Chapter XXV: Introduction (5)

[269] I can remember at Upper Engadine a peculiar kind of preserved beef, prepared by simply drying in the air; also the mummification of entire human bodies by drying in the open air, as is practised at Great St. Bernard.

[270] “Faune des Vertébrés de la Suisse,” vol. iii. “Histoire Naturelle des Reptiles et des Batraciens.” Geneva, 1873.

[271] See Wiedersheim, “Versuch einer gleichenden Anatomie der Salamandrinen.” Würzburg, 1875.

[272] See Gené, “Memorie della Reale Acad. di Torino,” vol. i.

[273] _Rana esculenta_ never reaches Alpine regions, this species not having been found higher than 1100 meters. (Fatiot, _loc. cit._, p. 318.)

[274] See also the excellent work upon Mexico by Mühlenpfordt already quoted, vol. i., pp. 69-76.

[275] “Essai politique sur le Royaume de la Nouvelle Espagne,” 1805, p. 291.

[276] [The expression made use of by the author, viz. “Diluvialzeit,” would perhaps be more in harmony with the views of English geologists if rendered as the “pluvial period,” thereby indicating the period of excessive rainfall which, according to Mr. Alfred Tylor, succeeded to and was a consequence of the thawing of the great glaciers which accumulated during the last glacial epoch. There is abundant evidence to show that during the latter period glacial action extended in North America at least as far south as Nicaragua. See Belt on “The Glacial Period in North America,” Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. of Nat. Sci. 1866, p. 93, and “The Naturalist in Nicaragua,” pp. 259-265. R.M.]

[277] [Eng. ed. A memoir by Samuel Clarke has since been published upon the embryonic development of _Amblystoma punctatum_, Baird. Baltimore, 1879.]

[278] [Eng. ed. See this author’s work, “Das Kopfskelet der Urodelen.” Leipzig, 1877, p. 149.]

[279] [See preceding note 52. R.M.]

[280] See note 226, p. 566.

[281] [Prof. Semper also remarks (“Animal Life,” note 47, p. 430) with reference to the Axolotl of Lake Como in the Rocky Mountains, which he states always becomes transformed into _Amblystoma Mavortium_, that this metamorphosis “takes place in the water, and the Amblystomas, so long as they are little, actually live exclusively in the water, as I know by my own experience. A young Amblystoma which I kept alive for a long time, never went out of the water of its own free will, while one nearly twice as large lives entirely on land and only takes a bath now and then. It always goes into the water when the temperature of the air in the cellar, in which my aquaria stand, falls below that of the water--down to about 6° or 8° C.” This statement appears to suggest that the effect of temperature may be a factor in some way concerned in these interesting cases of transformation, and would in any case be well worthy of experimental investigation. Some further details concerning the _Siredon Lichenoides_ of Lake Como have been recently published by Mr. W. E. Carlin (Proc. U.S. National Museum, June, 1881). The lake, which is shallow, is fed by a constant stream of fresh water, but the water of the lake is intensely saline. The Siredon never enter the fresh water stream, but congregate in large numbers in the alkaline waters of the lake. “When about one hundred and fifty were placed in fresh water they seemed to suffer no inconvenience, but it had a remarkable effect in hastening their metamorphosis into the Amblystoma form. Of an equal number kept in fresh water and in the lake water, quite a change occurred with the former after twenty-four hours, while the latter showed no change after several days of captivity. Those that were kept well fed in jars usually began to show a slight change in from two to three weeks, and all of them completed the change into the Amblystoma inside of six weeks, while in some kept, but not specially fed, there were but three changes in three months.” (Nature, Aug. 25th, 1881, p. 388.) R.M.]

[282] [Some experiments on the transformation of the Crustacean _Artemia Salina_ into _A. Milhausenii_ by gradually increasing the saltness of the water, and conversely, the transformation of _A. Milhausenii_ into _A. Salina_ by diminishing the saltness of the water, have been made by Schmankewitsch (Zeitschrift f. wiss. Zool. xxv. Suppl. 103 and xxix. 429), but the changes which occur here are much less considerable than in the case of the Axolotl. R.M.]

[283] “Reden und kleinere Aufsätze, Th. II.: Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften.” St. Petersburg, 1876, p. 81.

