Chapter II: Part 2

XLIII. When the subject of a sentence is of such length, or of such complexity, that its connexion with the verb might easily be lost sight of, it is sometimes left hanging in the sentence, and its place supplied by some short expression that sums it up. A dash follows the subject when thus abandoned.

Physical Science, including Chemistry, Geology, Geography,
Astronomy; Metaphysics, Philology, Theology; Economics,
including Taxation and Finance; Politics and General
Literature--all occupied by turn, and almost simultaneously,
his incessantly active mind.

The colon is sometimes used in such cases; but the dash seems preferable, as it is the point that marks a change in the structure of a sentence.

XLIV. The dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after a parenthesis.

This was amongst the strongest pledges for thy truth, that
never once--no, not for a moment of weakness--didst thou
revel in the vision of coronets and honour from man.

XLV. The dash is sometimes used instead of the colon, where the word "namely" is implied, but is not expressed.

The most extreme example of such theories is perhaps to be
found in the attempt to distribute all law under the two
great commandments--love to God, and love to one's
neighbour.

In this sentence, however, the colon is preferable. (See Rule XXVI.). The dash should be used for this purpose only when it is necessary to use the colon in the same sentence for other purposes.

XLVI. The dash is used in rhetorical repetition; for instance, where one part of the sentence, such as the subject, is repeated at intervals throughout the sentence, and the rest of the sentence is kept suspended.

Cannot you, in England--cannot you, at this time of
day--cannot you, a House of Commons, trust to the principle
which has raised so mighty a revenue?

XLVII. A dash following a full stop occurs between the side-heading of a paragraph and the paragraph itself.

_Extent and Boundaries._--England (including Wales) is
bounded on the north by Scotland; on the west by the Irish
Sea, St George's Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the
south by the English Channel; and on the east by the German
Ocean.

XLVIII. When we place after a quotation the name of the author from whom it is taken, the full stop and the dash are used in the same way.

"One touch of nature makes the whole word
kin."--_Shakespeare._

XLIX. The dash is sometimes used in place of, or in addition to, other points, in order to indicate a pause greater than usual.

Now where is the revenue which is to do all these mighty
things? Five-sixths repealed--abandoned-sunk--gone--lost for
ever.

The highest rank;--a splendid fortune;--and a name, glorious
till it was yours,--were sufficient to have supported you
with meaner abilities than I think you possess.

There is seldom any reason for the use of double points. In the last example they cannot be said to be of any real service. But the dash may sometimes be rightly employed in addition to the full stop, in order to mark a division of discourse midway between the sentence and the paragraph. Even Cobbett, who abhors the dash, permits it to be used for this purpose. The report of a conversation is often printed in this way.

BRACKETS (OR THE PARENTHESIS.[1])

L. When a clause not strictly belonging to a sentence is thrown in, so to speak, in passing, the clause is enclosed within brackets.

[Footnote 1: It seems better to use the term "brackets" both for the curved and for the square brackets. "Parenthesis" can then be kept to its proper use, as the name for the words themselves which form the break in the sentence. We may note that in like manner the terms "comma," "colon," "semicolon," originally signified divisions of a sentence, not marks denoting the divisions. "Period" meant a complete sentence; and it still retains the meaning, somewhat specialized.]

It is said, because the priests are paid by the people (the
pay is four shillings per family yearly), therefore they
object to their leaving.

In full confidence of this unalterable truth, I now (_quod
felix faustumque sit_) lay the first stone of the Temple of
Peace.

Over and above the enclosing brackets, a parenthesis causes no change in the punctuation of the sentence that contains it; in other words, if we were to omit the parenthesis, no change ought to be necessary in the punctuation of the rest of the sentence. The comma is inserted after the parenthesis in the first example, because the comma would be needed even if there were no parenthesis.

In the second example, there would be no comma before "lay," if there were no parenthesis; accordingly the comma is not to be inserted merely because there is a parenthesis. A parenthesis is sufficiently marked off by brackets.

