Chapter I: Preface (1)

Owing to the different conditions of time, language, country, and race under which the various books of the Holy Scriptures were written, it is impossible that they should be rightly understood at the present day without some study of the customs and manners of Eastern peoples, as well as of the countries in which they lived.

The Oriental character of the scriptural writings causes them to abound with metaphors and symbols taken from the common life of the time.

They contain allusions to the trees, flowers, and herbage, the creeping things of the earth, the fishes of the sea, the birds of the air, and the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the deserts and forests.

Unless, therefore, we understand these writings as those understood them for whom they were written, it is evident that we shall misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them.

The field which is laid open to us is so large that only one department of Natural History--namely, Zoology--can be treated in this work, although it is illustrated by many references to other branches of Natural History, to the physical geography of Palestine, Egypt, and Syria, the race-character of the inhabitants, and historical parallels.

The importance of understanding the nature, habits, and uses of the animals which are constantly mentioned in the Bible, cannot be overrated as a means of elucidating the Scriptures, and without this knowledge we shall not only miss the point of innumerable passages of the Old and New Testaments, but the words of our Lord Himself will often be totally misinterpreted, or at least lose part of their significance.

The object of the present work is therefore, to take in its proper succession, every creature whose name is given in the Scriptures, and to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to understand all the passages in which it is mentioned.

See page 191.]

THE AUTHOR.

The Rev. J. G. Wood is a native of London, England. He was educated at Oxford University, and has long been known, both in England and America, as not only a learned and accurate writer on Natural History, but a popular one as well, having the happy faculty of making the results of scientific study and painstaking observation, interesting and instructive to all classes of readers.

He has published a number of works on the most familiar departments of the history of animals, designed to awaken popular interest in the study. Their titles are "Sketches and Anecdotes of Animal Life;" "Common Objects of the Seashore and Country;" "My Feathered Friends;" "Homes Without Hands"--being a description of the habitations of animals,--and the "Illustrated Natural History," a book which is widely known both in England and America as a standard work of great value. It has given the author celebrity, and has caused him to be considered an eminent authority on the subject which it treats.

It is evident, from these facts, that it would be difficult to find a man better qualified than Mr. Wood, to write a book describing the animals mentioned in the Bible.

Profoundly impressed with the ignorance which prevails towards so important a feature of the Scriptural Narrative, he has devoted his ripe powers and special knowledge to the work of dissipating it, and in this volume, not only fully describes the nature and habits of all the animals mentioned in the Scriptures, but tells the story of their relations to mankind.

Mr. Wood is a clergyman of the Church of England, and was for a time connected with Christ Church, Oxford. He has devoted himself mainly, however, to authorship in the field which he has chosen, and in which he has become so well known. In his works he usually employs a popular style of writing, and does not make scientific terms prominent. This is especially true of the "Story of the Bible Animals," which from its easy and interesting character is adapted to the comprehension of young and old.

[Illutration: animals]

Many of the pictures in this book are taken from the living animals, or from photographs and sketches by Eastern travellers.

Others represent imaginary scenes, or ancient historical events, and have been designed by skilful artists after careful study of the subjects.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

[A complete Index of Subjects will be found at the end of this Volume.]