[284] This obviously does not imply that the naturalist should not investigate Nature’s processes, and not only correlate these, but also work them up into a universal conception; this is indeed both desirable and necessary if natural knowledge is to be regarded in its true value. The naturalist by this means becomes a philosopher, and the vitality of the so-called “natural philosopher” has been inspired, not by the necessity for investigation, but by philosophy proper.

[285] [The discovery here referred to is the synthesis of urea by Wöhler in 1828 (Pogg. Ann. xii., 253; xv. 619), by the molecular transformation of ammonium cyanate. Since that period large numbers of organic syntheses have been effected by chemists, and many of the compounds formerly supposed to be essential products of life have been built up in the laboratory from their inorganic elements. The division of chemistry into “organic” and “inorganic” is thus purely artificial, and is merely retained as a matter of convenience, the former division of the science being defined as the chemistry of the carbon compounds. R.M.]

[286] “Wahreit und Irrthum im Darwinismus.” Berlin, 1875.

[287] [Eng. ed. I have been reproached by competent authorities for having clothed my ideas upon the theory of selection in the form of a reply to Von Hartmann. I willingly admit that this author cannot be considered as the leader of existing philosophical views upon the theory of descent in Germany; Frederick Albert Lange has certainly a much greater claim to this position. Lange does not however combat this theory; he accepts and develops it most beautifully and lucidly on a sound philosophical basis in such a manner as has never been done before from this point of view (“Geschichte des Materialismus,” 3rd. ed., 1877, vol. ii. pp. 253-277). On most points I can but agree with Lange. Von Hartmann, however, whose objections appeared to me to be supported by a wide scientific knowledge, afforded me a suitable opportunity of developing my own ideas upon some essential points in the theory of selection. In this sense only have I attempted to interfere with this author, the refutation of his views, as such, having been with me a secondary consideration.] [The chief exponent of the doctrine of organic evolution in this country is Mr. Herbert Spencer, in whose “Principles of Biology,” vol. i. chap. xii., will be found a masterly treatment of the theory of descent from a “mechanical” point of view. R.M.]

[288] [The above views on the nature of variability, which were also broadly expressed in the first essay “On the Seasonal Dimorphism of Butterflies” (pp. 114, 115), are fully confirmed by Herbert Spencer (_loc. cit._ chaps. ix. and x.), and more recently by A. R. Wallace in an article on “The Origin of Species and Genera” (_Nineteenth Century_, vol. vii., 1880, p. 93). See also some remarks by Oscar Schmidt in his “Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism,” Internat. Scien. Ser. 3rd. ed. 1876, p. 173. R.M.]

[289] [This law has been beautifully applied by Herbert Spencer in order to explain why, with an unlimited supply of food, an organism does not indefinitely increase in size. “Principles of Biology,” vol. i. p. 121-126. R.M.]

[290] [Eng. ed. This idea, formerly expressed by me, occurs also in Lange (“Geschichte des Materialismus,” ii. 265), and is there exemplified in a very beautiful manner by illustrations from modern chemistry. Lange compares what I have termed above the “physical constitution” of the organism to the chemical constitution of one of those organic acids which by substitution of single elements may become transformed into more complicated acids, but which, as it were, always undergo “further development” in only one determined and narrowly restricted course. Here, as with the organism, the number of possible variations is very great, but is nevertheless limited, since “what can or cannot arise is determined beforehand by certain hypothetical properties of the molecule.”]

[291] “Origin of Species.” 4th German ed., p. 19; 5th English ed., p. 6.

[292] [Mr. A. R. Wallace, in his article last referred to, quotes some most valuable measurements of mammals and birds, showing the amount of variation of the different parts. These observations were published by J. A. Allen, in a memoir “On the Mammals and Winter Birds of East Florida,” &c. (Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., vol. ii. No. 3.) R.M.]

[293] [See note 142, p. 310. R.M.]

[294] “Die Darwin’sche Theorie,” Dorpat, 1875.