Observe also that the comma in the first example is placed after, not before, the parenthesis. The reason for this is that the parenthesis belongs to the first part of the sentence, not to the second.

LI. A complete sentence occurring parenthetically in a paragraph is sometimes placed within brackets.

Godfrey knew all this, and felt it with the greater force
because he had constantly suffered annoyance from witnessing
his father's sudden fits of unrelentingness, for which his
own habitual irresolution deprived him of all sympathy. (He
was not critical on the faulty indulgence which preceded
these fits; _that_ seemed to him natural enough.) Still
there was just the chance, Godfrey thought, that his
father's pride might see this marriage in a light that would
induce him to hush it up, rather than turn his son out and
make the family the talk of the country for ten miles round.

Note that the full stop should be placed inside, not outside, the brackets.

LII. Where, in quoting a passage, we throw in parenthetically something of our own, we may use square brackets.

Compare the following account of Lord Palmerston: "I have
heard him [Lord Palmerston] say that he occasionally found
that they [foreign ministers] had been deceived by the open
manner in which he told them the truth."

"The _Leviathan_ of Hobbes, a work now-a-days but little
known [and not better known now than in Bentham's time], and
detested through prejudice, and at second-hand, as a defence
of despotism, is an attempt to base all political society
upon a pretended contract between the people and the
sovereign."--_Principles of Legislation._

To use the square brackets in this way is often more convenient than to break the inverted commas and to begin them again. But in the case of the word _sic_--where it is inserted in a quotation to point out that the word preceding it is rightly quoted, and is not inserted by mistake--the ordinary brackets are used.

"The number of inhabitants were (_sic_) not more than four
millions."

Another case may be mentioned in which the square brackets are used: where in the passage quoted some words have been lost, and are filled in by conjecture. Prof. Stubbs quotes from one of the Anglo-Saxon laws:

"If ceorls have a common meadow, or other partible land to
fence, and some have fenced their part, some have not, and
[strange cattle come in and] eat up the common corn or
grass, let those go who own the gap and compensate to the
others."

INVERTED COMMAS

LIII. When we quote without any change the words of another person, they are enclosed within inverted commas. If they are quoted in the indirect form, or if we quote merely the substance, and neglect the exact words, inverted commas are not used.

Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires, "What are you
doing for the people?"

Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires what you are doing
for the people.

He says: "There is no property of any description, if it be
rightfully held, which had not its foundation in labour."

He frequently calls them "absurd," and applies to them such
epithets as "jargon," "fustian," and the like.

The last sentence might be written without inverted commas. By using them we call special attention to the fact that these were the words actually employed, and are not simply words like them.

So, in a passage quoted in the indirect form, if part be quoted exactly, it is placed within inverted commas.

The Duke of Portland warmly approved of the work, but justly
remarked that the king was not "so absolute a thing of
straw" as he was represented in it.

Words referred to simply as words are either placed within inverted commas or put in italics.

The word "friendship," in the sense we commonly mean by it,
is not so much as named in the New Testament.

LIV. When a quotation is interrupted, as in the report of a conversation, each continuous part of the quotation is enclosed within inverted commas.

"Pardon me, madam," answered Henry, "it was of one Silas
Morton I spoke."

LV. When a quotation occurs in another quotation, single inverted commas are used for the former.

"What have you done?" said one of Balfour's brother
officers. "My duty," said Balfour firmly. "Is it not
written, 'Thou shalt be zealous even to slaying'?"

Some writers use the single commas in ordinary cases. For the inner quotation they would then use the double commas.

LVI. A word that is not classical English, or is used in a sense in which it is not classical English, is either enclosed within inverted commas or italicized.

Those that have "located" (_located_) previous to this
period are left in undisputed possession, provided they have
improved the land.

Before long, Beckey received not only "the best" foreigners
(as the phrase is in our noble and admirable society slang),
but some of "the best" English people too.

