Chapter IX: The Flora of the Sino-Mongolian Frontier

In this chapter, which cannot be considered as more than a very superficial account of the flora of the country along the Chinese frontiers of Mongolia, an attempt is made to give the general reader some idea of the subject.

Notwithstanding the ever-increasing deforestation of the wooded areas, the yearly close cropping of the smaller herbage by the natives and their half-starved flocks in less favoured districts, the general dryness of the climate over vast stretches of country, and the recurring droughts, sometimes extending over periods of two or three years, there exists a wealth and variety of vegetable forms, the proper identification of which would take a lifetime.

Hitherto only the fringes of the subject have been touched by specialists, and there is very little in the way of works of reference to aid the would-be explorer in this vast field of research.

The following notes may therefore be of interest to the general reader, at the same time serving as a help to the future botanists of this country, in directing them to the districts, where they may most readily find fruitful fields for their labours.

I have arranged the subject under four headings, Trees, Fruits, Flowers and Cryptogams, discussing under the first, wood-producing, arborial forms; under the second, plants bearing edible fruit; under the third, conspicuous flowering plants, and under the fourth, the flowerless plants such as ferns, mosses and fungi.

i. TREES

North China is on the whole very poorly supplied with good wood-producing trees. The Chinese have no forestry laws, and though they know good wood when they see it, they do very little in the way of tree culture. Along the main roads saplings are planted from time to time, but the first passer-by, who feels in a destructive mood, or is in need of a stout pole, or even a bit of firewood, cuts down the young tree with impunity. Still many remain and develop into fine trees, but even these are cut down for their wood long before they should be.

The owners of woods round temples in the foothills are very jealous of their preservation, and woe betide the wood stealer who gets caught. This desire to preserve the woods, however, does not prevent the owners from selling every foot of timber, large or small, if they can get a good price, and as young pines are in continual demand for rafters and small beams in building operations, the young trees are ruthlessly cut down, leaving the once-smiling hillside denuded of spinneys and copses—weary wastes of trampled underbrush, dotted over with stumps, and littered with lopped off branches and bark slivers.

Once while spending a week in the wooded area of Shêng-yeh in the hills west of T’ai-yüan Fu, I made a rough estimate of the number of young pines that were daily being taken out to be sold in T’ai-yüan Fu for rafters. Two hundred donkeys and mules, carrying on an average thirty sapling pines apiece, passed our camp each day. This had been going on for a month, and would go on for another, so that about three hundred and sixty thousand young trees were cut down in that district alone that summer. There is no reason why the rafters should not have been cut from stout planks of large timber, leaving the young pines to attain a reasonable size before being cut down. This instance serves to show the utter thriftlessness and waste of Nature’s resources indulged in by the Chinese in regard to their timber supplies. It is strange that such should be the case with the Chinese, who in other respects get the very most out of the soil they cultivate; but this sad state of affairs must be attributed to bad government, rather than to the peasant, whose one concern is to lay by sufficient food and money for the years when his crops fail and starvation threatens him.

The owners of the great forests in the high mountain ranges are even more prodigal in their ravages amongst the trees than the wood-owners of the foothills. With utter disregard for the future, large areas of timber are cut out, and though the planting of new trees would be but a simple matter, nothing is done to replenish the stock. Immense areas of what was, but a few years ago, extensive forest land, now lie bare and brown, with scarcely a vestige of vegetation left. Here again a sad lack of discrimination in the size of the trees cut down is evident. Everything that comes into the way of the woodcutter is hacked down, and if it is too small to be of value is left where it falls.

If North China is poor in trees, Southern Mongolia is absolutely destitute. Only in the Ordos did we see any trees at all, and then they were but stunted willows. The rich grasslands of the Mongolian Plateau we were told were too exposed to the cold blasts from the north for the cultivation of trees, but there must be some varieties which would stand the exposure.

(_a_) GYMNOSPERMS

The bulk of the heavy timber in the forests of Western Shansi is composed of conifers, chiefly Spruce (_Picea sp._) and Larch (_Laryx sp._). These trees occur at altitudes of from 5,000 feet upwards, usually growing on slopes exposed to the north, which, remaining snow-covered all the winter and late into spring, are always more moist than those facing south, where the snow usually melts a few hours after it has fallen. Though these forests are often very extensive, the trees seldom attain a growth of more than two feet in diameter. Large areas of forest, consisting of one or other of these species, is the rule, but not infrequently mixed forests occur.

The lower slopes in these forest areas are often clothed with the Common Pine (_Pinus sylvestris_), while it is nearly always this tree that goes to make up the woods round temples in the foothills. This tree is prized above either of the foregoing species as a wood producer. The woodcutters strip the saplings of their lower branches, which causes them to grow very tall and straight.

