Chapter XXXVI: Some Phases of the Larger Will

GROWING EFFICIENCY OF THE INTELLECTUAL PROCESSES—ORGANIC IDEALISM—THE LARGER MORALITY—INDIRECT SERVICE—INCREASING SIMPLICITY AND FLEXIBILITY IN SOCIAL STRUCTURE—PUBLIC WILL SAVES PART OF THE COST OF CHANGE—HUMAN NATURE THE GUIDING FORCE BEHIND PUBLIC WILL.

The main source of a more effective public will is to be sought not, peculiarly, in the greater activity of government, but in the growing efficiency of the intellectual and moral processes as a whole. This general striving of the public mind toward clearer consciousness is too evident to escape any observer. In every province of life a multiform social knowledge is arising and, mingling with the higher impulses of human nature, is forming a system of rational ideals, which through leadership and emulation gradually work their way into practice.

Compare, for instance, the place now taken in our universities by history, economics, political science, sociology and the like with the attention given them, say, in 1875, when in fact some of these studies had no place at all. Or consider the multiplication since the same date of government bureaus—federal, state and local—whose main function is to collect, arrange and disseminate social knowledge. It is not too much to say that governments are becoming, more and more, vast laboratories of social science. Observe, also, the number of books and periodicals seriously devoted to these subjects. No doubt much of this work is feverish and shallow—as must be expected in a time of change—but there is, on the whole, nothing more certain or more hopeful than the advance in the larger self-knowledge of mankind.

One result of this clearer consciousness is that idealism is coming to be organic; that is to say each particular ideal is coming to be formed and pursued in subordination to a system of ideals based on a large perception of fact. While putting a special enthusiasm into his own work, the idealist is learning that he needs to have also a general understanding of every good work, and of the whole to which all contribute. For him to imagine that his is the only work worth doing is as unfortunate as for the captain of a company to imagine that he is conducting the whole campaign. Other things equal, the most effective idealists are those who are most sane, and who have a sense for the complication, interdependence and inertia of human conditions.

A study of the ideals and programmes that have had most acceptance even in recent years would make it apparent that our state of mind regarding society has been much like that which prevailed regarding the natural world when men sought the philosopher’s stone and the fountain of perpetual youth. Much energy has been wasted, or nearly wasted, in the exclusive and intolerant advocacy of special schemes—single tax, prohibition, state socialism and the like—each of which was imagined by its adherents to be the key to millennial conditions. Every year, however, makes converts to the truth that no isolated scheme can be a good scheme, and that real progress must be an advance all along the line. Those who see only one thing can never see that truly, and so must work, even at that, in a somewhat superficial and erratic manner.

For similar reasons our moral schemes and standards must grow larger and more commensurate with the life which they aim to regulate.[177] The higher will can never work out unless it is as intelligently conceived and organized as commerce and politics. Evidently if we do not see how life really goes and what good and ill are under actual conditions, we can neither inculcate nor follow the better courses. There is nothing for it but to learn to feel and to effectuate kinds of right involving a sense of wider and remoter results than men have been used to take into account. As fast as science enables us to trace the outcome of a given sort of action we must go on to create a corresponding sense of responsibility for that outcome.

The popular systems of ethics are wholly inadequate, and all thinking persons are coming to see that those traits of decency in the obvious relations of life that we have been accustomed to regard as morality are in great part of secondary importance. Many of them are of somewhat the same character as John Woolman’s refusal to wear dyed hats—we wonder that people do not see something more important to exercise their consciences upon. When the larger movements of life were subconscious and the good and ill flowing from them were ascribed to an inscrutable providence, morality could not be concerned with them; but the more we understand them the more they must appear the chief field for its activity.

We still have to do with obvious wrong—the drunkard, the housebreaker, the murderer, and the like—but these simple offences are easy to deal with, comparatively, as being evident and indubitable, so that all normal people condemn them. No great ability or organization upholds them; they are like the outbreaks of savages or children in that they do not constitute a formidable menace to society. And, moreover, we are coming to see that they are most effectually dealt with by indirect and preventive methods.