Foreign words are always italicized. (Rule LXIV.)

LVII. The titles of books, of essays, and of other compositions; the names of periodicals; and the names of ships, are either enclosed within inverted commas or italicized.

In these "Miscellanies" was first published the "Art of
Sinking in Poetry," which, by such a train of consequences
as usually passes in literary quarrels, gave in a short
time, according to Pope's account, occasion to the
"Dunciad."

The "Emily St Pierre" (or _Emily St Pierre_), a British
ship, was captured on the 18th March, 1862.

It appeared in the "London Gazette" (or _London Gazette_).

The names of periodicals and of ships are more often written in italics than enclosed within inverted commas.

LVIII. If a quotation contains a question, the point of interrogation stands within the inverted commas.

In a voice which was fascination itself, the being addressed
me, saying, "Wilt thou come with me? Wilt thou be mine?"

LIX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation, the point of interrogation stands outside the inverted commas.

What does this honourable person mean by "a tempest that
outrides the wind"?

Observe how in the example given under Rule LV. the point of interrogation stands within the double inverted commas, but outside the single inverted commas.

LX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation which is itself interrogatory, the point of interrogation is placed outside the inverted commas.

Hast thou never cried, "What must I do to be saved"?

The reason is, that the question to be answered is not the quoted question, but "hast thou never cried?" No writer has been bold enough to insert two points of interrogation.

LXI. The last three rules apply also to exclamatory sentences.

(1) But I boldly cried out, "Woe unto this city!"

(2) Alas, how few of them can say, "I have striven to the
very utmost"!

(3) How fearful was the cry: "Help, or we perish"!

LXII. Where an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation of an exclamatory nature, or an exclamatory sentence ends with a quotation of an interrogative nature, it seems better to place at the end both the point of interrogation and the mark of exclamation, the one inside, the other outside, the inverted commas.

Do you remember who it was that wrote

"Whatever England's fields display,
The fairest scenes are thine, Torbay!"?

How much better to cease asking the question, "What would he
have done in different circumstances?"!

Where inverted commas are not used, it seems sufficient to have only one point, which must be the one required by the whole sentence, not by the quotation.

Do you remember the passage where Burke alludes to the old
warning of the Church--_Sursum corda_?

ITALICS

LXIII. Words to be specially emphasized may be put in italics. In writing, the substitute for italics is underlining.

What, it may well be asked, can the interests of the
community be those of--I do not say _an_ individual,
but--_the_ individual?

The voice can unmistakably indicate what are the emphatic words; but italics, only a feeble substitute, ought not to be used unless every other means of emphasizing fail. Many writers of authority have strongly, and very justly, condemned the too frequent use of them.

Double underlining in letter-writing need not be here adverted to. If the person to whom one writes a letter is likely to read it without appreciation or care, one is entitled to adopt any means that will ensure attention. But if double underlining is allowable only on this ground, general rules are obviously of no use.

LXIV. Words from a foreign language which have not become classical English words, are written in italics.

The slightest _double entendre_ made him blush to the eyes.

Knowledge of French is a _sine quâ non_.

When foreign words become English, they are no longer italicized. Among such words are: rationale, aide-de-camp, quartette, naïve, libretto. It is often a matter of discretion to say whether a word is so far naturalized that it should be written in the ordinary way.

LXV. Names of newspapers and magazines, and names of ships, are generally written in italics; as the _Times_, the _Fort-nightly Review_, the _Great Eastern_.

THE HYPHEN

LXVI. The hyphen is used between the component parts of some compound words.

Paper-knife; book-keeping; coal-pit; water-carrier;
printing-press; sea-water; man-of-war; now-a-days; high-art
decoration; good-looking.

There is no rule to distinguish the compound words that take a hyphen from those that do not. If one be in doubt about a particular word, the best thing to do is to refer to a dictionary.