In Shansi one also comes across the peculiar White-barked Pine (_Pinus bungeana_). It is characterized by having a three-needled leaf, and by its smooth silvery-white bark. This tree is very rare indeed.

In Shensi I came across a small member of the genus _Pinus_, which grows on rocky cliff surfaces, and is characterized by having five or seven needles. This also seems to be a rare species.

In the foothills and on the plains of Shansi and Chihli the Cypress (_Cupressus sp._) is very common, being used chiefly to adorn temples and cemeteries. In the wild state it does not attain any great size; but in old temples and official buildings very large specimens may often be seen. The wood of this tree is used in the manufacture of the more expensive coffins, as it is worm-proof and withstands the action of moisture longer than any other kinds.

Mention must be made of the peculiar little conifer which we found growing in small dense patches at long intervals in the Ordos Desert. This resembles the Juniper more than anything else, and as already stated is very resinous.

The Yew (_Taxus sp._) occurs very rarely in North China; the vicinity of Shi-t’ieh near T’ai-yüan Fu in Shansi being the only place known to me where it grows. In South Shensi I found it quite abundant in the Tsing-ling Mountains.

Though scarcely a gymnosperm, the peculiar Maidenhair-tree (_Ginkgo biloba_) should be mentioned next. This, the only living member of a very ancient family, has been preserved in the Buddhist Temples of China and Japan. Though it is thought that wild trees may exist in Western China, none have been discovered so far. There are two very fine specimens in the grounds of the famous old Temple at Chin-ssŭ near T’ai-yüan Fu in Shansi. The Chinese consider the nuts of this tree a delicacy.

(_b_) ANGIOSPERMS

Turning from the gymnosperms we find a great number of trees, comparatively few of which, however, are good wood-producers. In the mountainous regions of Shansi and Kansu, and over the loess hills of Shensi, where uncultivated areas occur, we find such small trees as the Hazel, the Birch, a small variety of Poplar and a stunted Oak growing in great profusion, and forming dense coverts for various kinds of game.

There are several species of Hazel (_Corylus_), one of which (_Corylus heterophylla_) is a tall, spare tree, scarcely more than a shrub, with small leaves and a very meagre crop of small nuts. This plant grows as a small tree in sheltered spaces in the heavy timber of Larch and Spruce, or as a thick shrub in dense patches on the more exposed slopes. Another species (_C. mandshurica_) is a large-leafed shrub, which produces a large nut, sometimes in great profusion. This variety is far less common than the other.

The Birch (_Betula sp._), usually occurring at fairly high altitudes, reaches a greater size than the largest Hazel. Its bark readily peels, and is used by the natives in the manufacture of utensils and mats. In the high mountains of Shansi it is particularly abundant. In North Chihli and North Shansi it is often the only tree growing in sparse woods on the northern slopes of the mountains. The trunk seldom reaches a greater diameter than six or eight inches. Whether this is due to the trees belonging to a small species, or to the fact that the natives are for ever cutting them down for firewood it is impossible to say.

The Poplar (_Populus sp._), though very similar to that met with on the plains, never reaches any great size in these mountainous districts. It occurs chiefly in North Shansi, in Shensi and in Kansu, forming the chief growth of any size over large areas of uncultivated land. Except as firewood and in charcoal burning, this tree has very little economic value.

The Stunted, or Scrub-Oak (_Quercus sp._) usually occurs on the sunny slopes in the more mountainous regions, showing that it is the severe climate which prevents this tree from developing. It produces a very small acorn, while the stem seldom grows thicker than a man’s arm. In the lower hills of Chihli, north, east and west of Peking, the Oak occurs as a fine tall tree.

Besides these trees, which after all are scarcely deserving of the name tree, there are some rarer species, such as the Maple (_Acer sp._), the Ash (_Fraxinus sp._) and the Aspen (_Populus tremula_).

On the plains the commonest trees are the Poplar, the Elm and the Willow.

Of these the Poplar (_Populus sp._) is most cared for, as it grows very fast, producing a soft wood. It forms an invaluable supply to the Chinese, who use it for all purposes. It is particularly important to the natives of the country districts and out-of-the-way small towns, where a supply of good wood is wanting. When treated in the same way as the young Pine, this tree grows tall and fairly straight. It is then used for beams and uprights in building operations.

The Elm (_Ulmus sp._) is valued for its wood, usually being allowed to grow to a great size before it is cut down. It is grown extensively along the main roads on the plains of Shansi, Chihli and in the valleys of Kansu. The wood being very tough, is used in the manufacture of carts and wheelbarrows, and the better class of furniture.

The Common Willow (_Salix sp._) is found all over North China. It was the only tree we saw in the Ordos Desert. All along the banks of the Yellow River and throughout Northern Shensi this tree forms almost the only wood supply, and is usually used in a very unseasoned state. All the barges and ferries on the upper reaches of the Yellow River are made from willow boards, which usually being narrow and crooked, require great ingenuity in being fitted together.