The more dangerous immorality is, of course, that which makes use of the latest engines of politics or commerce to injure the community. Wrong-doers of this kind are usually decent and kindly in daily walk and conversation, as well as supporters of the church and other respectable institutions. For the most part they are not even hypocrites, but men of a dead and conventional virtue, not awake to the real meaning of what they are and do. A larger morality requires that they should be waked up, that a public conscience, based on knowledge, should judge things by their true results, and should know how to make its judgments effectual.

Moreover, this is not a matter merely of the bad men whom we read about in the newspapers, but one of personal guilt in all of us. It is my observation that the same wrongs which are held up to execration in the magazines are present, under appropriate forms, among teachers, lawyers, ministers, reputable tradesmen, and others who come under my immediate notice. We are all in it: the narrow principles are much the same, the differences being largely in the scale of operations, in being or not being found out, in more or less timidity in taking risks, and so on.

A somewhat similar problem is that of energizing indirect service. The groups we serve—the nation, the educational institution, the oppressed class, for instance—have come to be so vast, and often so remote from the eye, that even the ingenuity of the newspaper and magazine press can hardly make them alive for us and draw our hearts and our money in their direction. The “we” does not live in face-to-face contact, and though photo-engravings and stereopticons and exhibitions and vivid writing are a marvelous substitute, they are often inadequate, so that we do not feel the cogency of the common interest so immediately as did the men of the clans. “Civilization,” says Professor Simon Patten, “spares us more and more the sight of anguish, and our imaginations must be correspondingly sharpened to see in the check-book an agent as spiritual and poetic as the grime and blood-stain of ministering hands.”[178] How far this may come to pass it is hard to say: for myself, I do not find it easy to write checks for objects that are not made real to me by some sort of personal contact. No doubt, however, our growing system of voluntary institutions—churches, philanthropic societies, fraternal orders, labor unions and the like—are training us in the habit of expressing ourselves through the check-book and other indirect agents.

I expect, however, that the best results will flow not merely from an intelligent general benevolence that writes checks for all sorts of good causes, but from a kind of specialization in well-doing, that will enable one by familiarity to see through the tangle of relations at a particular point and act in the view of truth. In philanthropy, for instance, an increasing number of men and women of wealth and ability will devote not only their checks but trained thought and personal exertion to some particular sort of work which takes hold of their interest—to the welfare of dependent children, of the blind, and so on—making this their business, giving it the same close and eager attention they would any other business, and so coming to understand it through and through. These, along with salaried workers, will be the leaders in each special line, and will draw after them the less personal support of those who have confidence in them; but people will never send much of their treasure where their heart does not go first. Every city and neighborhood has its urgent social needs which the resident may study and devote himself to with much better results to the world and to his own character than if he limits himself to the writing of checks. And for that matter every occupation—as law, medicine, teaching and the various sorts of business and hand-labor—has its own philanthropies and reforms into which one may put all the devotion he is capable of. If each of us chooses some disinterested form of public service and puts himself thoroughly into it, things will go very well.

Another tendency involved in the rise of public will is that toward a greater simplicity and flexibility of structure in every province of life: principles are taking the place of formulas.

In the early history of a science the body of knowledge consists of a mass of ill-understood and ill-related observations, speculations and fancies, which the disciple takes on the authority of the master: but as principles are discovered this incoherent structure falls to pieces, and is replaced by a course of study based on experiment and inference. So in the early growth of every institution the truth that it embodies is not perceived or expressed in simplicity, but obscurely incarnated in custom and formula. The perception of principles does not do away with the mechanism, but tends to make it simple, flexible, human, definitely serving a conscious purpose and quick to stand or fall according to its success. Under the old system everything is preserved, because men do not know just where the virtue resides; under the new the essential is kept and the rest thrown away.

Or we may say that the change is like the substitution of an alphabet for picture writing, with the result that language becomes at the same time more complex in its structure and simpler in its elements. When once it is discovered that all speech may be reduced to a few elementary sounds the symbols of these, being sufficient to express all possible words, are more efficient and less cumbersome than the many characters that were used before.

The method of this change is that struggle for existence among ideas which is implied in the wide and free intercourse of modern life. In this only the vital, human and indispensable can survive, and truth is ever casting off superfluity and working itself down to first principles. We have remarked this in the case of religion, and it would be easy to find the same process at work in other traditions.

