question than in that of an assertion.

Brevity may often be obtained by the use of a word for a phrase. _E.g._: _unintelligible_, _indelible_.

Brevity may be obtained, also, by the use of metaphors, in place of literal words or phrases.

The omission of the present participle often gives brevity and force to the sentence. _E.g._: “The Indians [being] on the war-path, what dared we do?”

Brevity may be gained by using the imperative for other moods. _E.g._: “Do this, and you will suffer;” for, “If you do this” &c. [This use of the imperative should be indulged in but sparingly.]

Repeat the nominative when the verbs of the various clauses are of diverse moods, tenses or voices _and_ are emphatically distinguished. _E.g._: “He is, and _he_ always has been, rich.”

Repeat the preposition after an intervening conjunction, especially if a verb and a pronoun also intervene. _E.g._: “The man does not remember the respect he ought to have for those persons who have helped him, and _for_ his old friend C. in particular.” [If the preposition _for_ were not repeated after _and_, the sentence might mean that the man does not remember his old friend C. in particular.]

Do not repeat the sign _to_ of the infinitive unless attention is called to each individual verb.

When otherwise there would be doubt as to whether an infinitive expresses a purpose or not, and it is intended that it shall express a purpose, use _in order that_, _for the purpose of_ [followed by the form in _-ing_], or some such phrase. [Purpose may be clearly shewn, of course, by the use of _that_ with an auxiliary verb. _E.g._: “He died that we might live;” which is equivalent to: “He died in order to give us life.”]

To avoid ambiguity, or to add emphasis, repeat the subordinate conjunction. _E.g._: “When the hunter had returned to the far-off camp, and _when_ he had recounted his adventures” &c.

Be careful in the use of participial constructions. _E.g._: “They will be shunned on their return, accompanied by the oppressors of their country;” may mean, “on account of their being accompanied” &c.; or, “when they are accompanied” &c. So: “Children, playing on the ice, often fall;” may mean: “Children that play” &c.; or “Children, when they play” &c. It is best to confine the use of the participial phrase to the adverbial meaning [“Children, _when_ they play” &c.]; and with other meanings to employ the relative pronoun [“Children that play” &c.]. When the participial phrase precedes the main proposition, the former usually implies _cause_; when it follows, _time_. _E.g._: “Seeing this, he withdrew” [_i.e._ “He withdrew _because_ he saw this.”] “He withdrew, seeing this” [_i.e._, “He withdrew _when_ he saw this.”] If there is doubt as to which meaning is intended, use an introductory phrase, such as, _while seeing_, _upon seeing_.

There are various constructions that may take the place of the relative pronoun or of the relative clause. The infinitive may often be used with effect. _E.g._: “He was the last that died,” may be expressed as: “He was the last to die.” Again, _if_ or some other conditional word may be used to introduce a dependent clause. _E.g._: “If a man sins, he will be punished” [_i.e._, “The man that sins” &c.] Again, the conjunction and the demonstrative pronoun may be used. _E.g._: “He wasted his time at X., which was very foolish;” may be changed into: “He wasted his time at X., and this was” &c. Again, pronominal adverbs (_whereby_, _wherein_, &c.) may take the place of the relative and a preposition.

Very often, after a negative, the antecedent to the relative should be repeated, or a summing-up noun introduced. _E.g._: “He said he would not hear me--a refusal that I expected.” When otherwise there would be ambiguity, the same construction should be used with an affirmative.

Prefer verbal clauses to verbal nouns. “That he had betrayed his country was not so plainly shown,” is better than: “His having betrayed” &c.

Avoid what is called “mistake of subject.” _E.g._: “The late arrival of the train caused” &c., should be: “The lateness of the arrival” &c. So: “Excuse a letter to-day,” should be: “Excuse my not having written a letter to-day.”

_In prose_ be careful to avoid zeugma, _i.e._, the application of a word to two or more ideas, to only one of which it is really suitable. _E.g._: “The landscape and the shoutings formed a strange _sight_.”

The great rule for figures of speech, especially for metaphors and similes, is to use strictly appropriate language. Therefore, do not say, “_Convey an impression_.” Say, “_Make_ [or _leave_] an impression.” Do not say, “The _car_ of progress rolls onward, _gnashing its teeth_ in its course.”

In metaphorical language the pronouns usually agree with the noun used metaphorically, as if it were taken in its literal sense. _E.g._: “The stone _which_ the builders rejected,” &c. Afterwards, however, the pronouns may agree with the noun in its figurative sense. _E.g._: “Behold I lay in Zion a chief corner-stone; and he that believeth on _Him_,” &c.