[295] [A certain number of instances of mimicry are known to occur between species both of which are apparently nauseous. A most able discussion of this difficult problem is given by Fritz Müller, in the case of the two butterflies _Ituna Ilione_ and _Thyridia Megisto_, in a paper published in _Kosmos_, May, 1879 (p. 100). The author shows by mathematical reasoning that such resemblances between protected species can be accounted for by natural selection if we suppose that young birds and other insect persecutors have to learn by experience which species are distasteful and which can be safely devoured. See also Proc. Ent. Soc. 1879, pp. xx-xxix. R.M.]

[296] See Haeckel’s “Generelle Morphologie,” ii. 107.

[297] “Über die Berechtigung der Darwin’schen Theorie,” Leipzig, 1868.

[298] “Populäre wissenschaftl. Vorträge,” vol. ii., Brunswick, 1871, p. 208.

[299] “Das Unbewusste vom Standpunkte der Physiologie u. Descendenztheorie,” Berlin, 1872, p. 89. The second edition appeared in 1877, in Von Hartmann’s own name.

[300] “Über die Berechtigung,” &c., Leipzig, 1868. In this work will be found briefly laid down the theoretical conception of variability here propounded somewhat more broadly. [In the last edition of the “Origin of Species” Darwin states, with respect to the direct action of the conditions of life as producing variability, that in every case there are two factors, “the nature of the organism and the nature of the conditions.” 6th ed. p. 6. R.M.]

[301] [Although hardly necessary to the evolutionist, it may perhaps be well to remind the general reader, that all experiments upon spontaneous generation, or abiogenesis, have hitherto yielded negative results; no life is produced when the proper precautions are taken for excluding atmospheric germs. But although we have so far failed to reproduce in our laboratories the peculiar combination of conditions necessary to endow colloidal organic matter with the property of “vitality,” the consistent evolutionist is bound to believe, from the analogy of the whole of the processes of nature, that at some period of the earth’s history the necessary physical and chemical conditions obtained, and that some simple form or forms of life arose “spontaneously,” _i.e._ by the operation of natural causes. R.M.]

[302] See Haeckel’s “Generelle Morphologie,” vol. ii. p. 203, and Seidlitz, “Die Darwin’sche Theorie,” 1875, p. 92 _et seq._

[303] [In a recently published work by Dr. Wilhelm Roux this author has attempted to work out the idea of an analogy between the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest in individuals and species, and the struggle for existence and survival of the parts in the individual organism. See “Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus: ein Beitrag zur Vervollständigung der mechanischen Zweckmässigkeitslehre,” Leipzig, 1881. R.M.]

[304] [Eng. ed. Meanwhile it has been shown by Oscar Schmidt that Von Hartmann, under the name of “the Unconscious,” re-invests the old vital force with some portion of its former power. “Die naturwissenschaftlichen Grundlagen der Philosophie des Unbewussten,” Leipzig, 1877, p. 41.]

[305] _Loc. cit._ p. 175.

[306] _Loc. cit._ p. 156.

[307] “Über die Cuninen-Knospenähren im Magen von Geryonien.” Reprint from “Mittheil. des naturwiss. Vereines,” Graz, 1875.

[308] [See Darwin’s “Origin of Species,” 6th ed. pp. 33, 34, and 201-204. R.M.]

[309] [Eng. ed. See Kant’s “Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels.”]

[310] “Das Unbewusste vom Standpunke der Physiologie und Descendenz-Theorie,” Berlin, 1872, p. 16.

[311] [Eng. ed. See Lotze’s “Mikrokosmos,” 1st ed., vol. iii. pp. 477-483.]

[312] See Helmholtz’s “Populäre wissenschaftl. Vorträge,” vol. ii., Brunswick, 1872.

[313] See also Fr. Vischer’s “Studien über den Traum. Beilage zur Augsburger Allgem. Zeitung,” April 14th, 1876. Haeckel also includes this idea in his recent essay already quoted, “Die Perigenesis der Plastidule,” Berlin, 1876, p. 38 _et seq._

[314] See Von Hartmann, _loc. cit._ p. 158.

INDEX.

A.

Abbot and Smith, descriptions of larvæ, 192, 216, 261, 263, 268, 452,
453.

_Acherontia Atropos_, South African form of larva, 263, 324, 531;
larva in Spain, 324;
larva phytophagically variable, 531.