The Weeping Willow (_Salyx babylonica_) is a tree that pertains more to the towns and well populated districts of North China.

In and round the towns also occur such trees as the Acacia (_Robinia sp._) and what the Chinese call Ch’un Hsu. The former is particularly abundant in the cities of Shansi, where it attains an enormous size. Old trees of this species are greatly venerated by the natives, and frequently little shrines are built into the hollow trunks, while testimonials, written on red calico, are nailed up all over the trees by suppliants, who have received benefit. This tree casts a delightful shade, and makes a very handsome addition to pleasure grounds. The Chinese also used the wood, though it is soft and not very good.

The Ch’un Hsu, of which the Chinese distinguish two varieties, are soft-wooded, rapid-growing trees. The Ch’ow Ch’un (stinking ch’un), known to science as _Aliantus glandulosa_, is the smaller variety, and is characterized by a very disagreeable odour, while the Hsiang ch’un (sweet-scented ch’un), known as _Cedrela odorata_, grows to a large size. The Chinese esteem the tender shoots of the Hsiang ch’un, which they pickle in various ways. These trees seem to be the northern representatives of the Varnish-trees of the south. In South Shensi a variety grows which, if rubbed against, poisons the skin, producing a running eczema that is very hard to cure.

The Sycamore (_Acer sp._) is another tree which grows on the plains, and is valued for its wood, which being free from knots is largely used in the manufacture of furniture.

The walnut (_Juglans regia sinensis_) is also a tree that thrives upon the plains; but it is also cultivated in some of the mountain valleys, notably in Western Chihli and Eastern Shansi. The nuts produced by some of these are of excellent quality. Needless to say the wood of the Walnut is greatly valued, and is the most expensive to be had in the country. The Walnut occurs throughout all North China, but is very rare in North Shensi.

The Wild Walnut occurs, though rarely, in North China, the mountains round Peking being almost the only place where it is known.

Another nut-bearing tree that should be mentioned is the Chestnut (_Castanea sp._) This tree grows wild in the mountainous regions of North-western Chihli, occurring only very rarely elsewhere. The chestnut is one of the favourite nuts of the Chinese and it may be seen on every fruit or sweet stall in both town and country.

In the dry and alkali impregnated parts of the Chihli plain and the wide valleys of Shansi the Tamarisk (_Tamarix sp._) is to be found. There are two varieties, one a tree with a thick knotty trunk, light feathery foliage and clusters of minute, pink flowers. The whole plant is very graceful and ornamental. It is evidently capable of withstanding considerable drought. The other variety is a small shrub, with a red stem and long, trailing roots. It grows on the mud-flats of the large rivers in Shansi.

ii. FRUITS

North China is well favoured in the quality and variety of her fruit-bearing plants. The Chinese are essentially fruit lovers, and will consume enormous quantities when the chance offers.

Though thriftless or ignorant in the matter of tree-culture for wood, they are skilled in the art of fruit culture, being well acquainted with the various methods of grafting, and judicious in selection. In this way some of their favourite fruits, such as peaches and persimmons, have been brought to a high state of perfection.

On the whole the fruit of this country resembles that of Europe; but there are some very characteristic kinds.

The commonest, and perhaps most characteristic of the fruit-bearing trees of the country on the south side of the Great Wall is the Jujube (_Zizyphus sativa_) or “Tsao.” In and round every village and town on the plains and in the lower foothills of Chihli, Shansi and Shensi numbers of these trees may be seen. They are especially abundant in Western Chihli, on the plains of T’ai-yüan Fu and Hsin-Chou in Shansi, along the banks of the Yellow River from He-K’ou to T’ung-kuan, and up all the tributaries of that river in Shensi and Shansi. In Shantung also the Jujube is extensively cultivated, many specialized varieties being grown there; but this province scarcely comes under our title.

PLATE XV.

[_Photo by M. P. Anderson._

WILD PEACH IN BLOSSOM NEAR YEN-AN FU. MARCH.

_Opposite p. 226._]
]

The cultivated Jujube tree produces a great abundance of fruit, which when green resembles in appearance nothing so much as the olive. When ripe the fruit is very palatable and is of a rich red-brown colour. It does not decay, but dries easily, and so can be conveniently kept for long periods, or transported over great distances. The fruit is greatly esteemed by the Chinese, who use it extensively in their confectionery, and by soaking it in honey, make an excellent preserve. These honey dates are shipped to Southern China in great quantities.

There are several varieties of Jujube, the differences lying in the shape, size, substance and sweetness of the fruit. A stoneless variety is grown in the Wu-hu Magistracy of Shantung, near Laoling. Of a sweet taste and good flavour this Jujube is greatly esteemed, and was annually sent to the Manchu Court at Peking.