NO. PAGE

1. THE ANIMALS ENTER THE ARK 2

2. WAR-HORSES AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CHARIOT 4

3. SHEPHERD LEADING SHEEP AND GOATS TO THEIR FOLD IN THE ROCK 6

4. A DESERT-SCENE 8

5. THE GARDEN OF EDEN 19

6. LION DRINKING AT A POOL 21

7. A LION KILLS THE PROPHET FROM JUDAH 22

8. LION AND TIGER 23

9. THE LION REPLIES TO THE THUNDER 25

10. LIONESS AND YOUNG 27

11. LION CARRYING HOME SUPPLIES 31

12. AFRICAN LIONS 32

13. THE LION ATTACKS THE HERD 34

14. THE LAIR OF THE LION 35

15. THE LION LISTENS TO THE APPROACH OF THE HUNTER 39

16. THE LEOPARD 43

17. LEOPARD ATTACKING A HERD OF DEER 45

18. THE LEOPARD LEAPS UPON HIS PREY 47

19. WAITING 49

20. LEOPARD 51

21. CAT AND KITTENS 52

22. CAT 54

23. DOGS IN AN EASTERN CITY AT NIGHT 57

24. SHIMEI EXULTING OVER KING DAVID 59

25. LAZARUS LYING AT THE RICH MAN'S DOOR 62

26. THE DEATH OF JEZEBEL 63

27. SYRIAN DOG 64

28. EASTERN WATER-SELLER 68

29. WOLVES ATTACKING A FLOCK OF SHEEP 70

30. WOLVES CHASING DEER 72

31. THE WOLF 73

32. WOLVES ATTACKING WILD GOATS 75

33. THE JACKAL 76

34. FOXES OR JACKALS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A GOAT 77

35. A FEAST IN PROSPECT 79

36. A FEAST SECURED 81

37. A TRESPASSER 83

38. LEOPARD ROBBED OF ITS PREY BY HYÆNAS 87

39. HYÆNAS DEVOURING BONES 89

40. WEASELS 93

41. THE BITER BIT 95

42. BADGERS 99

43. SUPPOSED FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE TABERNACLE 101

44. BEARS DESCENDING THE MOUNTAINS 105

45. ON THE WATCH 107

46. SEEKING AN OUTLOOK 109

47. A FAMILY PARTY 111

48. BEAR 112

49. PORCUPINE 113

50. THE MOLE-RAT 115

51. THE MOUSE 119

52. DAGON FALLEN DOWN BEFORE THE ARK 120

53. MOUSE AND NEST 121

54. JERBOA OR LEAPING-MOUSE 122

55. THE FIELD-MOUSE 123

56. THE SYRIAN HARE 127

57. A TIMID GROUP 129

58. ALTAR OF BURNT-OFFERING 133

59. THE PRODIGAL SON RETURNS 134

60. ABRAHAM OFFERS FOOD TO THE THREE STRANGERS 135

61. OXEN TREADING OUT GRAIN 139

62. EASTERN OX-CART 140

63. THE ARK OF THE COVENANT BEING DRAWN BY COWS 141

64. PLOUGHING WITH OXEN 143

65. MUMMY OF A SACRED BULL TAKEN FROM AN EGYPTIAN TOMB 146

66. ANIMALS BEING SOLD FOR SACRIFICE IN THE PORCH OF THE TEMPLE 147

67. JEROBOAM SETS UP A GOLDEN CALF AT BETHEL 148

68. THE BUFFALO 149

69. THE BHAINSA, OR DOMESTIC BUFFALO, AND CAMEL DRAWING
THE PLOUGH 151

70. WILD BULL OR ORYX 155

71. THE ORYX 157

72. THE UNICORN 158

73. THE BISON 160

74. BISON KILLING WOLF 161

75. THE GAZELLE OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE 163

76. GAZELLES 164

77. THE FALCON USED IN OUR HUNT 168

78. THE ARAB IS DELIGHTED AT THE SUCCESS OF THE HUNT 169

79. THE GAZELLE 170

80. THE ADDAX 172

81. THE BUBALE OR FALLOW DEER OF SCRIPTURE 175

82. SHEEP 176

83. ARABS JOURNEYING TO FRESH PASTURES 178

84. VIEW OF THE PYRAMIDS 179

85. JACOB MEETS RACHEL AT THE WELL 182

86. EASTERN SHEPHERD WATCHING HIS FLOCK 183

87. DAVID GATHERS STONES FROM THE BROOK TO CAST AT
GOLIATH 185

88. AN EASTERN SHEPHERD 186

89. SHEEP FOLLOWING THEIR SHEPHERD 187

90. ANCIENT SHEEP-PEN 190

91. THE POOR MAN'S LAMB 193

92. THE RICH MAN'S FEAST 193

93. FLOCKS OF SHEEP BEING TAKEN INTO JERUSALEM 195

94. SOUNDING THE TRUMPETS IN THE YEAR OF JUBILEE 202

95. RAM'S HORN TRUMPET 203

96. A LAMB UPON THE ALTAR OF BURNT OFFERING 204

97. THE PLACE OF SACRIFICE 206

98. THE CHAMOIS 211

99. CHAMOIS DEFENDING ITS YOUNG 213

100. CHASING THE AOUDAD 214

101. THE MOUFLON 216

102. JACOB DECEIVES HIS FATHER AND TAKES ESAU'S BLESSING 218

103. THE ANGEL APPEARS TO GIDEON 219

104. EASTERN WATER-CARRIERS WITH BOTTLES MADE OF GOAT-SKIN 224

105. GOATS ON THE MARCH 228

106. HERD OF GOATS ATTACKED BY A LION 231

107. ARABIAN IBEX, THE WILD GOAT OF SCRIPTURE 236

108. THE DEER 238

109. RED DEER 239

110. FALLOW DEER OR HIND OF SCRIPTURE 240

111. A QUIET SPOT 241

112. RED DEER AND FAWN 243

113. THE LEADER OF THE HERD 245

114. THE WATCHFUL DOE 247

115. A KNEELING CAMEL 248

116. JACOB LEAVES LABAN AND RETURNS TO CANAAN 249

117. A CAMP IN THE DESERT 250

118. A GRATEFUL SHADE 253

119. CAMELS LADEN WITH BOUGHS 257

120. MORNING IN THE DESERT: STARTING OF THE CARAVAN 258

121. THE CAMEL POST 261

122. A RUNAWAY 263

123. AN ARAB SHEIK MOUNTED UPON HIS CAMEL 264

124. AARON'S ROD BEARS ALMONDS 266

125. CAMEL RIDING 267

126. THE DELOUL, OR SWIFT CAMEL 268

127. ANOTHER MODE OF RIDING THE CAMEL 270

128. PASSING A CAMEL IN A NARROW STREET OF AN EASTERN CITY 277

129. MOSES AT THE BURNING BUSH 278

130. AN ARAB ENCAMPMENT 279

131. ON THE MARCH 281

132. HAIR OF THE CAMEL 283

133. CAMEL GOING THROUGH A "NEEDLE'S EYE" 285

134. A REST IN THE DESERT 287

135. BACTRIAN CAMELS DRAWING CART 289

136. TRIAL OF ARAB HORSES 292

137. AN ARAB HORSE OF THE KOCHLANI BREED 293

138. THE WAR-HORSE 295

139. ARAB HORSES 297

140. BUYING AN ARAB HORSE 299

141. THE ARAB'S FAVORITE STEEDS 301

142. PHARAOH PURSUES THE ISRAELITES WITH CHARIOTS AND
HORSES, AND THE SEA COVERS THEM 302

143. ELIJAH IS CARRIED UP 304

144. THE ISRAELITES, LED BY JOSHUA, TAKE JERICHO 308

145. ANCIENT BATTLEFIELD 309

146. CHARIOT OF STATE 311

147. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE REPRESENTING A VICTORIOUS
KING IN HIS CHARIOT SLAYING HIS ENEMIES 313