_Acosmeryx anceus_, larva, 192.

_Acræa_ and Maracujà butterflies as larvæ, pupæ, and imagines, 536.

_Acronycta_, affinities of genus, 169.

Adaptation, 281, 589;
analogous, 376;
physiological, 590;
mutual, 647.

Allen, J. A., variation in birds and mammals, 658.

Alpine form of _P. Napi_, 40.

Alpine hare, seasonal change of colour, 7, 660.

Alternation of generations, 80, 699, 702.

_Amblystoma._ _A. mavortium_ from _Siredon lichenoides_, 567;
_A. tigrinum_ bred by Duméril, 567;
distribution of species of genus, 569;
habits of species, 573;
a reversion form, 531, 592;
sterility of, 593;
oviposition by, 594, 623;
definition of genus, 610;
degeneration of, 612;
causes of reversion of, 600, 608, 613, 620, 631;
_A. punctatum_ and _A. fasciatum_, development of, 623;
summer sleep of, 628;
_A. mavortium_, metamorphosis of, 629.

_Ambulyx gannascus_ and _A. liturata_, larvæ, 245.

Amixia, the principle of, 46, 110.

Ammonites, 275.

_Ampelophaga rubiginosa_, larva, 192.

Amphibia of Upper Engadine, 615.

_Amphiuma_, characters of genus, 579.

_Anceryx_, larva, 264;
stages 3, 4, and 5, 266.

_Aphaniptera_, characters of, 498.

Aphides, organic reproduction of, 97.

_Araschnia._ _A. levana_ and _A. prorsa_ seasonally dimorphic, 2;
dimorphism of larvæ, 6;
_A. levana_, first experiments with, 10;
_A. var. porima_, artificial production of, 10, 17;
_A. levana_, Dorfmeister’s experiments with, 11;
explanation of seasonal dimorphism of, 19;
northern, extension of, 20;
_A. prorsa_ gradual origination of, 22;
_A. levana_, reversion of, caused by high temperature, 37;
the _levana_ form the most constant, 43, and sexually dimorphic, 43;
summer and winter forms compared, 56;
experiments with _A. levana_, 117;
_A. levana_, variable in all three stages, 405;
incongruence in genus, 449.

Argent, W. J., phytophagic variability of larva of _Sphinx Ligustri_,
306.

_Argynnis paphia_, dimorphism of, 250.

_Artemia salina_ and _A. Milhausenii_, transformations of, 635.

_Ascaris nigrovenosa_, propagation of, 90.

Askenasy, on limits of variability, 114.

Atavism and arrested growth, 587.

_Aterica meleagris_, colour variations of, 8.

Atoms, actions of, 710;
sensibility of, 714.

Axolotl, transformation into Amblystoma, 555;
experiments with, 558;
duration of transformation, 563;
conditions of metamorphosis of, 564;
distinguishing characters, 575.

B.

Baer, Karl Ernst von, on the mechanism of nature, 639;
on the vital force, 641;
on the theory of selection, 694;
on causality and purpose, 708.

Baird, Prof., on the development of species of _Amblystoma_, 623.

Balbiani, reproduction of Aphides, 97.

Balfour, F. M., on insect phylogeny, 485, 494.

Bates, H. W., local variation in Amazonian Lepidoptera, 60.

Bees, embryological development of, 483.

Belt, Thomas, on coloured frogs, 294;
on the glaciation of North America, 622.

Biogenetic law, corollary of, 611.

Birchall, E., local variation in British Lepidoptera, 60.

Blanchard, on oviposition of _Amblystoma_, 594.

Boisduval, figures of larvæ referred to, 216, 218, 245;
on snake-like appearance of the larva of _D. nicæa_, 342;
on the relationship of _Euchloe belia_ and _E. ausonia_, 48.

_Bombycidæ_, early stage of larvæ, 166.

_Bombyx._ _B. cynthia_, colour changes in larva, 7;
_B. neustria_, caterpillar refused by lizards, 336;
_B. Rubi_, caterpillar eaten by lizards, 338.

Boscher, E., dimorphism of larva of _S. ocellatus_, 241, 306.

Brauer, insect phylogeny, 493.