The modern world, then, in spite of its complexity, may become fundamentally simpler, more consistent and reasonable. Apparently formalism can never more be an accepted and justified condition, any more than reason can be exchanged for the blind instinct of the lower animals. It will exist wherever thought and feeling are inadequate to create a will—as is much the case at present—but people will not be content with it as in the past. There will be creeds, but they will affirm no more than is really helpful to believe, ritual, but only what is beautiful or edifying; everything must justify itself by function.

Public will, like individual will, has the purpose of effecting an adaptation to conditions that is rational and economical instead of haphazard and wasteful. In general it should greatly diminish, though it can hardly obviate, the cost of social change. In commerce, for instance, it has already rendered crises less sudden and destructive—in spite of the enormous scale of modern transactions—and the time should not be very far away when trouble of this sort will be so foreseen and discounted and so provided against by various sorts of insurance as to do but little damage. In the same way the vast problem of poverty, and of the degeneracy that springs from it, can be met and in great part conquered by a long-sighted philanthropy and education. In religion there is apparently no more need of that calamitous overthrow of the foundations of belief from which many suffered in the passing generation. In the state violent revolution seems likely to disappear as fast as democracy is organized; while in international relations it will be strange if we do not see a rapid diminution of war. In all these matters, and in many others, social costs are capable of being foreseen and provided against by rational measures expressing an enlightened public will.

The guiding force back of public will, now as ever, is of course human nature itself in its more enduring characteristics, those which find expression in primary groups and are little affected by institutional changes. This nature, familiar yet inscrutable, is apparently in a position to work itself out more adequately than at any time in the past.

FOOTNOTES:

[177] This line of thought is developed by Professor E. A. Ross in his book, Sin and Society.

[178] The New Basis of Civilization, 61.

INDEX

Abbott, Lyman, 187.

Achilles, 110.

Addams, Jane, 25, 137, 190, 191, 244, 350, 385.

Agreement, not essential to public opinion, 122.

Alphabet, 417.

Amenomori, 331.

Anarchism, 196;
in the church, 374.

Anarchy and spoliation, fear of, 276.

Anderson, W. L., 83.

Ann Arbor, school carnival in, 408.

Architecture, as communication, 79, 172;
disorganization in, 390 ff.

Aristocracy, hereditary, 210, 257, 282 f.

Army, German, 324;
American, 325.

Art, visible society a work of, 21;
collective judgments on, 125;
in relation to democracy, 157 ff.;
spirit of, 244 f., 321;
disorganization in, 390 ff.

Arts, non-verbal, as communication, 77 ff.

Assemblage, public, 109.

Athletic sports, 163, 199.

Attenuation of sentiment, 178.

Augustine, 374.

Austen, Jane, 102.

Autocratic control of industry, 262 ff.

Average-theory of group action, 123 ff.

Bacon, Francis, 76, 318.

Bagehot, W., 178.

Baring-Gould, 325.

Biological type, the, 315 f.

Birth-rate, decline of, 358 ff.

Blame, 15 ff., 201 ff.

Bourget, Paul, 160, 171.

Brooks, John G., 45.

Brotherhood, sentiment of, 189 ff.

Browne, Sir T., 70, 153.

Brownell, W. C., 161, 166, 321, 332 ff.

Bryce, James, 85, 136, 182, 276, 280, 369, 381.

Buck, Winifred, 43.

Burckhardt, 354.

Burke, 330.

Burne-Jones, 168.

Burroughs, John, 93.

Camp-fire, Assembly around, 109 f.

Carlyle, 167, 323.

Carnegie, A., views of on wealth, 281.

Capitalist class, ascendency of, 256 ff.

Caste, 209 ff.

Change, social, in relation to caste, 217, 225, 231.

Check-book, in social reform, 415 f.

Chicago, 212;
recreation centres in, 408.

Child, the, his relation to the world, 315 ff.

Children, development of social consciousness in, 7 ff., 72;
reforms in the interest of, 318 f.;
“spoiled,” 358 ff.

China, lack of communication in, 86.

Chinese, 186, 198.

Chivalry, 224.

Choice, excessive, 172;
versus mechanism, 323;
spirit of, 359 ff., 365 ff.

Christianity, 52, 73, 136, 166, 203 ff., 253, 304, 373 ff.