Do not employ different forms and expressions for the same person or thing, unless there is a peculiar appropriateness in each term or expression. Only confusion results from speaking, within narrow limits, of Columbus as “the Genoese navigator,” “the discoverer of America,” &c.

It is a bad fault, therefore, to repeat the meaning in terms but slightly differing one from another. Thus, do not, in close connection, use such synonyms as _all_, _universal_, _total_.

A new construction ought not to be introduced without sufficient cause. _E.g._: “On horseback and on foot,” is preferable to, “On horseback and walking;” “The dead and the living,” to, “The dead and those still on the earth.”

Let each sentence have one, and only one, subject of thought. That is, avoid mixed or confused sentences.

It is often a good thing to introduce each sentence of a paragraph by a short connecting expression: _accordingly_, _therefore_, _so_, _then_. [Such words as _but_, _and_, and other conjunctions generally used to join clauses, may, for the sake of clearness, introduce a new sentence.]

Sometimes two important sentences may very effectively be united by a short connective sentence, such as: “This was as follows,” “The result was as expected.”

Often a good effect is produced by making a statement or by giving an explanation twice: first, briefly, and then fully; or _vice versâ_.

The guiding principle in descriptive writing is to imagine we see, actually before us, the thing to be described.

Except in scientific or other very precise writing, avoid the frequent use of _technical_ terms. It savors of pedantry, as the meaning of these terms is often unknown to the general reader. This “technical slang” is commonly seen in newspaper accounts of sporting and musical events. Why should _bowling_ be called “trundling the leather,” or a _lacrosse ball_ the “rubber”? Why should the report of a concert fairly bristle with “technique” and “timbre” and “genre” and “morceau”? Perhaps it is to display the writer’s intimate knowledge of the subject.

WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED, SYNONYMS, OPPOSITES.

_Advantage, benefit._

_Advantage_ is “a state of forwardness or advance;” and the word is applied rightly, therefore, to one person or thing in relation to other persons or things. _Benefit_ is simply gain or profit, without comparison of one person or thing with another. [Thus: “He possesses an advantage over me,” is correct. “All derived advantage from it,” is incorrect.]

_Also, likewise._

_Also_ is applied to things and qualities, and denotes mere addition. _Likewise_ is applied to states of being or of action; and denotes some agreement or connection between the ideas expressed in the words it joins. [Thus: “He is a prince and _also_ a musician;” but: “He is a poet and _likewise_ a musician.”]

_Ability, capacity._

_Ability_ is the power of doing something. _Capacity_ is the faculty of receiving something [_e.g._: new ideas, great thoughts.] [So: “That statesman has great ability;” “That pupil had wonderful capacity.”]

_Answer, reply._

_An answer_ is given to questions; _a reply_, to attacks and accusations. [An answer to an answer may, however, be called a reply.]

_Amid [amidst], among._

_Amid or amidst_ is used generally when the surroundings are of a different nature from the person or thing surrounded. _Among_, when they are of the same nature. Again, _amid or amidst_ is generally applied to quantity; _among_, to number. [So: “among friends;” “amidst enemies;” “among thousands;” “amid the snow.”]

_Abandon, desert, forsake._

_Abandon_ and _desert_ generally imply something blame-worthy in the one who abandons or deserts; _forsake_ does not. Again: _abandon and forsake_ are used of persons and things, _desert_ is used of causes or of persons, but not of things. [Thus: “The soldier deserted his post of duty.” “The man abandoned his early friends.” “We forsook the dear old homestead.”]

_Assist, aid._

_Assist_ implies mutuality of help; _aid_, not necessarily so. [“The sufferers assisted one another.” “I aided him in his distress.”]

_Anger, wrath._

_Anger_ is inward feeling. _Wrath_ is inward feeling accompanied by outward manifestations. [“The wrath of the elements.” “The anger of the inmost soul.”]

_Accurate, exact._

_Accurate_ is aiming at, and therefore attaining to, correctness. _Exact_ has not necessarily this implication of intention, and may be used of accidental correctness. [“He was very honest and accurate in his accounts.” “He was exact in that financial statement, but it was by chance.”]

_Authentic, genuine_ (applied to books, writing, &c.).

_Authentic_ is that which gives a true account of the matters in question. _Genuine_ is that which has been written or composed by the person whose signature the book or paper bears. [“This is a genuine letter of the great Captain’s; but it does not give an authentic account of the voyage.”]

_Admittance, admission._

_Admittance_ is the right of entry; _admission_ is the actual entry. [“The admittance fee was twenty-five cents.” “The burglar gained admission to the house by a window.”]

_Allow and permit._

_Allow_ is the stronger of the two. [“I begged to to be allowed to go; but I was refused.” “Permit me to show you to a seat.”]