LXVII. When one syllable of a word ends with a vowel, and the next syllable begins with the same vowel, the hyphen is placed between the syllables to indicate that the two vowels do not form a diphthong, that is, that they should not be pronounced together.

Co-operative; co-ordinate; pre-eminently; re-establish;
re-echo.

In the same way the hyphen sometimes ensures that two consonants shall be pronounced separately; as in "book-keeping," "shell-less," "cock-crow," "sword-dance."

LXVIII. As a rule, a hyphen should not be placed after a simple prefix: "contravene," "preternatural," "hypercritical," "bilateral."

To this there are some exceptions:

(_a_) "Anti-religious," "ultra-liberal," "semi-lunar," "co-eval." In these words the pronunciation is more clearly marked by inserting the hyphen. Compare "antiseptic," "antinomian," "ultramontane," "semicircle."

Perhaps among these exceptions should also be included such words as "pseudo-critic," "non-ego," "non-existent." Compare "pseudonym," where the prefix is contracted, and "nonentity." Words like "pre-eminent," divided for the same reason, have already been noted.

(_b_) "Re-creation," "re-mark." The hyphen distinguishes the etymological meaning of these words as distinguished from their derived and ordinary meaning.

(_c_) "Pre-Norman," "anti-Darwinian," "philo-Turk." If the capital-letter be retained where a prefix is put to a proper name, the hyphen is obviously necessary.

LXIX. When a number is written in words and not in figures, the words making up the number, if there be more words than one, are in certain cases separated from each other by the hyphen.

The numbers to which this rule applies are the cardinal and the ordinal numbers from twenty-one and twenty-first to ninety-nine and ninety-ninth inclusive. The hyphen is used also when the words are inverted; as "four-and-thirty," "six-and-fortieth."

LXX. Fractional parts written in words are separated in the same way, a hyphen being placed between the numerator and denominator; as "two-thirds," "three-sixteenths."

But if the word "part" or the word "share" follows, the hyphen is not used; as "two third parts."

LXXI. Several words may be joined by hyphens, in order to indicate that they are to be read together.

The I-believe-of-Eastern-derivation monosyllable "Bosh."

Additional restrictions were advocated in the cases of
mothers-of-young-children employed in factories.

As this last sentence stands, the hyphen is really the only means of making it perfectly clear that those who are referred to as employed in factories are the mothers, not the children. Hyphens are sometimes used in cases like the following: "A never-to-be-forgotten event," "peace-at-any-rate principles." They are almost invariably used in "well-to-do," "alack-a-day."

LXXII. The prefix "a" before the gerund is followed by a hyphen.

They went a-hunting.

I lay a-thinking.

Note that "agoing" is not divided.

LXXIII. When a word is divided at the end of a line, part of the word being in the next line, a hyphen is placed after the part at the end of the line.

So far as rules can be given for the division of the word, it may be said:

(_a_) The division must be at the end of a syllable. The syllable according to etymological derivation, and the syllable according to pronunciation, are not always the same. In case of conflict the pronunciation is to be the guide.

(_b_) The part in the next line should, if possible, begin with a consonant. An examination of a number of words will show that this is only another way of saying that we should be guided by pronunciation.

(_c_) Double letters are divided; as "at-tract," "profes-sion," "dif-ficulty."

The following examples are given consecutively from a book taken at random. This seems the best way of illustrating the rule:

Con-fidently; investi-gated; some-thing; institu-tion;
diffi-culty; at-tractions; exclu-sively; kins-man;
self-organized; en-tangled; col-lective; intermis-sion;
ma-terials; chan-cellor; col-lege; indus-trious; sub-ject;
his-tory; con-dition; Low-landers; or-ganization;
re-cognized; in-famous.

Some selected examples may be also given:

Resem-blance; hum-ble; se-cond; trans-lator; justifi-able;
east-ern; endea-vour.

THE APOSTROPHE

LXXIV. The apostrophe is used to indicate that some letter or letters of a word are left out.

"E'er" for "ever," "can't" for "cannot," "don't" for "do
not," "'gin" for "begin."