The wood of the Jujube is excessively hard. In colour it is red alternating with light yellow, so that it is very ornamental. In certain parts of the country the natives make rolling pins, toys, and other articles of domestic use.

The tree itself is tall and straggling, with long, usually twisted and bent bole. The leaves are pinnate, of a light-green colour and glossy surface. The flowers are small and green.

Long after all other trees are in leaf the Jujube remains naked and brown. The first shoots do not appear till towards the end of May. The fruit does not ripen till the end of September.

The Wild Jujube (_Zizyphus sativa spinosa_), as it grows exposed to continual cropping and burning by the farmers, is nothing more than a shrub, but when left alone it attains the size of a small tree. The fruit of the wild plant is very small, with a large stone, and has a pleasant sour taste. The country people grind it up and make it into a sort of cake, very dry and powdery. The stem and branches of this plant are covered with long spines, some of which are straight and others hooked like an animal’s claw. It is thus extremely useful in hedge-making. Usually the Wild Jujube grows in dense thickets over grave patches, and as already stated, forms fine cover for pheasants and other small game. Like the cultivated variety, it comes into leaf very late in the season.

Neither the Wild nor Cultivated Jujubes will grow at altitudes over 3,000 feet above sea level.

There is a second subspecies of this plant recognized, which, owing to its gnarled and twisted branches and hooked spines, has been called the Dragon’s-claw Jujube (_Z. s. tortuosa_). This plant is used as an ornamental shrub.

Another fruit-bearing tree, characteristic of the country, is the Persimmon (_Diospyros_). Though the majority of species or varieties belonging to this genus belong to Central China, yet a few occur as far north as Peking, and so may be mentioned here.

In the wild state the Persimmon is rather rare, occurring in Chihli round Ch’ang-li-Hsien on the Peking-Moukden Railway, not far from the sea coast, and also in the mountains west of Pao-ting Fu. This plant, known as _Diospyros lotus_, produces a small yellow fruit, which nevertheless has a good flavour. This wild form is used as a stock, upon which the cultivated varieties are grafted.

Another wild form, which occurs in Shansi and Shensi, produces a very small black fruit with large stones or pips. This is called by the Chinese “He tsao,” meaning “black jujube.”

Of the cultivated varieties the largest and most prized is known as the “Ta mo pan” Persimmon. This is a fine golden-orange coloured fruit, practically seedless, and of a sweet flavour. It is nonastringent, a much to be desired quality in Persimmons. There are numerous other smaller varieties, of which one occurs in the mountains along the border line between Shansi and Chihli. A very sweet red Persimmon grows in Honan and South Shensi.

The Chinese dry the fruit of the Persimmon, which is then very pleasant and wholesome to eat. The best dried fruit comes from Pei-t’ung-kuan, just north of the Wei Valley in Shensi.

Throughout the mountainous regions of all the northern provinces the Wild Peach (_Amygdalus davidiana_) grows, often in great profusion. In Shensi I have seen it growing so thickly that when in bloom it gave the impression of snow on the distant hillside.

As already stated, this is believed by some to be the original Wild Peach, from which all our numerous varieties have been developed. As Wild Peaches also occur in India and Persia, it cannot be taken for granted that the Chinese form is the original stock.

It is a very hardy plant, and makes a good stock, upon which to graft the cultivated varieties. The fruit is small and sour, with hard leathery flesh. The blossom, which varies from pink to white, is very fine, so that as an ornamental shrub this plant is greatly valued. When cultivated there is an even greater variation in the colouring of the blossom, while the plant will attain a considerable growth, developing into a tree. The kernels, as well as the fruit, form one of the staple diets of the squirrels and chipmunks in the districts where the Wild Peach grows. The stones, being round and ornamental, are often used by priests as rosary beads or by children in a game resembling our “knuckle bones.”

There are several varieties of the Cultivated Peach (_Amygdalus persica_), in the development of which the Chinese have been most successful. The fruit of some varieties attain an enormous size, being said to weigh as much as one catty (1⅓ lb.) apiece. In Shansi some small green peaches of an exquisite flavour are cultivated. There is another variety with deep crimson-coloured flesh.

Recent experiments carried out in America show that the Peaches introduced from China do far better than those from Europe. This fact is believed to be due to the greater drought-resisting qualities of the Chinese plants.

The Wild Apricot (_Prunus armeniaca_) also flourishes in the mountains of North China. Unlike that of the Wild Peach, the fruit is soft, sweet and juicy. It grows into a good-sized tree, in which characteristic it again differs from the Wild Peach.

The Apricot is extensively cultivated by the Chinese, and many large and delicious varieties are grown. The fruit is dried for winter use, while the kernels are exported under the name of Almonds. In the mountains of Shansi the natives extract oil from the kernels, which they use in their lamps.