_Appear, seem._

_Seem_ is confined to the mind; _appear_, to the senses. [“It seems to me that you have made a mistake.” “That house appears white to me.”]

_Bountiful and plentiful._

_Bountiful_ is used of persons; _plentiful_, of things. [“The game was plentiful.” “A bountiful giver.”]

_Bravery, courage, valor._

_Bravery_ is a natural quality; _courage_ and _valor_ are acquired qualities; courage, in particular, being the result of reason. _Bravery_ and _valor_ are confined to contests with living beings; _courage_ is not. Again, _valor_ is not used of single combat, but of war; _bravery_ and _courage_ may be used of single combat. [“The natives showed great bravery.” “He bore his sufferings with undaunted courage.” “His military career was one long record of valor.”]

_Beneficent, beneficence; benevolent, benevolence._

_Beneficent_ is used chiefly--if not entirely--of actions. _Benevolent_ is used of both actions and feelings, chiefly of feelings. The same thing may be said of most adjectives and nouns having the endings _-ficent_ and _-ficence_ [facio, I do] respectively, and _-volent_ and _-volence_ [volo, I will] respectively; _e.g._: _munificent_, _malevolent_. [“He was naturally very benevolent; but, owing to the circumstances of his life, he could not shew any very great beneficence.” “He was a very munificent man, continually giving away his money to the poor.”] The use of these words should be confined to persons or personified things. It is incorrect, therefore, to speak of a _munificent_ gift.

_Brevity, conciseness; brief, concise._

_Brevity_ is mere shortness. _Conciseness_ is shortness along with condensation. [“His speech was very brief; for really there was nothing to be said.” “Mr. H. is very concise in his speeches: they are short, but full of matter.”]

_Continuous, continual._

Motion is _continuous_ when there are no interruptions. It is _continual_ when there are interruptions. [“Life itself is continuous.” “The demands upon ones purse are imperative and continual.”]

_Character, reputation._

_Character_ is our real inner worth; _reputation_ is the world’s opinion of our character. [“His reputation is bad; but, could we see his real character, we should find him not so bad, after all.”]

_Conscious, aware._

_Conscious_ applies to the heart, the soul, the conscience: _i.e._, to the moral and spiritual part of man. _Aware_ applies to the mind. [“He was conscious of his sin.” “He was not aware that you saw him.”]

_Crime, sin, vice._

A _crime_ is an infraction of the law of a particular land or people. _Sin_ is the violation of a religious law. This law may be common to many lands or peoples. _Vice_ is a continual course of wrong-doing, and is unaffected by country, religious belief, or state of life: being a line of conduct harmful to the vicious man or to others. [Smuggling is a crime; idleness is a sin, and, if long-continued, it becomes a vice.]

_Courteous, polite [polished]._

_Courteous_ has reference chiefly to others; _polite or polished_, to ourselves. The former is “objective;” the latter, “subjective.” [Thus: “We met an old fisherman, who took us home and treated us with great courtesy and kindness. Of course, he was not polished: in fact, he had very little idea of politeness.”]

_Catalogue, list._

A _catalogue_ is a list accompanied by short explanations or notes. “The list of the paintings was only a page and a half long; but the complete catalogue--compiled later--occupied four pages.”

_Casual, accidental, fortuitous._

That is _casual_ which is unpremeditated. That is _fortuitous_ which is “opposed to systematic design.” [_Fortuitous_ generally implies a combination of events.] That is _accidental_ which interrupts (generally unpleasantly) the ordinary course of events. [“Walking carelessly along, I took a casual look at the prison window; and there I beheld my friend.” “The accidental stopping of the coach saved him a further explanation.” “The meeting was quite fortuitous: it would not have taken place once in a thousand times.”]

_Compel, compulsion; coerce, coercion._

_Compel and compulsion_ generally imply the employment of physical force. _Coerce and coercion_ do not, their meaning being almost always confined to moral or mental pressure.

_Confess, acknowledge._

_Confess_, _confession_, imply that what is told was before unknown to the person to whom the confession is made. _Acknowledge_, _acknowledgment_, have no such implication. [“But what was their surprise when the captain confessed that he himself was the murderer!” “The monster, being accused of the crime, acknowledged his guilt.”]

_Conjecture, surmise._

_A surmise_ is founded on evidence; _a conjecture_, not necessarily so. A _conjecture_, therefore, is generally of something visionary; a _surmise_ of something practical. [“His conjecture, that the moon is inhabited, is now discredited.” “After taking observations, he surmised that the Indians contemplated an attack.”]

_Con- and Co-_ [in composite words].