148. MUMMY OF AN EGYPTIAN KING OVER THREE THOUSAND
YEARS OLD 314

149. ASS AND DRIVER 315

150. ENTERING JERUSALEM 317

151. SYRIAN ASSES 319

152. A STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT 322

153. BEGGAR IN THE STREETS OF CAIRO 324

154. NIGHT-WATCH IN CAIRO 325

155. HUNTING WILD ASSES 331

156. MULES OF THE EAST 334

157. ABSALOM IS CAUGHT IN THE BOUGHS OF AN OAK TREE 335

158. DANIEL REFUSES TO EAT THE KING'S MEAT 337

159. THE PRODIGAL SON 340

160. ELEAZAR REFUSES TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH 341

161. A MOTHER AND HER SEVEN SONS TORTURED FOR REFUSING
TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH 342

162. THE EVIL SPIRITS ENTER A HERD OR SWINE 343

163. WILD BOARS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A DEER 344

164. WILD BOARS 345

165. WILD BOARS DESTROYING A VINEYARD 347

166. INDIAN ELEPHANT 349

167. KING SOLOMON, SEATED UPON HIS THRONE, RECEIVES THE
QUEEN OF SHEBA 350

168. INDIAN ELEPHANTS 351

169. THE WAR-ELEPHANT 355

170. AFRICAN ELEPHANTS 359

171. ELEPHANTS' WATERING-PLACE 361

172. TIGER 363

173. TIGER IN THE REEDS 364

174. HEAD OF TIGER 365

175. THE HYRAX 367

176. HIPPOPOTAMUS 372

177. HIPPOPOTAMUS POOL 375

178. THE GREAT JAWS OF THE HIPPOPOTAMUS 376

179. HIPPOPOTAMUS EMERGING FROM THE RIVER 377

180. HIPPOPOTAMUS EATING GRASS 379

181. A HIPPOPOTAMUS-HUNT IN EGYPT 381

182. HIPPOPOTAMUS AND TRAP 384

183. THE BABOON 387

184. THE RHESUS MONKEY 389

185. FEEDING THE MONKEYS IN INDIA 390

186. TROUBLESOME NEIGHBORS 391

187. MONKEYS ENTERING A PLANTATION 392

188. SLOTHFUL MONKEYS 393

189. A PRIVILEGED RACE 394

190. THE WANDEROO 396

191. THE ENEMY DISCOVERED 397

192. BONNET MONKEYS 399

193. THE BAT 401

194. BATS' RESTING-PLACE 403

195. GREAT FOX-HEADED BAT, OR FLYING FOX 405

196. CAVE NEAR THE SITE OF ANCIENT JERICHO 406

197. NIGHT IN THE TROPICS 407

198. LEOPARDS 408

199. THE HOME OF THE VULTURE 411

200. The LÄMMERGEIER 412

201. A SUCCESSFUL DEFENCE 415

202. STRUCK FROM A DIZZY HEIGHT 417

203. THE VULTURE'S NEST 418

204. THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER EAGLE 420

205. VULTURES 425

206. THE EAGLE AND THE HARE 430

207. EAGLES 432

208. EAGLE RETURNING TO THE NEST WITH HER PREY 435

209. THE OSPREY SEARCHING FOR FISH 437

210. SNATCHED FROM THE DEEP: THE OSPREY RISES WITH HIS
PREY 439

211. THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE 441

212. THE PEREGRINE FALCON, OR GLEDE 444

213. THE LANNER FALCON 446

214. THE HAWK 447

215. KESTREL HOVERING OVER A FIELD IN SEARCH OF PREY 449

216. THE WIND-HOVER, OR KESTREL 450

217. THE BARN OWL 454

218. THE LITTLE OWL 456

219. CAUGHT NAPPING 457

220. RAVEN.--BARN OWL.--EAGLE OWL 459

221. A FAMILY COUNCIL 460

222. THE NIGHT HAWK ON THE WING 462

223. THE NIGHT HAWK 463

224. THE SWALLOW 466

225. LOST FROM THE FLOCK 469

226. THE SWALLOW AND SWIFT 471

227. VIEW OF THE SEA OF GALILEE 472

228. THE SWALLOW'S FAVORITE HAUNT 473

229. SWALLOWS AT HOME 475

230. THE HOOPOE 478

231. EASTERN HOUSETOPS 479

232. READING THE LAW TO THE PEOPLE AFTER THE RETURN
FROM CAPTIVITY 482

233. THE BLUE THRUSH, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE 483

234. THE TREE SPARROW 485

235. SPARROWS 486

236. A FOREST SCENE 487

237. THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO 488

238. NOAH RECEIVES THE DOVE 489

239. JESUS DRIVES OUT OF THE TEMPLE THE MONEYCHANGERS
AND THOSE WHO SOLD DOVES 493

240. THE ROCK DOVE 494

241. BLUE ROCK PIGEONS 495

242. THE TURTLE DOVE 497

243. THE HEN AND HER BROOD 498

244. THE DOMESTIC FOWL 499

245. POULTRY 500

246. THE PEACOCK 501

247. PEAFOWL 503

248. FEATHERS OF THE PEACOCK 504

249. PARTRIDGES 505

250. THE GREEK PARTRIDGE 507

251. PARTRIDGE AND THEIR YOUNG 508

252. EASTERN QUAIL 509

253. THE QUAIL 510

254. FLIGHT OF QUAIL 515

255. THE RAVEN 517

256. ELIJAH FED BY RAVENS 518

257. RAVENS' ROOSTING-PLACE 521

258. RAVENS' NEST 522

259. OSTRICH AND NEST 527

260. ARABS HUNTING THE OSTRICH 533

261. THE BITTERN 537

262. BITTERN AND CORMORANT 539

263. THE HOME OF THE BITTERN 541

264. THE HERON 543

265. THE HOME OF THE HERON 545

266. THE PAPYRUS PLANT 548

267. THE HOME OF THE CRANE 549

268. THE CRANE 550

269. THE STORK 553

270. STORKS AND THEIR NESTS 555

271. A NEST OF THE WHITE STORK 559

272. IBIS AND GALLINULE 561

273. THE PELICAN 568

274. LIZARDS 575

275. TORTOISES 577

276. THE DHUBB AND THE TORTOISE 578

277. WATER TORTOISE 579

278. CROCODILE ATTACKING HORSES 587

279. A CROCODILE POOL OF ANCIENT EGYPT 590

280. CROCODILES OF THE UPPER NILE 591

281. ICHNEUMON DEVOURING THE EGGS OF THE CROCODILE 597

282. A CROCODILE TRAP 599

283. A FIGHT FOR LIFE 601

284. THE CYPRIUS, OR LIZARD 602

285. THE CHAMELEON 605

286. GECKO AND CHAMELEON 606

287. THE GECKO 609

288. SERPENTS 611

289. BOA CONSTRICTOR AND TIGER 613

290. COBRA AND CERASTES 615

291. THE ISRAELITES ARE BITTEN BY SERPENTS IN THE WILDERNESS,
AND MOSES LIFTS UP THE SERPENT OF BRASS 616

292. THE SERPENT-CHARMER 619

293. THE VIPER 621

294. TEACHING COBRAS TO DANCE 623

295. HORNED VIPER 625

296. THE VIPER, OR EPHEH 627

297. THE TOXICOA 628

298. THE FROG 630

299. FISHES 633

300. A RIVER SCENE 635

301. PETER CATCHES THE FISH 636

302. MURÆNA, LONG-HEADED BARBEL, AND SHEAT FISH 638

303. SUCKING FISH, TUNNY, AND CORYPHENE 640

304. FISHING SCENE ON THE SEA OF GALILEE 642

305. MODE OF DRAGGING THE SEINE NET 645