Church, the, 204, 322, 342, 347, 370;
disorganization in, 372 ff.

City life, 94, 178 f., 409.

Class animosity, 301 ff.

Class atmosphere, 272.

Class-consciousness, 240 ff., 275, 284 ff., 305.

Class struggle, the, 241, 277, 286.

Classes, social, 179 f., 209-309;
open, 239 ff.;
open, in relation to wealth, 248 ff.;
capitalist, 256 ff.;
organization of the ill-paid, 284 ff.;
hostile feeling between, 301.

Classical culture, 388 f.

Clergymen, facial expression of, 67.

Commercialism, 167;
in relation to art, 173 f., 261, 346, 383 ff.

Commons, J. R., 286.

Communication, 54;
significance of, 61 ff.;
growth of, 66 ff.;
modern, a cause of enlargement and animation, 80 ff.;
modern, in relation to individuality, 91 ff.;
in relation to superficiality and strain, 98 ff.;
in relation to crowds, 151, 180, 191;
in relation to caste, 226 f., 338 f.

Community ideal, the, 33 ff., 52, 305.
See also We-feeling and Moral unity.

Compensation, principle of, in social organization, 55 ff., 115, 118.

Competition, 35, 56, 158, 199 ff., 210, 226 f., 235, 239 f., 244, 323.
See also Survival of the fittest.

Comte, 237.

Conflict. See Competition.

Confusion, in relation to art and literature, 162 ff.;
to sentiment, 193.
See also Disorganization.

Conquest, a cause of caste, 221.

Conscience, public, 387.

Consciousness, growth of in history, 107 ff.

Consciousness, public, 10 ff., 82, 411 ff.

Consciousness, social, 4 ff.;
development of in children, 7 ff., 71, 350.

Conservatism, 327 ff.

Constitution of the United States, 314, 398.

Convention and tradition, 335 ff.

Conventionalism, 339 ff.

Cornish, F. W., 224.

Cost of change, 418 f.

Country life, effects of, 93 f., 178 f.

Courage, 187.

Creeds, 375 ff., 418.

Crime, 202 f.

Crises, commercial, 418.

Crowd excitement, in relation to democracy, 149 ff.

Crowds, psychology of, 149 ff.

Cuba, 322.

Culture groups and types, 163 ff., 243, 388 f.

Dante, 36, 70, 165, 173, 190, 388.

Darwin, 29, 67, 189, 295, 321.

Dead-level theory, 93, 159 ff.

Declaration of Independence, 48, 134.

Dellenbaugh, F. S., 108.

Demand, economic, often degrading, 141.

Democracy, among children, 45;
source of its ideals, 51;
dependent upon printing, 75;
relation to modern communication, 85 ff.;
an inadequate name, 86;
as mental organization, 105-205;
a discipline in self-control, 152;
and distinction, 157 ff.;
in relation to wealth, 278 ff.;
to childhood, 318, 329, 334, 398.

Descartes, 5 ff.

Determinism, moral value of, 19 f.

De Tocqueville, Alexis, 27, 92, 99, 101, 116, 159, 172, 175, 235,
329, 398.

Devine, E. T., 297.

Dialects, revival of, 96.

Diffusion, a result of modern communication, 81;
possibilities of, 87;
not opposed to selection, 88;
zeal for, 174;
the age of, 175.

Dill, Samuel, 114.

Discussion. See Opinion.

Disorganization, spiritual, 162 ff., 347 ff.;
in the family, 356 ff.;
in the church, 372 ff.;
in industry, 383 ff.;
in education and culture, 386 ff.;
in fine art, 389 ff.

Distinction, apt to cause isolation, 138 f.;
in relation to democracy 157 ff.

Divorce, 365 ff.

Domestic service, 367.

Donovan, J., 109.

Dorsey, J. O., 111.

Dress, 305.

Drink, 293 f.

Economic Interpretation of History, 255.

Economic system, confusion in, 383.

Education, 48, 87, 117, 227, 234;
formalism in, 345 f., 349;
of women, 363 ff.;
disorganization in, 386 ff.;
public, 406.

Efficiency, social, depends upon freedom, 234 f.

Ellis, H., 364.

Emerson, 125, 167, 176, 246, 342, 385.

Emulation, 307.