_Con-_ is used before a consonant; _co-_, before a vowel. When, however, the two parts are very distinct, _co-_ is preferred, before even a consonant. A hyphen will, in such cases, generally be used. [_Contemporary_, _coeval_, _co-partner_.]

_Complete, finished._

_Complete_ means lacking nothing. _Finished_ means done as far as was intended. [“The house is finished for the winter; but still, much more labor will be required to make it complete.”]

_Custom, habit, usage._

_Custom and usage_ apply to society; _habit_ applies to an individual. Again, _usage_ implies long standing; _custom_, not necessarily so. [“My _habit_ in Africa was to rise early. Early rising is a _custom_ of the country, sanctioned by immemorial _usage_.”]

_Discriminate, distinguish._

_Discriminate_ is used of small differences; _distinguish_, of great differences. Again: _discriminate_ applies to several objects; _distinguish_, to two. Further: _discriminate_ is generally used of the mind; _distinguish_, of the senses. [“By the light of the lantern he distinguished the bodies.” “He discriminated among the specimens, which, to an unpractised eye, appeared all the same.”]

_Despotism, tyranny._

_Despotism_ exists by law or of right. _A tyranny_ exists in the face of law and right. A _despotism_ may, therefore, be mild, as has often been the case in history.

_Determine, resolve._

_Resolve_ is stronger than _determine_. [“I am resolved to die rather than give up my Church.” “I am determined to get the book, if possible.”]

_Directed, guided._

One is _directed_ by a person at a greater or less distance. One is _guided_ by a person close at hand. [“Taking our hand, he guided us through the forest.” “Standing on an eminence, he directed the pilgrims to their various quarters, by a movement of the hand.”]

_Deduction, induction._

In reasoning, _deduction_ is proceeding from generals to particulars; _induction_, from particulars to generals.

_Direct, address._

A letter is _directed_ to him who is to receive it; _addressed_, to him who is to read it. A parcel, therefore, is _directed_, not _addressed_.

_Drive, ride._

_Drive_ is to urge along; _ride_, to be borne along. This is the distinction in America. [“Mr. Vanderbilt drove a beautiful span of bays; his wife rode beside him.”] In Great Britain and Ireland, _drive_ generally refers to vehicles (except busses, cabs, and other public conveyances, with which its use is confined to the driver); whilst _ride_ means to be carried upon the back of a horse, donkey, &c. Thus: “I went out for a drive,” would not necessarily mean that I myself held the reins. The American use of _drive and ride_ is, however, more agreeable to reason and authority.

_Evidence, testimony._

_Evidence_ is that which produces proof. _Testimony_ is that which is intended to produce proof, _i.e._, the giving of what may be _evidence_. [“Much testimony was taken, but really there was little evidence of even the commission of the crime.”]

_Epidemic, endemic._

_Epidemic_ is a disease brought upon or into a community from some outside quarter. It is therefore unnatural to the locality. _Endemic_ is a disease natural to the community or locality. [“Yellow-fever, which is epidemic at New York, is endemic in Cuba.”]

_Expense, cost; expensive, costly._

_Expense and expensive_ refer to the purchaser; _cost and costly_, to the thing purchased. [“That vase is not too costly--for it is very valuable; but it is too expensive for my limited means.”]

_Effect, consequence, result._

The _effect_ is that which immediately follows the cause. Then comes the _consequence_, and after that the _result_. [“The effect of wearing clothes is warmth; the consequence is the wearing out of the clothes; the result is the purchase of new clothes.”]

_Eternal, everlasting._

_Eternal_: having neither beginning nor end; _everlasting_: having beginning, but no end. [“Eternal Father, strong to save.” “The everlasting hills.”]

_Etc. [etcetera], and so forth._

_Etc._ means, “and others of a different kind.” _And so forth_ means, “and others of the same kind,” “in the same strain,” “and the like.” [“He has sold his horses, cows, sheep, &c.” “The result is a train of coughs, colds, consumption, and so forth.”] In dignified composition the use of these expressions is to be avoided as much as possible. It is incorrect to use _etc._, _&c._, _and so forth_, in instances like the following: “Employ some such word as mountain, hill,” &c. [_Some such_ renders &c. superfluous.]

_Ferment, foment._

_Ferment_ is to produce alcohol by fermentation. Hence _ferment_ is sometimes used figuratively with the intransitive force of “to be in an excited state.” _Foment_ is to apply lotions to; hence, figuratively, to animate or stir up. [“The revolutionary ingredients seemed to be fermenting; the leaven of socialism seemed to be working.” “He fomented the disturbance by appeals to the people.”]