306. NILE PERCH, SURMULLET, AND STAR-GAZER 647

307. THE PEARL OYSTER 653

308. INSECTS 655

309. A SWARM OF LOCUSTS 659

310. THE LOCUST 663

311. THE BEE 665

312. THE HORNET AND ITS NEST 669

313. ANTS ON THE MARCH 671

314. ANT OF PALESTINE 675

315. THE CRIMSON WORM 677

316. MORDECAI IS LED THROUGH THE CITY UPON THE KING'S
HORSE 679

317. BUTTERFLIES OF PALESTINE 682

318. NOXIOUS FLIES OF PALESTINE 685

319. THE SCORPION 690

320. CORAL 694

STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS.

THE LION.

Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures--The Lion
employed as an emblem in the Bible--Similarity of the African
and Asiatic species--The chief characteristics of the Lion--its
strength, activity, and mode of seizing its prey--The Lion hunt.

Of all the undomesticated animals of Palestine, none is mentioned so frequently as the LION. This may appear the more remarkable, because for many years the Lion has been extinct in Palestine. The leopard, the wolf, the jackal, and the hyæna, still retain their place in the land, although their numbers are comparatively few; but the Lion has vanished completely out of the land. The reason for this disappearance is twofold, first, the thicker population; and second, the introduction of firearms.

No animal is less tolerant of human society than the Lion. In the first place, it dreads the very face of man, and as a rule, whenever it sees a man will slink away and hide itself. There are, of course, exceptional cases to this rule. Sometimes a Lion becomes so old and stiff, his teeth are so worn, and his endurance so slight, that he is unable to chase his usual prey, and is obliged to seek for other means of subsistence. In an unpopulated district, he would simply be starved to death, but when his lot is cast in the neighbourhood of human beings, he is perforce obliged to become a "man-eater." Even in that case, a Lion will seldom attack a man, unless he should be able to do so unseen, but will hang about the villages, pouncing on the women as they come to the wells for water, or upon the little children as they stray from their parents, and continually shifting his quarters lest he should be assailed during his sleep. The Lion requires a very large tract of country for his maintenance, and the consequence is, that in proportion as the land is populated does the number of Lions decrease.

Firearms are the special dread of the Lion. In the first place, the Lion, like all wild beasts, cannot endure fire, and the flash of the gun terrifies him greatly. Then, there is the report, surpassing even his roar in resonance; and lastly, there is the unseen bullet, which seldom kills him at once, but mostly drives him to furious anger by the pain of his wound, yet which he does not dread nearly so much as the harmless flash and report. There is another cause of the Lion's banishment from the Holy Land. It is well known that to attract any wild beast or bird to some definite spot, all that is required is to provide them with a suitable and undisturbed home, and a certainty of food. Consequently, the surest method of driving them away is to deprive them of both these essentials. Then the Lion used to live in forests, which formerly stretched over large tracts of ground, but which have long since been cut down, thus depriving the Lion of its home, while the thick population and the general use of firearms have deprived him of his food. In fact, the Lion has been driven out of Palestine, just as the wolf has been extirpated from England.

But, in the olden times, Lions must have been very plentiful. There is scarcely a book in the Bible, whether of the Old or New Testaments, whether historical or prophetical, that does not contain some mention of this terrible animal; sometimes describing the actions of individual Lions, but mostly using the word as an emblem of strength and force, whether used for a good purpose or abused for a bad one.

There are several varieties of Lion, which may be reduced to two, namely, the African and the Asiatic Lion. It is almost certain, however, that these animals really are one and the same species, and that the trifling differences which exist between an African and an Asiatic Lion, are not sufficient to justify a naturalist in considering them to be distinct species. The habits of both are identical, modified, as is sure to be the case, by the difference of locality; but then, such variations in habit are continually seen in animals confessedly of the same species, which happen to be placed in different conditions of climate and locality.

That it was once exceedingly plentiful in Palestine is evident, from a very cursory knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. It is every where mentioned as a well-known animal, equally familiar and dreaded. When the disobedient prophet was killed by the Lion near Bethel, the fact seemed not to have caused any surprise in the neighbourhood. When the people came out to rescue the body of the prophet, they wondered much because the Lion was standing by the fallen man, but had not torn him, and had left the ass unhurt. But that a Lion should have killed a man seems to have been an event which was not sufficiently rare to be surprising.

We will now proceed to those characteristics of the Lion which bear especial reference to the Scriptures.

In the first place, size for size, the Lion is one of the strongest of beasts.