The Wild Plum (_Prunus sp._), already referred to in an earlier chapter as the blackthorn, occurs, though somewhat rarely, in the mountains of Shansi. It sometimes attains the size of a large shrub. The fruit is small, black and very sour. There are several varieties of cultivated Plums, a small purple one being the most common. Large yellow plums may also be bought occasionally.

In North China only two varieties of Cherries occur, both of which are wild. One, the Bush Cherry (_Prunus tomentosa_), produces a small red fruit, obtainable only during a very short period in the month of June. The fruit is scarcely worth the trouble of stoning. The Cherry grows in the form of a dense shrub in dry rocky ravines.

In the coastal regions of North-eastern Chihli a very small bush grows, which bears a large and delicious cherry. When fully ripe this fruit is of a deep crimson colour, and is equal in flavour to any of our home varieties. The bush seldom reaches a height of even one foot, being found low down in the thick grass on the hillsides. The stem is short, twisted and woody; the leaves are large. Each plant produces two or three clusters of fruit, which, unlike those of the Bush Cherry, grows on a long peduncle. I have been unable to find any reference to this very remarkable Cherry.

The Pear (_Pyrus_) is represented in North China by several wild species, as well as by a number of cultivated varieties.

The commonest wild form, and the one from which the Chinese cultivated varieties have been developed, is _Pyrus chinensis_. This tree grows in the valleys of the mountainous districts. It is a tall tree, not very common, with a very small fruit. I have found this species growing on the tops of the loess ridges both in Shansi and Shensi.

A second species grows upon the plains, producing a small soft fruit, while a third grows in the foothills and on the plains.

There are a number of cultivated Pears in China, belonging to three pronounced types. The commonest of these is characterized by very yellow skin, hard, white, somewhat granular flesh, with no very special flavour. It is juicy and refreshing, but very few Europeans like it. The finest variety, known as Ya-li, comes from Kuo-Hsien in North Shansi, in which district several other well known varieties are cultivated.

Another type of Pear is the Pai li, which is small with a pale yellow skin and a soft white flesh of a distinct though delicate flavour. This variety is grown round Peking, and is often called the Peking Pear.

The third type has a dark yellow-brown skin, with very soft, granular, juicy flesh. In flavour this Pear resembles more closely the European varieties, though it is much inferior to them. It is supposed to have been developed from the second mentioned species of Wild Pear.

A Crab-apple (_Malus baccata_) is to be found in the northern provinces of China, though it is by no means common. The fruit is very small, though of a good flavour.

China is very poor in cultivated Apples, only very inferior varieties being grown. Of these the P’ing-kuo is most esteemed by the Chinese. This is a large Apple with a pale green skin and white pithy flesh. The flavour is very delicate, without the least acidity. A cultivated Crab-apple also exists, which in flavour far surpasses the P’ing-kuo. A third variety of Apple also occurs, the fruit of which is of a medium size with dark red skin, mealy flesh, and sour taste.

A fruit that is much valued by the Chinese is the Edible Haw (_Crataegus pinnatifida_). In a wild state the fruit is small and very sour, but when cultivated it reaches the size of a small medlar, and though sour is very palatable. It makes up into a fine jelly.

Already I have mentioned the Grape as being extensively cultivated in the Chiao-chêng and Wên-sui districts of Shansi. Though this is undoubtedly the finest grape-producing area, this fruit is also cultivated all over North China, right up to Kalgan in North Chihli. At Hsüan-hua Fu, near Kalgan, a very fine quality of White Grape is grown.

Though the Wild Grape (_Vitis amurensis_) occurs in North China, it is by no means common.

Pomegranates and Figs are cultivated in gardens in North China, but are not indigenous and do not grow wild.

In the mountains of Shansi several kinds of edible berries are to be found. The most abundant of these is the Gooseberry (_Ribes sp._), thick bushes of which grow in the Ning-wu districts in every valley and ravine. Both the fruit, which attains the size of a marble and is very luscious and sweet when ripe, and the stems are thickly covered with sharp spines. Sometimes bushes of spineless fruit may be found, and they are very nice. Even the spiny fruit can be eaten if a little care be exercised. It is strange that the Chinese have never thought of cultivating this excellent berry.

In the higher parts of the mountains two varieties of Red-currants occur. One of these is a tall thickly leaved and close-growing shrub, the berries, sharp and astringent, growing in a thick cluster on an upright stalk. The other resembles exactly the Red-currant of British gardens, both in appearance and flavour.

A very superior Wild Raspberry (_Rubus idaeus_) also occurs in these mountains. It, too, resembles the British cultivated variety, and grows chiefly in the valley bottoms, where one may sometimes find extensive patches of it. The fruit is fully as large as our garden variety and is very sweet and well flavoured.