Energy, persistence of, 328.

England, 274, 281, 301, 302, 340, 358, 397 f.

Ennui, 99.

Environment, 214 f., 230, 291 ff., 316 f.

Equality, 180, 257, 301 f.

Ethics. See Morality.

Eugenics, 296.

Facial Expression, 66 f.

Family, 10 f.;
as a primary group, 24;
as a source of primary ideals, 24, 48, 52;
traditional careers in, 236 f.;
disorganization in, 356 ff.

Fashion, 336 ff.

Fellowship, 174 f., 242 ff.

Ferguson, on architecture, 391.

Feudal system, 223 ff.

Formalism, 56, 198, 342 ff., 376 ff., 418.

Fort Sumter, attack on, 154.

France, 155, 166, 275, 330, 331 ff., 398, 408.

Frederick the Great, 86.

Freedom, as a primary ideal, 46;
two aspects of in relation to classes, 245 f., 275, 325.

Free-will, 20.

Galton, Francis, 214, 317.

“Gangs” of boys, as primary groups, 49.

Garibaldi, 325.

Genius, 348.

Germany, 27, 248, 306, 324.

Gesture, 66, 69.

Gibbon, Edward, 73, 77.

God, 188, 196, 203, 205, 352, 353, 354, 372, 373, 380.

Goethe, 78, 165, 367, 401.

Gossip, organized, 84 f.

Government, as public will, 402 ff.;
sphere of, 403 ff.;
transformation of, 411.

Greece, refinement in, 180.

Greed of gain, 36, 254.

Green, J. R., 108.

Groups, primary, 23 ff.
See also Types, Classes and Institutions.

Gummere, F. B., 107, 222.

Hamerton, P. G., 140, 356, 390.

Hartt, R. L., 94.

Haste, 170 ff.

Heine, 95.

Herbert, Geo., 287.

Heredity and environment, 294 f., 316.

Higginson, T. W., 127, 136, 282.

History, organic view of, 255.

Holbein, 67.

Honesty and policy, 184.

Hopefulness, 187.

Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus), 110.

Hostile feeling, 199 ff., 301 ff.

House of Commons, 341.

Howard, Geo. E., 24.

Howells, W. D., 271.

Human nature, relation to primary groups, 28 ff.;
dependent upon communication, 62 f., 419.

Humanism of sentiment, 178, 180 ff.

Huxley, 190.

Idealism, Organic, 412 f.

Ideals, primary, 32 ff., 51 ff., 113;
of groups, 126 f., 165 f.

Imitation, two kinds of, 336.

Immigrants, 294, 295.

Immigration, 169, 220 f., 369.

India, caste in, 224.

Indians, American, kindness among, 41;
individuality among, 110 f.

Individual, in relation to institutions, 313 ff.

Individualism, in art, 166, 243, 347 ff.;
domestic, 357 ff.
See also Disorganization.

Individuality, how affected by modern communication, 91 ff.;
in tribal life, 110;
development of in history, 112, 116 ff.;
in relation to democracy, 160 ff.;
moral, 201 f.;
enjoyment of, 307;
in harness, 324, 332 ff.

Inheritance principle, 209 ff.

Institutions, in relation to privileged classes, 140 f., 186, 313-392;
and the individual, 313 ff.

Intolerance, 344.

Introspection, sympathetic, 7.

Italy, 167, 185, 186, 347, 348.

James, Henry, 84, 171, 174.

James, William, 20, 138, 253.

Japan, 328, 330.

Jesus, 16, 203 ff., 377.

Jevons, W. S., 407.

Johnson, Doctor, 93.

Johnson, Samuel (the orientalist), 225.

Justice, sentiment of, 181.

Keller, Helen, 62 f.

Kempis, Thomas à, 137, 138.

Kindness, 40 ff., 189 ff.

Kropotkin, P. A., 41, 189.

Labor Movement, 196, 242, 243, 258, 275, 284 ff.

Labor troubles, 308.

Lamb, Charles, 88.

Latin language, 74.

Law students, 141.

Lawfulness as a primary ideal, 42 ff.

Lawyers, 269.

Leadership, 135 f., 402.

LeBon, G., 149, 153.

Lecky, W. H. H., 96, 144.

Lee, H. C., 75.