Moreover, the strength of the Lion is equally distributed over the body and limbs, giving to the animal an easy grace of movement which is rare except with such a structure. A full-grown Lion cannot only knock down and kill, but can carry away in its mouth, an ordinary ox; and one of these terrible animals has been known to pick up a heifer in its mouth, and to leap over a wide ditch still carrying its burden. Another Lion carried a two-year old heifer, and was chased for five hours by mounted farmers, so that it must have traversed a very considerable distance. Yet, in the whole of this long journey, the legs of the heifer had only two or three times touched the ground.

It kills man, and comparatively small animals, such as deer and antelopes, with a blow of its terrible paw; and often needs to give no second blow to cause the death of its victim. The sharp talons are not needed to cause death, for the weight of the blow is sufficient for that purpose.

When the hunter pursues it with dogs, after the usual fashion, there is often a great slaughter among them, especially among those that are inexperienced in the chase of the Lion. Urged by their instinctive antipathy, the dogs rush forward to the spot where the Lion awaits them, and old hounds bay at him from a safe distance, while the young and inexperienced among them are apt to convert the sham attack into a real one. Their valour meets with a poor reward, for a few blows from the Lion's terrible paws send his assailants flying in all directions, their bodies streaming with blood, and in most cases a fatal damage inflicted, while more than one unfortunate dog lies fairly crushed by the weight of a paw laid with apparent carelessness upon its body. There is before me a Lion's skin, a spoil of one of these animals shot by the celebrated sportsman, Gordon Cumming. Although the skin lies flat upon the floor, and the paws are nothing but the skin and talons, the weight of each paw is very considerable, and always surprises those who hear it fall on the floor.

There are several Hebrew words which are used for the Lion, but that which signifies the animal in its adult state is derived from an Arabic word signifying strength; and therefore the Lion is called the Strong-one, just as the Bat is called the Night-flier. No epithet could be better deserved, for the Lion seems to be a very incarnation of strength, and, even when dead, gives as vivid an idea of concentrated power as when it was living. And, when the skin is stripped from the body, the tremendous muscular development never fails to create a sensation of awe. The muscles of the limbs, themselves so hard as to blunt the keen-edged knives employed by a dissecter, are enveloped in their glittering sheaths, playing upon each other like well-oiled machinery, and terminating in tendons seemingly strong as steel, and nearly as impervious to the knife. Not until the skin is removed can any one form a conception of the enormously powerful muscles of the neck, which enable the Lion to lift the weighty prey which it kills, and to convey it to a place of security.

Although usually unwilling to attack an armed man, it is one of the most courageous animals in existence when it is driven to fight, and if its anger is excited, it cares little for the number of its foes, or the weapons with which they are armed. Even the dreaded firearms lose their terrors to an angry Lion, while a Lioness, who fears for the safety of her young, is simply the most terrible animal in existence. We know how even a hen will fight for her chickens, and how she has been known to beat off the fox and the hawk by the reckless fury of her attack. It may be easily imagined, therefore, that a Lioness actuated by equal courage, and possessed of the terrible weapons given to her by her Creator, would be an animal almost too formidable for the conception of those who have not actually witnessed the scene of a Lioness defending her little ones.

The roar of the Lion is another of the characteristics for which it is celebrated. There is no beast that can produce a sound that could for a moment be mistaken for the roar of the Lion. The Lion has a habit of stooping his head towards the ground when he roars, so that the terrible sound rolls along like thunder, and reverberates in many an echo in the far distance. Owing to this curious habit, the roar can be heard at a very great distance, but its locality is rendered uncertain, and it is often difficult to be quite sure whether the Lion is to the right or the left of the hearer.

There are few sounds which strike more awe than the Lion's roar. Even at the Zoological Gardens, where the hearer knows that he is in perfect safety, and where the Lion is enclosed in a small cage faced with strong iron bars, the sound of the terrible roar always has a curious effect upon the nerves. It is not exactly fear, because the hearer knows that he is safe; but it is somewhat akin to the feeling of mixed awe and admiration with which one listens to the crashing thunder after the lightning has sped its course. If such be the case when the Lion is safely housed in a cage, and is moreover so tame that even if he did escape, he would be led back by the keeper without doing any harm, the effect of the roar must indeed be terrific when the Lion is at liberty, when he is in his own country, and when the shades of evening prevent him from being seen even at a short distance.

In the dark, there is no animal so invisible as a Lion. Almost every hunter has told a similar story--of the Lion's approach at night, of the terror displayed by dogs and cattle as he drew near, and of the utter inability to see him, though he was so close that they could hear his breathing. Sometimes, when he has crept near an encampment, or close to a cattle inclosure, he does not proceed any farther lest he should venture within the radius illumined by the rays of the fire. So he crouches closely to the ground, and, in the semi-darkness, looks so like a large stone, or a little hillock, that any one might pass close to it without perceiving its real nature. This gives the opportunity for which the Lion has been watching, and in a moment he strikes down the careless straggler, and carries off his prey to the den. Sometimes, when very much excited, he accompanies the charge with a roar, but, as a general fact, he secures his prey in silence.

The roar of the Lion is very peculiar. It is not a mere outburst of sound, but a curiously graduated performance. No description of the Lion's roar is so vivid, so true, and so graphic as that of Gordon Cumming: "One of the most striking things connected with the Lion is his voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It consists at times of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six times, ending in faintly audible sighs. At other times he startles the forest with loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated five or six times in quick succession, each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice dies away in five or six low, muffled sounds, very much resembling distant thunder. As a general rule, Lions roar during the night, their sighing moans commencing as the shades of evening envelop the forest, and continuing at intervals throughout the night. In distant and secluded regions, however, I have constantly heard them roaring loudly as late as nine or ten o'clock on a bright sunny morning. In hazy and rainy weather they are to be heard at every hour in the day, but their roar is subdued."