_Faultless, blameless._

_Faultless_ is, free from defects as well as from evil or wickedness. _Blameless_ is, free from evil or wickedness alone. [“His course of life was blameless, although he made many errors in business matters.” “His playing was faultless.”]

_Falsehood, falsity._

A _falsehood_ is a false or incorrect proposition. _Falsity_ is the falseness or incorrectness of the proposition, apart from the proposition itself. [“That statement is a falsehood. The falsity of the assertions contained therein is obvious.”]

_Farther, further._

_Farther_ is used of rest; _further_, of motion. In a secondary sense _further_ is generally preferred. [“Montreal is farther away than Toronto.” “I throw the ball further than you.” “To speak further is superfluous.”]

_Goodness, virtue._

_Goodness_ is innate; _virtue_, acquired. [“His goodness of heart prompted the savage to give us food.” “His virtue was of slow growth: at first he was a most degraded man.”]

_However, but, yet, still, notwithstanding, nevertheless, in spite of._ These words are in their proper gradation from weak to strong.

_Hidden, concealed, secret._

_Hidden and concealed_ imply intention; _secret_ does not. [“Hidden here, concealed there, the officers found the stolen goods.” “Deep in the earth he found the secret ore.”]

_Haste, hurry._

_Haste_ is quickness. _Hurry_ is quickness accompanied with confusion or flurry. [“We are often in haste; we ought never to be in a hurry.”]

_Hindrance, obstacle, inpediment._

A _hindrance_ stops us at the beginning; an _obstacle_, in the middle; an _inpediment_ retards us all the time. [“Our journey was very unfortunate. The entrance of a visitor was a hindrance to our departure; about a mile from the house we found in the road an obstacle in the shape of a fallen tree; whilst the mass of baggage we carried was a serious inpediment to our progress.”]

_Informed, instructed, taught._

One who is _informed_ knows something new; one who is _instructed_ understands something new; one who is _taught_ can do something new. [“He was informed of the death of his father.” “He was instructed in matters of trade.” “He was taught how to make sword-blades.”]

_To take issue, to join issue._

_To take issue_ is to object to the right of denial. _To join issue_ is to admit the right of denial, but to disagree as to facts. _Join issue_ should, of course, never be used for _agree_. [“He wanted to argue with me; but I at once took issue with him, alleging that his position in the matter precluded any argument.” “He said yes; I said no. Upon this we joined issue.”]

_Indecent, immodest._

_Indecent_ is used of the person; _immodest_, of the conduct or disposition. [“The wearing of such clothes was simply indecent.” “His general behaviour was quite immodest.”]

_Instant, moment._

An _instant_ is shorter than a _moment_. [“In a few moments--nay, in a single instant--we may be ushered into eternity.”]

_Industrious, diligent; industry, diligence._

_Diligent_ and _diligence_ express the idea of thoroughly doing whatever is at hand. _Industrious_ and _industry_ express the same idea, and, in addition, imply a readiness or watchfulness for work. [“He performed his task with diligence--just as a well-trained horse does. He lacked, however, those habits of industry and thrift which raised his brother to wealth.”]

_Import, meaning, sense._

_Import_ is the idea most readily conveyed. _Meaning_ is the idea intended to be conveyed. _Sense_ is the way in which the expression may be taken, or its general substance or spirit. [“He says the meaning is so and so. His words may have that sense, but it is not their obvious import.”]

_Illusion, delusion._

_Illusion_ is the imagining to be existent of something non-existent. _Delusion_ is an incorrect idea about something really existent. [“His chief illusion was that there were wild beasts in the room.” “The delusion under which he labored was that paper currency is real money, instead of its representative.”]

_In-_, _un-_ [prefixes].

_In-_ is the ordinary negative prefix to be used with nouns and adjectives of Latin origin. _Un-_ is the negative prefix to be used: (1) with words of Anglo-Saxon origin; (2) with verbs of Latin origin. [Thus: _inhospitable_, _ingratitude_; _unclean_, _unauthorize_.] There are, however, many exceptions; _e.g._: _uncomfortable_, _incapacitate_.

_Inexorable, inflexible._

_Inexorable_ is, not to be prevailed upon by entreaty; _inflexible_, not to be bent at all. _Inflexible_ is therefore the stronger of the two. [“We tried entreaties, but he was inexorable. Afterwards, we tried money and threats; but he was still inflexible.”]

_Jar, pitcher, jug._

_A jar_ is a wide-mouthed vessel without a handle [“A jar of jam”]. _A pitcher_ is a wide-mouthed vessel with a protruding lip and a large ear or handle. [“Please pass the milk-pitcher.”] _A jug_ is a small-mouthed vessel with a swelling body and a small ear or handle near the mouth. [“He brought a large jug of beer.”]