Lee, Joseph, 34, 43.

Lincoln, 76.

Lindsey, Judge, 39.

Literature, in relation to democracy, 157 ff.;
growth of refinement in, 179;
disorganization in, 390;
of social knowledge, 411 f.

Lloyd, A. H., 319.

Lloyd, H. D., 140, 263, 264.

Longinus, 115.

Lowell, J. R., 101, 378.

Loyalty, 38 f., 182.

Luther, 75.

Luxury, 306, 359.

Macaulay, on democracy, 143 f.

Macchiavelli, 184.

Mackenzie, J. S., 92.

Maladjustment, as a cause of poverty, 293 f.

Malthus, 295.

Manners, tendency of, 197 ff.

Mantegna, 320.

Manual training, 304.

Marriage, 282, 356 ff.
See also Family.

Masses, in relation to public opinion, 135 ff.

Middle ages, caste in, 222 ff., 267.

Might and right, 320.

Milton, 76.

Mind, organic view of, 3 ff.;
democratic, 107-207.

Mind-cure doctrines, 297.

Mir, Russian, 26.

Mob. See Crowd.

Money-value, nature of, 265 f.

Montesquieu, 86, 116, 142, 261, 302.

Moral aspect, of the organic view of mind, 13 ff.;
of institutions, 322;
of public will, 397.

Moral principles, need of settled, 200 f., 307.

Moral unity, 33, 133, 182, 385.

Morality, of group action, 124;
specialization in, 130;
mode of progress in, 131;
of capitalists, 259 f.;
international, 322;
the larger, 413 ff.

Music as communication, 77, 79.

Napoleon, 184.

Nationality, persistence of, 96.

Natural Right, doctrine of, relation to primary ideals, 47 f.

Natural selection, 189, 294 ff.

Nature and nurture, 214.

Negro question, 218 ff.

Negroes, 295.

Neighborhood, the, 24 ff., 49.

Newspaper, in modern communication, 83 ff., 151, 192 f., 270 f., 346.

North Carolina, mountain people of, 94.

O’Brien, R. L., 346.

Omahas, war party among, 110 f.

Opinion, public, 10 f., 85, 108, 121 ff., 144 f., 307 f., 406.
See also Democracy.

Opportunity, freedom of, 233 ff., 245 f., 257 f.

Opposition, morality of, 37.
See also Competition.

Organic conception of society, 3 ff., 13 ff., 255.
See also table of contents.

Organic idealism, 412 f.

Organization, social, 3, 21, 22.
See also table of contents.

Organizing capacity, 266.

Originality of masses, 135.

Ostrogorski, 99.

Painting, 77 ff., 179, 389 f.

Paralysis, general, 103.

Pater, Walter, 14, 79.

Patten, Simon N., 299, 409, 415.

Paul, St., on truth, 182.

Personality, relation of to social organization, 53;
to specialization, 130 f.;
interest in at elections, 143; 161, 214 f.
See also Individuality.

Persons, judgment of by the masses, 142 ff.

Philanthropy, 48, 195, 299, 355, 416.

Plato, 86, 125, 159.

Play-group, the, 24 ff., 34 ff.

Politics, rule of public opinion in, 132 ff.

Portraits, old and new, 101 f.

Poverty, 290 ff., 418.

Power, the deepest of instincts, 251;
social nature of, 264 ff.

Prestige of wealth, 271 f.

Prigs, lack of in France, 333.

Primary groups, 23 ff.

Primary ideals, 32 ff.
See also Ideals.

Principles, supplanting formulas, 417.

Printing, the basis of democracy, 71 ff.

Privilege, apt to cause isolation, 138.

Professional classes, 269 f.

Progress, irregularity of, 114;
a modern idea, 399;
cost of, 418.

Public opinion. See Opinion, public.

Punishment, 15 ff., 202 f.

Race Question, 218 ff.

Race-capacity, 28 f., 44 f.

Realism, 183 ff.

Refinement, tendency toward, 179 f.

Religion, 372 ff.
See also Christianity.

Renaissance, 179, 348.

Resentment, 202 f.

Responsibility, 18 ff.

Roberts, Lord, 348.

Rodin, 321.

Roman Empire, 114 f., 349.

Roscommon, Earl of, 153.