Burmeister, figures of larvæ referred to, 195, 196, 224, 232, 255,
261, 263, 436, 437;
early stages of larvæ of Argentine butterflies, 166.

Butler, A. G., affinities of genus _Acronycta_, 169;
genera of _Chærocampinæ_, 190, 192, 194, 196;
genera of _Smerinthinæ_, 233, 243, 244;
genera of _Macroglossinæ_, 253, 254;
species of _Pterogon_, 256;
genera of _Sphinginæ_ and _Acherontiinæ_, 262;
on coloured larvæ being rejected, 336;
affinities of _Sesiidæ_, 370;
descriptions and figures of new Sphinx-larvæ, 524, 526.

Bütschli, embryology of bees, 483.

Butterflies, action of warmth in producing changes in colour and
marking, 58;
summer and winter larvæ and pupæ alike in seasonally dimorphic
species, 64;
seasonally dimorphic species hibernate as pupæ, 73;
odoriferous organs, 102;
early stages of larvæ, 165;
di- and polymorphism of, 250;
crepuscular habits of certain species, 475.

C.

_Callosune eupompe_, polymorphism of female, 251.

Cameron, P., on larva of _S. ocellatus_, 241, 282;
protective habits of saw-fly larvæ, 290, 294.

Carlin, W. E., on _Siredon lichenoides_, 630.

Caterpillars, origin of markings, 161;
means of defence, 289;
defensive habits, 290;
food of brightly coloured species, 294;
habit of concealment by day, 291, 296;
phytophagic variability, 305, 531;
seasonal variability, 305;
experiments with ocellated species,
330;
experiments with annulated species, 336;
sexual dimorphism of, 308, 527, 534;
independent variability of stages, 416.

_Cecidomyia_, metagenesis of, 82, 586.

_Chærocampa._ _C. elpenor_ and _C. porcellus_, relationship of, 171;
markings of larvæ of the genus, 177;
_C. elpenor_, 1st and 2nd larval stages, 178;
3rd and 4th stages, 180;
5th stage, 181;
6th stage, 183;
_C. porcellus_, 1st larval stage, 184;
2nd and 3rd stages, 185;
4th stage, 186;
_C. elpenor_ and _porcellus_, larval markings compared with other
species of _Chærocampa_, 188;
_C. elpenor_, experiments with larva, 331, 332;
_C. Japonica_ and _C. Lewisii_, larvæ, 194;
_C. cretica_, larva, 524;
_C. lycetus_, larva, 527;
_C. capensis_, larva, 529;
eaten by birds, &c., 530.

Characters, new, backward transference of, 279.

Chauvin, Fräulein von, experiments with Axolotl, 558;
experiments with _Salamandra atra_, 615.

Chavannes, figure of larva referred to, 255.

Clarke, development of _Amblystoma punctatum_, 623.

Classification, objects of, 168.

Claus, on the origination of heterogenesis, 89.

Clemens, larva of _A. ello_, 268.

Climatic variation, 45;
in _P. Napi_, 47;
in _E. Belia_, 47;
nature of causes producing, 52, 105;
by sex, 61, 62;
climatic varieties very distinct from local, 45;
climatic influences operate slowly, 58;
climatic changes gradual, 652, 660.

Cole, B. G., seasonal dimorphism of _E. punctaria_, 4.

Coleoptera, grub-like larvæ of, 495.

_Colias edusa_, dimorphism of female, 250.

Colour, biological value of, 289.

Conditions of life, compulsory changes in, 651.

Congruence in Lepidopterous families, 435;
in Lepidopterous genera, 444.

_Coniferæ_, food-plants of _Anceryx_, 268.

Convergence of characters in _Ophiuroidea_, 396;
in Dipterous larvæ, 494.

Cope, Prof., habits of _Siredon Mexicanus_, 566;
on distribution of _Amblystoma_, 569.

Correlation of growth, 278, 363, 388, 415;
action of, 415, 516;
Von Hartmann’s views of, 670;
nature of, 673.

_Cryptobranchus_, characters of, 579.

Cyclical propagation, 82, 699;
and reversion, 613.

D.

Daphniacea, differences between allied species and genera, 516.