_Low-priced, cheap._

_Low-priced_ is that for which little has been paid. The thing may however, really be dear. _Cheap_ is that the price of which is low, its intrinsic worth being considered. [“The watch was by no means low-priced; it cost, in fact, one hundred pounds; still, it was cheap at that sum, for its action was perfect.”]

_Lazy, idle, slothful._

_Lazy_ describes the general disposition, and is the opposite to _alert_ or _industrious_. _Idle_ refers to a particular time, place or matter, and is the opposite to _busy_ or _occupied_. _Slothful_ or _indolent_ implies a hatred of exertion and a general slowness or languor. The opposite to _slothfulness_ or _indolence_ is _activity_. [“The boy was thoroughly lazy: he would neither work nor play.” “After a hard day’s work, he was now enjoying a few minutes of idle repose.” “Be not slothful in business.”]

_Laudable, praiseworthy._

_Laudable_ is used of things; _praiseworthy_, of persons. [“It is a most laudable endeavour.” “He is a praiseworthy man.”]

_Last, latest._

_Last_ is used of place or order; _latest_, of time. [“His name was last on the list.” “He was the latest to arrive.”] _Late_ is often employed incorrectly for _last_. _E.g._: “The _late_ [_last_] speaker.” #

_Leave, quit._

_Leave_ generally implies a return. _Quit_ generally implies no
return. [“He left me for a moment.” “He quitted me for ever.”]

_Malice, spite._

_Malice_ is used of conduct in general; _spite_, of individual acts.
[“He followed him for years with untiring malice.” “On this occasion
he certainly shewed spite towards his opponent.”]

_Marital, matrimonial._

_Marital_ means, pertaining to a husband; _matrimonial_, pertaining
to marriage. [“His marital rights were disregarded.” “Matrimonial
alliances between crowned heads are often matters of policy.”]

_Mistake, error._

A _mistake_ is not necessarily blameworthy. An _error_ is
blameworthy. [“That was a fortunate mistake.” “It was a downright
error on his part; for he had been warned again and again.”]

_Mute, dumb._

_Mute_ is used of one who _can_ speak, but who, through compulsion or
otherwise, will not. _Dumb_ is used of one who _cannot_ speak. So,
the expression, _a deaf-mute_, should be, _a deaf and dumb person_.
[“He was mute, in spite of all their threats: he would not betray his
friends.” “He was dumb, having uttered no articulate sound in his
whole life.”]

_Merely, simply._

_Merely_ implies no addition; _simply_, no admixture. [“They were
there merely to prevent bloodshed.” “It was simply incredible that he
should have so acted.”]

_Nearly, entirely, scarcely; almost, completely, hardly._

_Nearly_, _entirely_, _scarcely_, are applied to quantity, time or
space; _almost_, _completely_, _hardly_, generally to degree. [“It is
nearly a mile from here.” “The apple is hardly ripe.” “He is almost
dead.”]

_Neglectful, negligent._

_Neglectful_ refers to an individual act. _Negligent_, to a series
of acts that have produced a habit. [“To forget that book was very
neglectful.” “He was all his life a most negligent man.”]

_Owing, due._

_Due_ is used of debts. _Owing_ calls attention to the source or
origin whence something springs. The present participle [_owing_]
of the intransitive verb _to owe_ has taken the place of the past
participle [_owed_] of the transitive verb _to owe_. [“A large sum
was due him.” “It was owing to the Crusades that many oriental ideas
and inventions were introduced into the West.”]

_On, upon._

_Upon_ is stronger than _on_, and should be employed when
particular attention is to be drawn to the support, whether literal
or figurative. With verbs of motion, also, _upon_ is generally
preferable. [“The book is on the table.” “He lifted the large box,
and put it upon the table.” “Upon truth and righteousness, upon
honour and justice, must rest the foundations of every state.”]

_Perspicacity, perspicuity; perspicacious, perspicuous._

_Perspicacity and perspicacious_ express the power of of seeing
clearly. _Perspicuity and perspicuous_ express the quality of
clearness. The former two are active in their meaning, the latter two
passive. The ending _-city_, here as elsewhere, denotes the power
or ability to do something; _e.g._: _veracity_ is the quality of
speaking the truth, not truth itself. [“I admire the perspicuity of
his explanations.” “He is a most perspicacious man: nothing escapes
his eye.”] In many cases, _clear-sightedness_, _clear-sighted_,
_clearness_, _clear_, are greatly preferable to _perspicacity_ and
the rest.