Ross, E. A., on the mob-mind, 149;
on the larger morality, 413.

Rules of the game, 43 ff., 200, 307.

Ruskin, 167.

Russia, 183.

Sargent, 101.

Schiller, 266.

Sculpture, 77, 339.

Sedgwick, H. D., 101 f.

Self-consciousness, inseparable from social consciousness, 5 ff.

Self-expression, the fundamental need, 304, 409.

Self-words, a study of the early use of, 8.

Sentiment, how affected by communication, 88;
individuality of, 97;
leadership in by the masses, 135 ff., 142 ff.;
meaning and trend of, 177 ff.;
religious, 372, 379.

Service, as a primary ideal, 39;
spirit of, 196, 260 f.;
ideal of, 302 f.;
indirect, 415 f.

Sexes, differentiation of, 364 f.

Sighele, 149.

Sill, E. W., 97.

Smiles, Samuel, 246.

Smith, A. H., 198.

Social consciousness. See Consciousness.

Social salvation, 380.

Social structure, increasing simplicity and flexibility of, 416 f.

Socialism, 51, 196, 276 ff., 285, 308;
municipal, 407 ff.;
state, 409 ff., 412.

Sociology, 197, 389, 411.

Solidarity, of classes, 276 f.;
of nations, 330 ff.

Spahr, Charles, 309.

Spain, class feeling in, 301.

Specialization, of opinion, 126 ff.;
not opposed to democracy, 147 f.;
in philanthropy, 416.

Speech, origin and growth of, 68;
mental and social functions of, 69 ff., 109, 417.

Spencer, Herbert, 92.

Spencer and Gillen, 29, 41.

Spinoza, 19, 20.

Strain, 98 ff., 170 ff.

Strike, general, 277.

Struggle for existence, among ideas, 417.
See also Competition, Class struggle, Survival of the fittest.

Students, university, 274.

Sturgis, Russell, 174.

Suffrage, popular, 146.

Suggestion, 150 ff., 328.

Suicide, 103.

Sullivan, Miss, Helen Keller’s teacher, 62 f.

Superficiality, 98 ff., 117, 170 ff.

Survival of the fittest, 189, 258, 294 ff.
See also Competition.

Sweating system, 400 f.

Symbols, religious, 373 ff.

Symonds, J. A., 375.

Sympathy, as the basis of reform, 14 f.

Tarde, Gabriel, 327, 329, 336.

Tariff, 406.

Telegraph, effect of on language, 346.

Tennyson, 167.

Thackeray, 361.

Thoreau, 34, 164 f., 176, 195, 249, 253.

Tolstoi, 167, 401.

Tout, T. F., 223.

Tradition and convention, 335 ff.

Traditionalism, 339 ff.

Tranquillity, lack of in art, 390.

Transition, distinguished from democracy, 158 f.

Truth, as a primary ideal, 39;
sentiment of, 182 ff.

Types, social, 22, 163, 340.

Unconscious Social Relations, 4, 112.

Unfit, are the poor the?, 295 f.

Uniformity of American life, 166 f.

Unions. See Labor movement.

University of Michigan, supported by popular suffrage, 145.

Van Brunt, Henry, 172, 391.

Variation of ideas, 343.

Veblen, T. V., 119.

Vulgarity of wealth and privilege, 139 f.

Watts’ Mammon, 346.

Wealth, 136;
inheritance of, 229, 236;
as the basis of open classes, 248 ff.;
comparative ascendency of, 278 f.;
prestige of, 303 f.;
use of, 304 f.

We-feeling, 23, 31, 33 ff., 189 ff., 298, 333, 351, 415.

Westermarck, Edward, 24, 40 f.

Wharton, Edith, 102.

Whately, 150.

Whitman, 176, 195 f., 303.

Will, public, 395-419;
government as, 402 ff.;
some phases of, 411 ff.
See also Opinion, public.

Winckelmann, 78.

Women, opening of new careers to, 362 ff.

Woods, Robert, 43, 49.

Woolman, John, 413.

Wordsworth, 165, 317.

Worry, a cause of poverty, 297.

Writing, social function of, 72 ff.

Wrongs, social, not willed, 400 f.

Young Men, in relation to classes, 223, 273 f., 327.