Another berry belonging to the genus _Rubus_ grows on the mountain sides. This resembles the Dewberry, in leaf and blossom, and in its straggling growth. The fruit, however, remains of a bright red colour when ripe, one or two only of the drupels remaining, which attain a comparatively large size.

In the long grass and open glades of the forests the Wild Strawberry (_Fragaria sp._) thrives, producing two or three large berries upon each stalk. The latter are unusually long, which is doubtless due to the length of the grass in which the plant grows. The flavour of this fruit is excellent. I found it growing at altitudes exceeding 8,000 feet.

There are at least two species or varieties of Mulberry (_Morus_). One of these (_Morus alba_) bears a white fruit of a very fine flavour and large size. It grows in the province of Chihli. I have not seen it in Shansi or Shensi, but it doubtless occurs there. The other variety produces a fine purple fruit, which is perhaps of a stronger flavour than the white. This plant sometimes attains the size of a large tree, and on account of its large leaves gives good shade. This Mulberry is extensively cultivated in both Shansi and Shensi, chiefly for the sake of its leaves, upon which silkworms are fed.

In the mountains of North China there grows in great profusion a very thorny shrub, with pale blue-green leaves. It produces great quantities of a very sour, orange berry, which, however, has an exquisite flavour. The berries grow in close masses upon the stem. They are no larger than small peas, have several small hard pips, are very soft and juicy, and grow upon short petioles. They form one of the staple winter diets of the pheasants, these birds always being found in coverts of this shrub.

The Chinese, like the Negroes of America, are exceedingly fond of Melons, of which they have a number of cultivated varieties. First and foremost comes the Water-melon. These are grown very extensively, where the soil and climate are favourable, and in summer the Chinese consume enormous quantities of this harmless fruit. A European, who attempted to start a mineral water factory in T’ai-yüan Fu, found in the Water-melon an unconquerable competitor, and finally was forced to abandon the enterprise.

Besides the Water-melon there is a long soft White Melon, with a delicate flavour known as “Ts’ai kua” (Vegetable Melon), also small orange and green Melons, known respectively as T’ien kua (Sweet Melon) and Hsiang kua (Scented Melon).

Pumpkins of various kinds also occur, chief amongst which are _Cucurbita maxima_, _C. moschata_ and _C. pepo_. The Cucumber, though scarcely a fruit, is also extensively grown. None of these Melons or Pumpkins are found in a wild state.

iii. FLOWERS

Under this heading comes so vast an array of plants, that it is impossible to do them even the barest justice in a portion of a chapter. I must be content with a mere skimming of the surface, mentioning a few of the more important Orders, and the chief representatives of each.

In many places the mountains of Shansi and Shensi, and even those of districts originally included in Mongolia, are clothed with bushes of a Wild Rose. In spring these are thickly covered with fine yellow blossoms, making a wonderful display of colour. The red stem of this Rose is thickly covered with sharp spines. The leaves are very small and pinnate. In autumn the bushes are thickly laden with round hips of a dark crimson colour and sweet pleasant taste. Altogether this is one of the most beautiful wild flowering plants of North China, and should be introduced into European gardens. I found this plant growing on the very border of the Ordos Desert on dry and exposed mountain sides.

Another Wild Rose of a straggling growth and with a large pink blossom occurs in the mountains of Shansi, usually being found in the sheltered ravines, while a third species of stunted growth and with a small pink blossom occurs in the mountains of North Chihli and North Shansi, and even in the hills of the Mongolian Plateau.

A fine flowering shrub which is found in the mountainous regions is the Lilac (_Syringa sp._). It grows to a height of from three to eight feet, and is thickly covered with fragrant blossoms. The Chinese have fine cultivated varieties of this species.

The Privet (_Ligustrum sp._) is another flowering shrub, which occurs in these mountains, though it is less common.

PLATE XVI.

[_Photo by M. P. Anderson._

WILD PEACH BLOSSOM (_Amygdalus davidiana_) NEAR YEN-AN FU. LATE MARCH.

_Opposite p. 238._]
]

The Order Compositæ is well represented in North China, and also in the more fertile parts of Inner Mongolia. Daisies and Marguerites of all kinds occur, besides the Dandelion, Thistles of various kinds, the Burdock, the Sawwort, the Starwort, the Nipplewort, the Yarrow, Marigolds, Wild Chrysanthemums, and a number of species with inconspicuous flowers and strong scented leaves, which evidently belong to the same family as the Cudweed (_Gnapholium_) of our English marshes and fens. In the mountains of Shansi a large pink Daisy, which flowers in autumn, is very common, while the Michaelmas Daisy is also abundant.