Darwin, C., influence of external conditions of life, 59;
inheritance at corresponding periods, 63, 275, 431;
markings of butterflies, 101;
definition of eye-spots, 326;
adaptation in larvæ, 392;
correlation of growth, 516;
degeneration, 583;
adaptation, 589;
causes of sterility, 596;
limited variability, 656;
factors of variability, 676;
abrupt variations, 701.

Degeneration, 583;
phyletic, 611.

_Deilephila_, division of larvæ into groups, 199;
_D. Euphorbiæ_, 1st larval stage, 202;
2nd and 3rd stages, 203;
4th and 5th stages, 205;
_D. nicæa_, larva, 207;
_D. dahlii_, larva, 208;
_D. vespertilio_, larva, 209;
_D. Galii_, larva, 211;
5th stage, 213;
_D. livornica_, larva, 215;
_D. Zygophylli_, larva, 217;
_D. Hippophaës_, larva, 218, 650;
division of larvæ according to phyletic stages, 223;
genealogy of, 358;
_D. Galii_, larva rejected, 340;
_D. Euphorbia_, larva eaten, 340;
habits of larvæ and imagines, 412;
_D. Robertsi_, larva, 525.

Development;
of marking of Sphinx-larvæ, laws of, 274;
phyletic, of markings of _Sphingidæ_, 370;
unequal phyletic, 460.

Dimorphism and polymorphism;
of butterflies, 250;
of Sphinx-larvæ, 300;
of pupæ, 412.

Diptera, incongruences among, 488;
imaginal characters of, 488;
divisions of, 498.

Dodo, extinction of, 651.

Dohrn, A.;
on degeneration, 583;
on functional change, 590.

Dorfmeister, G.;
experiments with _A. levana_, 11.

Duponchel;
figures of larvæ referred to, 207, 208, 218, 253.

Duméril;
experiments with Axolotl, 555, 564, 566, 593;
characters of Axolotl, 375, 576.

E.

Edwards, W. H., seasonal dimorphism of _P. pseudargiolus_ and
_P. violecea_, 4;
of _P. Tharos_ and _P. Marcia_, 4;
of _P. Ajax_, 30;
of _L. Artemis_ and _L. Proserpina_, 32;
experiments with _P. Ajax_ and _P. Tharos_, 33, 126, 140;
pupal period of winter forms of _P. Ajax_, 36;
experiments with _G. interrogationis_, 149;
early stages of larvæ of N. American butterflies, 165;
larva of _P. pseudargiolus_ and attendant ants, 290;
figures of larvæ referred to, 165, 436, 437.

Eimer, colour variation in _Lacerta muralis_, 361.

_Emmelesia unifasciata_, larva phytophagically variable, 307.

Environment, direct and indirect action of, 686.

_Ephyra punctaria_ and _E. omicronaria_, seasonal dimorphism of, 4.

_Eriogaster lanestris_, larva eaten by lizards, 336.

_Eriotus Pteridis_, resemblance of larva, 320.

_Euchelia Jacobææ_;
larva and imago rejected by lizards, 336;
constant in all three stages, 405.

_Euchloe_:
_E. belia_ and _E. ausonia_, seasonal dimorphism of, 3;
_E. belia_, climatic variation of, 47;
var. _Simplonia_ in Alps, 48;
_E. belemia_, seasonal dimorphism and migration of, 78.

_Euproctus Rusconii_, habits of, 617.

_Eusmerinthus Kindermanni_, larva, 526.

Evershed, J., larva of _C. porcellus_, 188.

Eye-spots;
repetition of, 277;
development of, 325, 327;
terrifying action, 330;
resemble flower-buds, 334;
useful when rudimentary, 366.

F.

Fatiot, Amphibia of Upper Engadine, 616.

Fechner, on conscious matter, 714.

Filippi, De, _Triton alpestris_, 585.

Forel, Prof., fresh water _Pulmonifera_, 590.

Form-relationship and blood-relationship, not always coincident, 395.

Frantzius, Von, on climate of Mexico, 619.

Frogs, 615, 616, 618;
inedible species, 294.

Function, change of, 365.

G.

Gegenbaur, Prof., the skull of Axolotl, 576.

Gehrig, breeding of Axolotl, 565.

Gené, habits of _Euproctus Rusconii_, 617.