Lastly, we come to the dwelling-place of the Lion. This animal always fixes its residence in the depths of some forest, through which it threads its stealthy way with admirable certainty. No fox knows every hedgerow, ditch, drain, and covert better than the Lion knows the whole country around his den. Each Lion seems to have his peculiar district, in which only himself and his family will be found. These animals seem to parcel out the neighbourhood among themselves by a tacit law like that which the dogs of eastern countries have imposed upon themselves, and which forbids them to go out of the district in which they were born. During the night he traverses his dominions; and, as a rule, he retires to his den as soon as the sun is fairly above the horizon. Sometimes he will be in wait for prey in the broadest daylight, but his ordinary habits are nocturnal, and in the daytime he is usually asleep in his secret dwelling-place.

We will now glance at a few of the passages in which the Lion is mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, selecting those which treat of its various characteristics.

The terrible strength of the Lion is the subject of repeated reference. In the magnificent series of prophecies uttered by Jacob on his deathbed, the power of the princely tribe of Judah is predicted under the metaphor of a Lion--the beginning of its power as a Lion's whelp, the fulness of its strength as an adult Lion, and its matured establishment in power as the old Lion that couches himself and none dares to disturb him. Then Solomon, in the Proverbs, speaks of the Lion as the "strongest among beasts, and that turneth not away for any."

Solomon also alludes to its courage in the same book, Prov. xxviii. 1, in the well-known passage, "The wicked fleeth when no man pursueth: but the righteous are bold as a lion." And, in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, the courage of Benaiah, one of the mighty three of David's army, is specially honoured, because he fought and killed a Lion single-handed, and because he conquered "two lion-like men of Moab." David, their leader, had also distinguished himself, when a mere keeper of cattle, by pursuing and killing a Lion that had come to plunder his herd. In the same book of Samuel which has just been quoted (xvii. 10), the valiant men are metaphorically described as having the hearts of Lions.

The ferocity of this terrible beast of prey is repeatedly mentioned, and the Psalms are full of such allusions, the fury and anger of enemies being compared to the attacks of the Lion.

Many passages refer to the Lion's roar, and it is remarkable that the Hebrew language contains several words by which the different kind of roar is described. One word, for example, represents the low, deep, thunder-like roar of the Lion seeking its prey, and which has already been mentioned. This is the word which is used in Amos iii. 4, "Will a lion roar in the forest when he hath no prey?" and in this passage the word which is translated as Lion signifies the animal when full grown and in the prime of life. Another word is used to signify the sudden exulting cry of the Lion as it leaps upon its victim. A third is used for the angry growl with which a Lion resents any endeavour to deprive it of its prey, a sound with which we are all familiar, on a miniature scale, when we hear a cat growling over a mouse which she has just caught. The fourth term signifies the peculiar roar uttered by the young Lion after it has ceased to be a cub and before it has attained maturity. This last term is employed in Jer. li. 38, "They shall _roar_ together like lions; they shall _yell_ as lions' whelps," in which passage two distinct words are used, one signifying the roar of the Lion when searching after prey, and the other the cry of the young Lions.

The prophet Amos, who in his capacity of herdsman was familiar with the wild beasts, from which he had to guard his cattle, makes frequent mention of the Lion, and does so with a force and vigour that betoken practical experience. How powerful is this imagery, "The lion hath roared; who will not fear? The Lord God hath spoken; who can but prophesy?" Here we have the picture of the man himself, the herdsman and prophet, who had trembled many a night, as the Lions drew nearer and nearer; and who heard the voice of the Lord, and his lips poured out prophecy. Nothing can be more complete than the parallel which he has drawn. It breathes the very spirit of piety, and may bear comparison even with the prophecies of Isaiah for its simple grandeur.

It is remarkable how the sacred writers have entered into the spirit of the world around them, and how closely they observed the minutest details even in the lives of the brute beasts. There is a powerful passage in the book of Job, iv. 11, "The old lion perisheth for lack of prey," in which the writer betrays his thorough knowledge of the habits of the animal, and is aware that the usual mode of a Lion's death is through hunger, in consequence of his increasing inability to catch prey.

The nocturnal habits of the Lion and its custom of lying in wait for prey are often mentioned in the Scriptures. The former habit is spoken of in that familiar and beautiful passage in the Psalms (civ. 20), "Thou makest darkness, and it is night; wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth. The young Lions roar after their prey; and seek their meat from God. The sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them down in their dens."

An animal so destructive among the flocks and herds could not be allowed to carry out its depredations unchecked, and as we have already seen, the warfare waged against it has been so successful, that the Lions have long ago been fairly extirpated in Palestine. The usual method of capturing or killing the Lion was by pitfalls or nets, to both of which there are many references in the Scriptures.

The mode of hunting the Lion with nets was identical with that which is practised in India at the present time. The precise locality of the Lion's dwelling-place having been discovered, a circular wall of net is arranged round it, or if only a few nets can be obtained, they are set in a curved form, the concave side being towards the Lion. They then send dogs into the thicket, hurl stones and sticks at the den, shoot arrows into it, fling burning torches at it, and so irritate and alarm the animal that it rushes against the net, which is so made that it falls down and envelopes the animal in its folds. If the nets be few, the drivers go to the opposite side of the den, and induce the Lion to escape in the direction where he sees no foes, but where he is sure to run against the treacherous net. Other large and dangerous animals were also captured by the same means.

Another and more common, because an easier and a cheaper method was, by digging a deep pit, covering the mouth with a slight covering of sticks and earth, and driving the animal upon the treacherous covering. It is an easier method than the net, because after the pit is once dug, the only trouble lies in throwing the covering over its mouth. But, it is not so well adapted for taking beasts alive, as they are likely to be damaged, either by the fall into the pit, or by the means used in getting them out again. Animals, therefore, that are caught in pits are generally, though not always, killed before they are taken out. The net, however, envelops the animal so perfectly, and renders it so helpless, that it can be easily bound and taken away. The hunting net is very expensive, and requires a large staff of men to work it, so that none but a rich man could use it in hunting.