The apostrophe is not used when the word, though contracted in the middle, retains its original pronunciation; as "Dr." or "Mr." But it is used where the contraction is at the end of the word: "tho'," "Peterboro'."

LXXV. The apostrophe marks the possessive case of nouns. The following rules determine where it is to be placed:

_Nouns in the singular number--_

(1) The letter "s" is added, and the apostrophe is placed before it.

The king's abode. A patriot's reward.

(2) If the nominative singular of the noun ends in "s," another "s" is not added if the repetition of hissing sounds would be displeasing to the ear. The apostrophe is then placed at the end of the word.

Hercules' club. Augustus' dignity.

Words of one syllable follow the first rule: "James's share." Some words of two syllables follow the first rule, some the second: "the princess's birthday"; "Francis' style."

This distinction is sanctioned by usage. But it may judiciously be disregarded. In speaking we almost entirely ignore it. Why should we trouble ourselves with it in writing?

_Nouns in the plural number--_

(1) The apostrophe is placed after the "s" of the plural.

Boys' clothing. Our friends' troubles.

(2) If the plural do not end in "s," an "s" is added, and the apostrophe is placed before it.

Men's opinions. The children's pleasure.

LXXVI. The apostrophe is used before the "s" of the plural when single letters are used as words.

Mind your p's and q's.

He does not dot his i's nor cross his t's.

MARKS OF ELLIPSIS

LXXVII. When, in the middle of a quotation, a part is omitted, several asterisks or several full stops are placed in a line to mark the omission.

Clarendon makes the following remark about Lord Falkland:
"Yet two things he could never bring himself to whilst he
continued in that office, that was to his death; for which
he was contented to be reproached as for omissions in a most
necessary part of his place. The one, employing of spies, or
giving any countenance or entertainment to them. * * * The
other, the liberty of opening letters, upon a suspicion that
they might contain matter of a dangerous consequence." (One
sentence omitted.)

"The French and Spanish nations," said Louis XIV., "are so
united that they will henceforth be only one.... My
grandson, at the head of the Spaniards, will defend the
French. I, at the head of the French, will defend the
Spaniards."

"He who in former years," wrote Horace Walpole of his
father, "was asleep as soon as his head touched the pillow
... now never sleeps above an hour without waking."

If the passage omitted be of very considerable length, for instance if it be a complete paragraph, or if a line of poetry be omitted, the asterisks are placed in a line by themselves. There is a tendency to confine the asterisk to such cases, and to use the full stop for shorter ellipses. If a complete sentence be omitted, the number of additional full stops is generally four; if a passage be omitted in the middle of a sentence, the number is generally three.

When some of the letters of a name are omitted, their place is supplied by a line or dash, whose length depends on the number of letters omitted.

The scene of our story is laid in the town of B----. There
was one H----, who, I learned in after days, was seen
expiating some maturer offence in the hulks.

Blakesmoor in H----shire.

REFERENCES TO NOTES

Notes are generally placed at the foot of a page; though sometimes they are collected at the end of a chapter, or even at the end of a book. Various devices are in use for indicating the passage in the text to which a note refers.

(1) The six reference signs: the "asterisk" (*), the "dagger" ([dagger character]) (also called the "obelisk"), the "double dagger" ([double dagger character]), the "section" (§), the "parallels" (||), the "paragraph" (¶). They are suitable only where the notes are placed at the foot of a page, and are invariably used in the order in which we have mentioned them.

If the number of notes in one page exceeds six, the signs are doubled. The seventh note is marked thus: **; the eighth, [dagger character][dagger character]; the ninth, [double dagger character][double dagger character]; and so on. But it is better, in cases where the notes are so numerous, to use other means of reference.

(2) Figures: either within parentheses, as (1), (2), (3), &c.; or, more usually, printed in the raised or "superior" form, as ¹²³, &c. Sometimes the first note in each page is marked;¹ but it is now common, in books divided into chapters, to mark the first note in each chapter with ¹ and then go on with continuous numbers to the end of the chapter.