Genera, Lepidopterous, show greatest congruence, 459.

Generation, heterogeneous, 679, 698, 702.

Gentry, T. G., phytophagic variability of caterpillars, 306.

Gerstäcker, division of the Diptera, 498.

_Geotriton fuscus_, habits, 617.

Glacial epoch; butterflies monogoneutic during, 19, 72;
in N. America, 622.

Gooch, W. D., description of larvæ referred to, 436;
crepuscular butterflies, 476;
sexual dimorphism of caterpillars, 535.

Gooseberry, not increased in size, 654.

Goss, H., larva of _C. porcellus_, 188.

Gosse, P. H., embryonic larva of _P. Homerus_, 167.

_Grapta interrogationis_, experiments with, 149.

Green colour of caterpillars, 293, 310.

Growth, law of, 655.

Gynandromorphism in butterflies, 249.

_Gynanisa Isis_, young larva, 166.

H.

Haeckel, Prof., on metagenesis, 80, 83;
on ontogeny, 270;
on adaptation, 281, 589;
on the biogenetic law, 611;
on reproduction and growth, 664;
the plastidule theory, 667.

Hare, white variation of, 660.

Hartmann, E. von; his views examined, 645;
on variability, 646, 652, 655, 664;
on heredity, 657;
his “Philosophy of the Unconscious,” 670;
on correlation, 670, 673;
on the nature of species, 671;
on design in nature, 696;
on the sensibility of atoms, 714.

Helmholtz, Prof., on natural laws, 668;
on the senses, 711.

_Hemaris hylas_, larva, 255.

Heredity, alternating and continuous, 24;
cyclical, 66;
homochronic, 63, 431;
not mechanical, 657;
nature of, 667.

Herrich-Schäffer, wing neuration of butterflies, 449.

Hertwig, on teeth of Amphibia, 376.

Heterogenesis, definition of, 82, 96;
parallelism between and metamorphosis, 86;
origination of, 89.

Heyden, Von, reproduction of _Aphis_, 97.

Hilgendorf, on fossil shells, 109.

_Hipparchia semele_, colour variations, 8.

Hoffmann, Ernst, on immigration of European butterflies, 77.

Horsfield and Moore, figures of caterpillars referred to, 193, 195,
196, 243, 253, 261.

Hübner, figures of caterpillars referred to, 193, 208, 211, 218, 231,
267.

Humboldt, Baron, on the Lake of Mexico, 608, 621.

Huxley, Prof., “Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals” referred to, 498.

_Hydromedusæ_, alternation of generations in, 83;
want of parallelism in different generations of, 395.

Hydrozoa, asexual reproduction and polymorphosis, 83.

Hymenoptera, incongruence among, 481;
imaginal characters, 481;
causes of incongruence, 486.

I.

Ichthyodea, characters of, 577, 579.

Incongruence; in Lepidopterous families, 437;
genera, 446, 449;
species, 451;
varieties, 456;
two kinds of, 458, 502;
in Hymenoptera, 481;
in Diptera, 488;
different forms of, 503;
dependent upon action of environment, 505, 507, 508.

Inheritance; homochronic, 63, 431;
definition of cyclical, 66;
limited by sex, 68.

Insects, ancestry of, 493.

Intermaxillary gland of Axolotl, 623.

J.

Jullien, on _Lissotriton punctatus_, 591.

K.

Kant, referred to, 638, 709.

Kirby, W. F., “Synonymic Catalogue” referred to, 2, 49, 435, 449.

Kleemann, larva of _S. Ligustri_, 259.

Knaggs, Dr. H. G., seasonal dimorphism of _S. illustraria_, 4.

Kölliker, Prof., experiments with Axolotl, 564;
characters of Axolotl, 575.

L.

_Lacerta muralis_, colour variations, 361.

Lake of Mexico, 603, 608, 621.

Lange, F. A., “History of Materialism” referred to, 645, 656.

Langer, Prof., experiments with _Pelobates_ tadpoles, 607.

Lankester, Prof. E. R., on degeneration, 583.

_Lasiocampa Pini_, larva eaten by lizards, 336;
variable in two stages, 405.