The passages in which allusion is made to the use of the pitfall in hunting are too numerous to be quoted, and it will be sufficient to mention one or two passages, such as those wherein the Psalmist laments that his enemies have hidden for him their net in a pit, and that the proud have digged pits for him.

Lions that were taken in nets seem to have been kept alive in dens, either as mere curiosities, or as instruments of royal vengeance. Such seems to have been the object of the Lions which were kept by Darius, into whose den Daniel was thrown, by royal command, and which afterwards killed his accusers when thrown into the same den. It is plain that the Lions kept by Darius must have been exceedingly numerous, because they killed at once the accusers of Daniel, who were many in number, together with their wives and children, who, in accordance with the cruel custom of that age and country, were partakers of the same punishment with the real culprits. The whole of the first part of Ezek. xix. alludes to the custom of taking Lions alive and keeping them in durance afterwards.

Sometimes the Lion was hunted as a sport, but this amusement seems to have been restricted to the great men, on account of its expensive nature. Such hunting scenes are graphically depicted in the famous Nineveh sculptures, which represent the hunters pursuing their mighty game in chariots, and destroying them with arrows. Rude, and even conventional as are these sculptures, they have a spirit, a force, and a truthfulness, that prove them to have been designed by artists to whom the scene was a familiar one.

Upon the African Continent the Lion reigns supreme, monarch of the feline race.

Whatever may be said of the distinction between the Asiatic and African Lion, there seems to be scarcely sufficient grounds for considering the very slight differences a sufficient warrant for constituting separate species. From all accounts, it seems that the habits of all Lions are very similar, and that a Lion acts like a Lion whether found in Africa or Asia.

An old Boer, as the Dutch settlers of Southern Africa are called, gave me a most interesting account of an adventure with a Lion.

The man was a well-known hunter, and lived principally by the sale of ivory and skins. He was accustomed each year to make a trip into the game country, and traded with the Kaffirs, or native blacks, under very favorable auspices. His stock in trade consisted of guns and ammunition, several spans of fine oxen, some horses, and about a dozen dogs.

A Lion which appeared to have been roaming about the country happened to pass near this hunter's camp, and scenting the horses and oxen, evidently thought that the location would suit him for a short period. A dense wood situated about a mile from the camp afforded shelter, and this spot the Lion selected as a favorable position for his headquarters.

The hunter had not to wait for more than a day, before the suspicions which had been aroused by some broad footmarks, which he saw imprinted in the soil, were confirmed into a certainty that a large Lion was concealed near his residence.

It now became a question of policy whether the Boer should attack the Lion, or wait for the Lion to attack him. He thought it possible that the savage beast, having been warned off by the dogs, whose barking had been continued and furious during the night on which the Lion was supposed to have passed, might think discretion the better part of valor, and consequently would move farther on, in search of a less carefully guarded locality upon which to quarter himself. He determined, therefore, to wait, but to use every precaution against a night-surprise.

The Lion, however, was more than a match for the man; for during the second night a strong ox from his best span was quietly carried off, and, although there was some commotion among the dogs and cattle, it was then thought that the alarm had scared the Lion away.

The morning light, however, showed that the beast had leaped the fence which surrounded the camp, and, having killed the ox, had evidently endeavored to scramble over it again with the ox in his possession. The weight of the Lion and the ox had caused the stakes to give way, and the Lion had easily carried off his prey through the aperture.

The track of the Lion was immediately followed by the Boer, who took with him a negro and half a dozen of his best dogs. The tracks were easily seen, and the hunter had no difficulty in deciding that the Lion was in the wood previously mentioned. But this in itself was no great advance, for the place was overgrown with a dense thicket of thorn-bushes, creepers, and long grass, forming a jungle so thick and impenetrable that for a man to enter seemed almost impossible.

It was therefore agreed that the Boer should station himself on one side, while the negro went to the other side of the jungle, the dogs meanwhile being sent into the thicket.

This arrangement, it was hoped, would enable either the hunter or the negro to obtain a shot; for they concluded that the dogs, which were very courageous animals, would drive the Lion out of the bushes.

The excited barking of the dogs soon indicated that they had discovered the Lion, but they appeared to be unable to drive him from his stronghold; for, although they would scamper away every now and then, as though the enraged monster was chasing them, still they returned to bark at the same spot.

Both of the hunters fired several shots, with the hope that a stray bullet might find its way through the underwood to the heart of the savage beast, but a great quantity of ammunition was expended and no result achieved.

At length, as the dogs had almost ceased to bark, it was considered advisable to call them off. But all the whistling and shouting failed to recall more than two out of the six, and one of these was fearfully wounded. The others, it was afterwards found, had been killed by the Lion: a blow from his paw had sufficed to break the back or smash the skull of all which had come within his reach.

Thus the first attempt on the Lion was a total failure, and the hunter returned home lamenting the loss of his dogs, and during the night watched beside his enclosure; but the Lion did not pay him a second visit.

Early on the following evening, accompanied by the negro, he started afresh for the wood; and, having marked the spot from which the Lion had on the former occasion quitted the dense thorny jungle, the two hunters ascended a tree and watched during the whole night in the hope of obtaining a shot at the hated marauder. But while they were paying the residence of the Lion a visit _he_ favored the camp with a call, and this time, by way of variety, carried away a very valuable horse, which he conveyed to the wood, being wise enough to walk out and to return by a different path from that he had previously used, consequently avoiding the ambush prepared for him.

When the hunter returned to his camp, he was furious at this new loss, and determined upon a plan which, though dangerous, still appeared the most likely to insure the destruction of the ravenous monster.

This plan was to enter the wood alone, without attendant or dogs, and with noiseless, stealthy movements creep near enough to the Lion to obtain a shot.

Now, when we consider the difficulty of moving through thick bushes without making a noise, and remember the watchful habits of every member of the cat tribe, we may be certain that to surprise the Lion was a matter of extreme difficulty, and that the probability was that the hunter would meet with disaster.