"Superior" figures are now the most usual marks of reference in English books.

(3) Letters; which also may either be placed within parentheses or be printed in "superior" form: (a), (b), (c), &c., or ^{a} ^{b} ^{c}, &c. Italic letters are sometimes used. As a rule the first note in each page is marked (a) or ^{a}. If in one page there are more notes than there are letters in the alphabet (which sometimes happens), we go to (aa), (bb), (cc), &c., ^{aa} ^{bb} ^{cc}. The letter "j" is often omitted.

It is less common to make the letters continuous from page to page.

The sign, whatever it may be, is placed at the beginning of the note, and also in the text immediately after the part to which the note refers. The note may refer to a whole sentence, to a part of a sentence, even to a single word; the sign is placed as the case may be, at the end of the sentence, at the end of the part referred to, or after the single word.

HOW TO CORRECT A PRINTER'S PROOF

EXPLANATION

1. Where a word is to be changed from small letters to capitals, draw three lines under it, and write _caps._ in the margin.

2. Where there is a wrong letter, draw the pen through it, and make the right letter opposite in the margin.

3. A letter turned upside down.

4. The substitution of a comma for another point, or for a letter put in by mistake.

5. The insertion of a hyphen.

6. To draw close together the letters of a word that stand apart.

7. To take away a superfluous letter or word, the pen is struck through it and a round top _d_ made opposite, being the contraction of _deleatur_='expunge.'

8. Where a word has to be changed to Italic, draw a line under it, and write _Ital._ in the margin; and where a word has to be changed from Italic to Roman, write _Rom._ opposite.

9. When words are to be transposed, three ways of marking them are shown; but they are not usually numbered unless more than three words have their order changed.

10. The transposition of letters in a word.

11. To change one word for another.

12. The substitution of a period or a colon for any other point. It is customary to encircle these two points with a line.

13. The substitution of a capital for a small letter.

14. The insertion of a word or of a letter.

15. When a paragraph commences where it is not intended, connect the matter by a line, and write in the margin opposite _run on_.

16. Where a space or a quadrat stands up and appears, draw a line under it, and make a strong perpendicular line in the margin.

17. When a letter of a different size from that used, or of a different face, appears in a word, draw a line either through it or under it, and write opposite _w.f._, for 'wrong fount.'

18. The marks for a paragraph, when its commencement has been omitted.

19. When a word or words have been struck out, and it is subsequently decided that they shall remain, make dots under them, and write the word _stet_ in the margin.

20. The mark for a space where it has been omitted between two words.

21. To change a word from small letters to small capitals, make two lines under the word, and write _sm. caps._ opposite. To change a word from small capitals to small letters, make one line under the word, and write in the margin _lo. ca._, for 'lower case.'

22. The mark for the apostrophe; and also the marks for inverted commas.

23. The manner of marking an omitted passage when it is too long to be written in the side margin. When this occurs, it may be written either at the top or the bottom of the page.

24. Marks when lines or words are not straight.

When corrected, the passage given above would read as follows--

ANTIQUITY, like every other quality that attracts the notice of mankind, has undoubtedly votaries that _reverence_ it, not from reason, but from prejudice. Some seem to admire indiscriminately whatever has been long preserved, without considering that time has sometimes co-operated with chance: all perhaps are more willing to honour past than present excellence; and the mind contemplates genius through the shades of age, as the eye surveys the sun through artificial opacity. The great contention of criticism is to find the faults of the moderns and the beauties of the ancients. While an author is yet living, we estimate his powers by his worst performances; and when he is dead, we rate them by his best.

To works, however, of which the excellence is not absolute and definite, but gradual and comparative; to works, not raised upon principles demonstrative and scientific, but appealing wholly to observation and experience, no other test can be applied than LENGTH of duration and continuance of esteem.