_Perpetually, continually; perpetual, continual._

_Perpetually_ is an exact synonym of _continuously_, and means,
therefore, never-ceasing. _Continual_ implies interruptions, and is
equivalent to constantly renewed. [“The perpetual flow of the river.”
“The continual roar of the mill, ceasing only for a short time at
night.”]

_Proclaim, announce._

One _proclaims_ opinions, sentiments, and so forth. One _announces_
news, tidings, and so on. [“He proclaimed to the vast throng the
revolutionary doctrines of socialism.” “The messenger announced that
the battle was lost.”]

_Purpose, intent or intention._

_Purpose_ generally implies the employment of means to accomplish
the end. _Intent and intention_ may exist without the employment of
means. [“His intention was to do wonders; but he never did anything
at all.” “His practical purpose soon found ways and means to
accomplish what he wished.”]

_Poverty, indigence, pauperism._

_Poverty_ means straitened circumstances, one’s position in life
being considered. _Indigence_ is absolute destitution. _Pauperism_
implies the receiving of public relief. [“The duke was in poverty,
although he had £1,000 a year. But what is that for the expenses
of a duke?” “I found them in the greatest indigence--without any
fuel, and with but a mouthful of bread.” “Legalized pauperism kills
individual effort.”]

_Reticent, reticence; reserved, reserve._

_Reticence and reticent_ are confined to habitual quiet or caution.
_Reserve and reserved_ may refer to temporary quiet or caution. [“He
a very reticent man: during our whole acquaintance with him I have
never heard him make a speech.” “I questioned him upon that point,
but he kept a careful reserve.”]

_Reverse and converse._

_Reverse_ is the opposite or antithesis. _Converse_ is “an opposite
reciprocal proposition.” In the converse, therefore, the cause
becomes the effect, the condition becomes the result. [“Minus is the
reverse of plus.” “If the sides of two triangles are respectively
equal, the angles will be equal. But the converse is not true; for
the angles may be equal, and the sides unequal.”]

_Recompense, reward, meed._

_Recompense_ is a fair compensation. _Reward_ is any present or gift.
_Meed_ is something earned by one’s own toil. [“The recompense for
the loss of his arm at the Alma was not too great.” “He rewarded me
munificently--indeed, far above my deserts.” “He alone who fights and
labours, wins the glorious meed.”]

_Robbery, theft._

_Robbery_ is stealing with violence; _theft_, generally without.
[“After a hard struggle, he robbed the traveller of his watch.” “I
had not noticed the theft, it was committed so quietly.”]

_Remember, recollect._

_Remember_ is to gather materials ready at hand; _recollect_, to
gather materials not ready at hand. [“I do not remember, but I will
try to recollect.”]

_Religion, piety._

_Religion_ is a form of belief or worship. _Piety_ is reverence for
what is good, and the desire to do good. It includes, therefore,
love, charity and such like. [“There are many religions; there is but
one piety.”]

_Relieve, alleviate, mitigate._

_Relieve_ is to remove pain _entirely_. _Alleviate_ or _mitigate_ is
to remove it but partially. _Alleviate_ is used generally of others,
_mitigate_ of ourselves. [“At his touch the pain was instantly
relieved.” “I alleviated his sufferings through the application of a
lotion.” “My anguish was somewhat mitigated.”]

_Recant, abjure._

_Recant_ generally implies the use of force; _abjure_ generally does
not. [“Unable to bear the torture, he recanted.” “I freely abjure all
part in the plot.”]

_Rend, tear._

_Rend_ implies purpose; _tear_ may or may not do so. _Rend_ generally
carries with it the idea of splitting or dividing. Such idea is not
necessarily implied in _tear_. [“He unfortunately tore his coat.” “He
tore his hair.” “He rent his garment.”]

_Sewerage, sewage._

_Sewerage_: a system of drainage or the science of drainage. It is
but rarely used for sewage. _Sewage_: sometimes the same as sewerage,
but generally the matter flowing through the drains. [“How many books
have been written on sewerage!” “The sewage from the city pollutes
the river.”]

_Spontaneous, voluntary._

_Spontaneous_ should be confined to things; _voluntary_, to persons.
[“It was an instance of spontaneous combustion.” “The action was
voluntary on his part.”]

_Sociable, social._

_Sociable_ expresses a readiness for companionship. _Social_ refers
to the relations that men in an organized society bear, one to
another. [“He is a very sociable man.” “Have you read the great works
on social science and social progress?”] _Sociable_ is, therefore,
the correct form of the noun. [“The sociable was successful.”]