The Leguminosæ are also well represented, Trefoils, Vetches and Clovers occurring in great variety in Mongolia, as well as in China proper. The Sanfoin also occurs, besides some varieties of leguminous shrub with fine pink blossoms. In the Chiao-ch’êng Shan of Western Shansi we encountered large patches of a small leguminous shrub with yellow blossoms and very formidable spines. Along the edges of the Ordos another spiny shrub belonging to this order forms almost the only herbage.

Labiates are less common, though in this connexion it is interesting to note that, just as in Great Britain the Stinging Nettle (_Urtica_) is imitated in appearance by the Dead Nettle (_Lamium_), so in China the Stinging Nettle, which has a deeply lobed palmate leaf, is imitated by a Dead Nettle. The two plants grow in the same localities and by the careless observer might easily be taken for the same thing. This Dead Nettle has a large pink flower. Both plants are common on the Mongolian grasslands north of Kalgan, as well as all over North China.

Several other Labiates are to be met with, one variety of which, bearing a fine purple-blue flower, is very conspicuous. Wild Thyme is very abundant in North Shansi.

In the mountains of Shansi, Shensi and North Chihli a species of Japanese Anemone (_Anemone sp._) is very common. White, pink and even mauve blooms are met with, though the last are not common. There are several other species of Anemones, notably a fine blue variety, a pink one and a small white one resembling the British Wood Anemone.

Buttercups and Celandines are also common. A fine variety of Marsh Marigold was noticed in some of the swampy valleys near Lama Miao in Mongolia, while in the permanent streams of North China I have frequently found the Bulbous Crowfoot and the Water Ranunculus.

In Kansu a fine Wild Peony grows, sometimes in great profusion. This is not the shrub or tree variety, which as far as I know has not yet been discovered in a wild state, though Shensi is supposed to be its original home.

On the plains and in the lower hills there are several species of Clematis, none of which, however, have very conspicuous blooms. One, found in Shansi, has clusters of small, white, bell-shaped flowers. Another has a yellow blossom, while white and purple varieties occur.

Primulas are very few in North China. There is one species, which grows along the dusty roadsides in Shansi. This resembles the Cowslip, but is larger and of a deep crimson-brown colour.

In the mountains west of K’uei-hua-ch’êng in North Shansi I found a single specimen of a light mauve-coloured Primula growing in the shade of some small timber. These are the only two members of this Order which have come to my notice.

The Forget-me-not and Scorpion-grass (_Myotis_) are fairly common in Shansi, though members of this Order are not numerous.

The White, the Scented and the Common Violet all occur, in some places in great abundance. In North Shansi, pink blossoms are also not uncommon. In the woods a small Pansy may sometimes be found, though it is rather rare.

The Order Campanulaceæ is represented by the Harebell, the Canterbury-bell and the Bellflower, all of which are very common in the mountains of Shansi, where also and in Mongolia the Scabeus (_Knautia sp._) is very abundant.

The Honeysuckle (_Lonicera sp._) and the Elder (_Sambucus sp._) represent the Order Caprifoliaceæ. These plants are not very common, however.

Caryophyllaceæ is represented by several varieties of Campion, the commonest of which is the Ragged Robin.

The Field Convolvulus (_Convolvulus sp._) occurs in great abundance, though a large white member of the same family is less common.

A Stonecrop and a small narrow-leaved House-leek seem to be the only representatives of the Crassulaceæ.

In members of the Order Scrophulariaceæ, North China seems to be rather poor, and South Mongolia entirely wanting. The Toadflax and a species of Foxglove are the only common varieties. The Sesamon is extensively cultivated in certain parts, the seed being exported in great quantities.

Wild members of the Poppy family are very rare, a variety of Horned Poppy and a small red Poppy being the only ones I have hitherto come across. The Cultivated Poppy, from which opium is obtained, was up till recently grown all over North China, wherever the soil was suitable.

The Geraniaceæ are represented by several small varieties of the Crane’s-bill type.

The Broad-leaved Plantain is very common, especially in damp localities.

One of the most striking flowers of the Shansi mountains is the Gentian, which blooms all through the summer. The blue colour of this beautiful plant surpasses in intensity that of any other blue flower of these parts. This plant usually grows on dry, bare spaces, seeming to thrive better when absolutely free from other plants. The Rock Rose (_Helianthemum_) is another of the mountain flowers.

Several varieties of Dock occur, in which connexion one must mention the Wild Rhubarb. This grows very extensively in the mountains of North Shansi and Chihli, and is also abundant in the low hills of Inner Mongolia. It is of an excellent flavour. The natives have discovered the medicinal properties of its roots.

In all the northern provinces the Mistletoe is found, growing chiefly on the Elm and the Poplar. The peculiarity of the Chinese Mistletoe is that the berries, instead of being white, are a brilliant red or yellow, which make it very ornamental.

In Monocotyledonous plants North China is not over abundant.