At about ten o'clock on the morning after the horse-slaughter, the hunter started for the wood armed with a double-barrelled smooth-bore gun, and prepared to put forth his utmost skill in stalking his dangerous enemy.

Now, it is the nature of the Lion, when gorged, to sleep during the day; and if the animal has carried off any prey, it usually conceals itself near the remnants of its feast, to watch them until ready for another meal.

The hunter was aware of this, and laid his plans very judiciously. He approached the wood slowly and silently, found the track of the Lion, and began tracing it to find the spot where the remains of the horse could be seen.

He moved forward very slowly and with great caution, being soon surrounded by the thick bushes, the brightness of the plain also being succeeded by the deep gloom of the wood. Being an experienced hand at bush-craft, he was able to walk or crawl without causing either a dried stick to crack or a leaf to rustle, and he was aware that his progress was without noise; for the small birds, usually so watchful and alert, flew away only when he approached close to them, thus showing that their eyes, and not their ears, had made them conscious of the presence of man.

Birds and monkeys are the great obstacles in the bush to the success of a surprise, for the birds fly from tree to tree and whistle or twitter, whilst the monkeys chatter and grimace, expressing by all sorts of actions that a strange creature is approaching. When, therefore, the bushranger finds that birds and monkeys are unconscious of his presence until they see him, he may be satisfied that he has traversed the bush with tolerable silence, and has vanquished such dangerous betrayers of his presence as dried sticks and dead leaves.

The hunter had not proceeded thus more than fifty yards into the jungle, before he found indications that he was close upon the lair of the Lion: a strong leonine scent was noticeable, and part of the carcase of his horse was visible between the bushes. Instead, therefore, of advancing farther, as an incautious or inexperienced bushranger would have done, he crouched down behind a bush and remained motionless.

All animals are aware of the advantages of a surprise, and the cat tribe especially practise the ambuscading system. The hunter, therefore, determined, if possible, to turn the tables on the Lion, and to surprise, rather than to be surprised.

He concluded that the Lion, even when gorged with horseflesh, would not be so neglectful of his safety as to sleep with more than one eye closed, and that, although he had crept with great care through the bush, he had probably, from some slight sound, caused the Lion to be on the alert; if, therefore, he should approach the carcase of the horse, he might be pounced upon at once.

After remaining silent and watchful for several minutes, the hunter at length saw that an indistinctly-outlined object was moving behind some large broad-leafed plants at about twenty paces from him.

This object was the Lion. It was crouched behind some shrubs, attentively watching the bushes where the hunter was concealed. Its head only was clearly visible, the body being hidden by the foliage.

It was evident that the Lion was suspicious of something, but was not certain that anything had approached.

The hunter, knowing that this was a critical period for him, remained perfectly quiet. He did not like to risk a shot at the forehead of the Lion, for it would require a very sure aim to insure a death-wound, and the number of twigs and branches would be almost certain to deflect the bullet.

The Lion, after a careful inspection, appeared to be satisfied, and laid down behind the shrubs. The hunter then cocked both barrels of his heavy gun and turned the muzzle slowly around, so that he covered the spot on which the Lion lay, and shifted his position so as to be well placed for a shot.

The slight noise he made in moving, attracted the attention of the Lion, who immediately rose to his feet. A broadside shot, which was the most sure, could not be obtained, so the hunter fired at the head of the animal, aiming for a spot between the eyes. The ball struck high, as is usually the case when the distance is short, and the charge of powder heavy, but the Lion fell over on its back, rising, however, almost immediately and uttering a terrific roar.

In regaining its feet it turned its side to the hunter, giving him the opportunity he had so anxiously waited for. Aiming at a spot behind the shoulder, he fired again, and had the satisfaction of seeing the savage beast, maddened by the pain of a mortal wound, tearing up the ground in its fury within a very few paces of his hiding-place.

By degrees its fierce roars subsided into angry growls, and the growls into heavy moans, until the terrible voice was hushed and silence reigned throughout the wood.

The hunter immediately started off home, and brought his negroes and dogs to the spot, where they found stretched dead upon the ground a Lion of the largest size.

Before sunset that evening its skin was pegged down at the hunter's camp, and all were filled with delight, knowing that they would be no more disturbed by the fierce marauder.

THE LEOPARD.

The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures--its
attributes exactly described--Probability that several animals
were classed under the name--How the Leopard takes its
prey--Craft of the Leopard--its ravages among the flocks--The
empire of man over the beast--The Leopard at Bay--Localities
wherein the Leopard lives--The skin of the Leopard--Various
passages of Scripture explained.

Of the LEOPARD but little is said in the Holy Scriptures.

In the New Testament this animal is only mentioned once, and then in a metaphorical rather than a literal sense. In the Old Testament it is casually mentioned seven times, and only in two places is the word Leopard used in the strictly literal sense. Yet, in those brief passages of Holy Writ, the various attributes of the animal are delineated with such fidelity, that no one could doubt that the Leopard was familiarly known in Palestine. Its colour, its swiftness, its craft, its ferocity, and the nature of its dwelling-place, are all touched upon in a few short sentences scattered throughout the Old Testament, and even its peculiar habits are alluded to in a manner that proves it to have been well known at the time when the words were written.

It is my purpose in the following pages to give a brief account of the Leopard of the Scriptures, laying most stress on the qualities to which allusion is made, and then to explain the passages in which the name of the animal occurs.

In the first place, it is probable that under the word Leopard are comprehended three animals, two of which, at least, were thought to be one species until the time of Cuvier. These three animals are the LEOPARD proper (_Leopardus varius_), the OUNCE (_Leopardus uncia_), and the CHETAH, or HUNTING LEOPARD (_Gueparda jubata_). All these three species belong to the same family of animals; all are spotted and similar in colour, all are nearly alike in shape, and all are inhabitants of Asia, while two of them, the Leopard and the Chetah, are also found in Africa.