_Satisfied, contented._

_Satisfied_ is stronger than _contented_, and means that all our
desires are gratified. _Satisfaction_ is positive pleasure, and comes
from the outside. _Contentment_ is the absence of pain, and lies
in ourselves. _Satisfaction_ is less lasting than _contentment_.
[“The industrious and intelligent artisan may, for a time, remain
contented; but he is certainly far from satisfied with his lot.”]

_Sufficient, enough._

One has _enough_ when one’s desires are satisfied; _sufficient_, when
one’s needs are satisfied. [“Do not let the horse eat as much as he
will. Give him just sufficient.” “He was rich; but, like all other
misers, he never had enough.”]

_Strong, powerful._

_Strong_: of sound constitution, able to stand hard work. _Powerful_:
able to lift heavy weights, to strike heavy blows, &c. [“He
made a gallant fight against disease; for he was a very strong
man.” “Strange to say, he was a very powerful man, able to give
tremendous blows; and yet, his constitution was undermined through
dissipation.”] _Muscular_ is a very effective word.

_Stubborn, obstinate._

_Stubborn_: opposed to the way of others; _obstinate_: set in one’s
own way. [“I tried to induce him to approve my scheme; but, although
he had none of his own to offer, yet he was stubborn and refused.”
“He wished to go his own way, and was very obstinate about the
matter.”]

_Safety, security._

_Safety_: freedom from danger. _Security_: freedom from care.
_Security_ may, therefore, be real or fancied. [“He relied with the
greatest security upon his followers; but, really, he was far from
being in a position of safety.”]

_Subdue, subjugate._

_Subdue_ is to conquer so thoroughly that resistance ceases.
_Subjugate_ is to conquer and then to impose restraints, generally
repeated and severe. _Subjugate_, moreover, is used chiefly in
a literal sense, _i.e._, with reference to nations; _subdue_ is
frequently used in a figurative sense, _i.e._, with reference to the
mind or the moral nature. [“England subdued, but did not subjugate
Russia.” “The Poles have been subjugated; but their spirits are yet
unsubdued.”]

_Source, origin._

_Source_ implies that the supply is continuous; _origin_, that it has
ceased. [“This was the origin of the friendship, which was a source
of such joy.”]

_Tongue, language._

_Tongue_ is generally an original form of speech; _language_, a
derived form. [“The Latin is one of the tongues from which so many
languages have sprung.”] _Language_ may, of course, be used of
inarticulate speech [“The language of birds”], where _tongue_ would
be incorrect.

_Transitory, transient_ or _fleeting_.

_Transitory_ is liable to pass away. _Transient or fleeting_ is
actually passing away. _Transitory_ is abstract; _transient and
fleeting_ are concrete, as well as abstract. _Fleeting_ is preferable
to _transient_. [“Earth’s joys are transitory: in a moment they may
pass away.” “Life is fleeting as a shadow: the transient moments can
never be recalled.”]

_Trivial, trifling._

_Trivial_ generally has a tinge of contempt; _trifling_, generally
not. [“That is the most absurd and trivial matter in the world.” “The
greater part of our time ought to be occupied with serious matters;
the rest may be occupied with amusements and other rather trifling
matters.”]

_Talkative, loquacious._

_Talkative_ implies a desire to speak, accompanied or not with
readiness of speech. _Loquacious_ implies a desire to speak,
accompanied with a readiness of speech. [“The little child was very
talkative.” “Unlike most loquacious men, he was very instructive in
his long harangues.”]

_Voluntary, willing._

_Voluntary_ is with seeming readiness or acquiescence; _willing_,
with real readiness or acquiescence. [“He went voluntarily: no
compulsion was used; but still, he looked as if he did not like to
go.” “He was ready--yes, more than ready--willing, to die.”]

_Vulgar, immodest; vulgarity, immodesty._

Only what is metaphorically low is _vulgar_. _Vulgarity_, moreover,
generally implies pretension to refinement along with lowness of
disposition. [“That was a most immodest act.” “His general bearing
was very vulgar.” “The old-fashioned English squire--coarse as he
was--was not vulgar, was not given to cheap display and pretence.”]

_Whole, entire._

_Whole_: that from which nothing has been taken. _The whole_ and _all
the_ are usually interchangeable. _Entire_: that which is undivided.
[“The whole town was burned: not a single house escaped.” “That
congregation, at any rate, was entire in its vote: there were no
divisions among its members.”]

_Wit, humor._

_Wit_ is the effect of unexpected fitness or congruity. _Humor_ is
the effect of unexpected unfitness or incongruity. Again, humor is
not, as wit is, sudden and short-lived; it extends very often through
a whole book or speech. [“Humor is all. Wit should be brought only to
turn agreeably some proper thought.” “He made a very witty pun, and
wrote more than one humorous chapter.”]

_World, earth, globe._