Several varieties of Iris occur, the commonest of which is the Flag. This plant grows in tufts all over North China and is one of the commonest plants in the grasslands of Inner Mongolia. A small but strikingly beautiful Iris occurs in North Shansi in the mountains round K’uei-hua-ch’êng. This flower ranges from deep purple to pink in colour and is beautifully marked. A tall, thin-stemmed, narrow-leaved, small-blossomed variety occurs, though somewhat sparsely, from the sea coast in North-eastern Chihli to the western border of Kansu.

There are two or three Wild Lilies in North China, though the Chinese have a great variety of cultivated forms. In the mountains of Shansi, Shensi and Kansu and in North Chihli a beautiful Scarlet Lily is very abundant, a tall Yellow Lily being met with on the plains and lower mountain sides. The latter also occurs in Mongolia. In the Ning-wu and K’o-lan Chow districts of Shansi, and even as far north as K’uei-hua-ch’êng, I have seen the Solomon’s Seal growing plentifully.

Three varieties of Orchis occur in North China though they are far from common. One, which closely resembles the Spotted Orchis, is found in the marshes near the sea coast of North-east Chihli. The other two occur in the lower mountains of Shansi. One of these has a small green flower growing on a spike, and resembling that of the Tway-blade: the other has a small pink and white flower. Both plants are very small, and, growing in the deep grass, are not easily found.

There seems to be no Wild Daffodil or Narcissus, though the well known Chinese Sacred Lily is cultivated everywhere.

Several varieties of Wild Garlic occur, and I have also found a Wild Leek, and a Wild Onion.

Every variety of grass is to be found. In certain places the tall Reed, from which the Chinese make mats, grows in dense jungle-like patches, while in the river valleys and streams Sedges and Bulrushes form cover for wildfowl. The furthest north that the Bamboo grows wild is in the Tsing-ling mountains of South Shensi, but in gardens it is found as far north as Tientsin.

The Chinese cultivate a number of cereals, the chief of which are, Millet, Sorghum, Rice, Wheat, Maize and Oats. The last being able to withstand severe weather, is grown high up in the mountain ranges of Shansi, and, with the Potato, forms the staple diet of the mountaineers. This cereal and also Wheat, with a little Millet, is now being grown by Chinese on the Mongolian Plateau with great success.

iv. CRYPTOGAMS

Under this our last heading we have to consider but few plants.

North China is extremely poor in ferns, only six species having come under my notice, in spite of my continual searching for these types of plants. This scarcity is doubtless due to the dryness of the climate.

One of the commonest ferns is a small plant with a frond, shaped like a deeply lobed vine or maple leaf, and a thin black stalk. The spores grow along the margins of the frond on the under surface. This fern grows in the lower mountains of Shansi, in the crevices of old temples and walls, and in well shaded ravine bottoms.

Two other small ferns may also be met with in the same spots. One resembles the Hart’s Tongue, though it is of a very minute size. The frond is more tapering, ending in a long threadlike point, at the very tip of which the spores occur. When this tip touches the ground, the spores develop and a new plant grows. In this way this little fern propagates itself. The other variety more resembles our Spleenwort, though it also is very small, and not over abundant.

In the crevices of some rocks in the highest mountains of Western Shansi I found a delicate fern, also resembling the Hart’s Tongue in shape, though without the long point of the species already described, nor the auriculate base of either.

In the mountains of North Shansi and Chihli yet another fern with a lanceolate frond occurs. This variety is more common than any of those already mentioned, and usually grows upon rock surfaces, even in exposed positions. The under surface of the frond is thickly covered with spores. In the dry season the frond curls up, exposing the spore-covered under surface, so that they are readily scattered by the wind.

The remaining species of fern is the Bracken, which grows extensively on some of the warmer slopes of the mountains of Northern and Western Shansi and in Kansu. Except in its smaller size this fern exactly resembles the European species.

Other Cryptogams prevalent in North China are the Horsetail (_Equisetum_), the Liverwort (_Pellia_) and the Selaginella (_Selaginella sp._).

Of the last named there are two species. One, resembling the Common British species (_S. spinosa_), grows in damp ravines in the mountains of Shansi. The other, a drought-resisting form, grows on exposed rock surfaces in the barren Limestone mountains bordering the Chihli plain.

Numerous mosses and lichens grow in the forests and mountainous areas.

In conclusion I would mention the fungi, many edible species of which exist. The Mushroom is very common, especially upon the Mongolian Plateau. It is surprising how many species belonging to this genus are eaten by the Chinese, who dry them for winter use, and serve them up at feasts in a great many ways. The poor people in the mountains of Shansi yearly make quite a good income by drying and selling the various kinds of edible fungi, some of the choicer varieties fetching as much as 500 cash (over 1_s._) per pound.