Lepidoptera; foes, 8;
larva and imago independently variable, 401;
species constant in three stages, 405;
species variable in three stages, 405;
variable in two stages, 405;
variable in one stage, 406;
causes of variability of pupæ, 411;
case of incongruence among pupæ, 540.

_Leptodora hyalina_, development, 93.

_Lepus timidus_, white variations of, 662.

Leuckart, reproduction of _Ascaris nigrovenosa_, 90;
on growth, 654.

Leydig, on sexual larvæ of _Triton_, 591.

_Limenitis Artemis_ and _L. Proserpina_, dimorphic in both sexes, 32;
_L. Camilla_, constant in three stages, 405.

Lines, dorsal, subdorsal, supra- and infra-spiracular, 175.

_Lissotriton punctatus_, sexual larvæ, 591, 595.

Lizards, colour variation of, 361;
rejection of caterpillars by, 336.

Local forms, distinct from climatic varieties, 45;
produced by isolation, 109.

Lockyer, B., young _Noctua_ larvæ, 166.

_Lophostethus Dumolinii_, larva, 527.

_Lophura hyas_, larva, 254.

Lubbock, Sir John, insect metamorphosis, 65, 431;
derivation of metagenesis, 83;
colours of caterpillars, 294;
ancestry of insects, 493.

_Lycæna pseudargiolus_, larva and ants, 290.

M.

_Macroglossa_, larvæ of, 245;
_M. stellatarum_, oviposition of, 245;
1st, 2nd, and 3rd larval stages, 246;
4th and 5th stages, 247;
di- and polymorphism of larva, 247;
pupa of, 250;
_M. belis_, and _M. pyrrhosticta_, larvæ, 255.

Markings, general biological value of, 285;
special biological value of, 308;
subordinate, 347;
of _Sphingidæ_, evolution of, 380.

Marsh, Prof., on _Siredon lichenoides_, 567.

Matter, assumption of, 711;
conscious, 714.

Mayer, Paul, insect phylogeny, 493.

McLachlan, R., phytophagic variability, 305.

Mechanism and teleology, 694.

_Medusæ_, internal parasitism, 699.

_Melanopsis recurrens_, from _Paludina_ bed, 275.

_Menopoma_, characters of, 579.

Mérian, Madame, figures of caterpillars referred to, 195, 232, 263,
268.

Metagenesis, defined, 81, 96;
derivation, 83.

Metamorphosis, 430.

Mexico, climate of, 619.

Millière, figure of larva referred to, 254.

Mimicry, 648, 663.

Möller, L., phytophagic variability, 305.

Mono- and digoneutic species, 16.

Moore, F., figures of caterpillars referred to, 436, 526.

Morris, affinities of _Apatura_ and _Nymphalis_, 438.

Moths, seasonal dimorphism in, 4;
resembling splinters, 292.

Mühlenpfordt, on Lake of Mexico, 604.

Müller, Fritz, odoriferous organs of butterflies, 102;
sexual selection in butterflies, 103;
habit and protective resemblance, 290;
spiny caterpillars, 293;
larva of _Papilio Evander_, 299;
reversion in Orchids, 614;
maggot-like larvæ of insects, 493;
the biogenetic law, 611;
mimicry, &c., 665.

Müller, Hermann, larva of _Stauropus Fagi_, 290.

Müller, P. E., _Leptodora hyalina_, 94.

Murray, Andrew, seasonal change of colour, in animals, 7;
green caterpillars, 293.

_Muscidæ_, embryonic development, 492.

N.

Nägeli, reversion of cultivated plants, 107.

Natural selection, 112, 361, 704, 705.

Nature, mechanical conception of, 634;
harmony of, 697.

Neumayr and Paul, on _Melanopsis_, 275.

_Noctuæ_, change of colour in larvæ, 166;
number of legs in young larvæ, 166, 520;
ontogeny of larvæ, 520.

Noll, Dr., larva of _Ach. Atropos_, 324.

North America, glaciation of, 622.

Nurse-breeding in Hymenoptera and Diptera, 402.

_Nymphalidæ_, larval classification, 435.

O.

Ontogeny, Fritz Müller and Haeckel on, 270;
predominance of new characters in last stage of, 280, 283.

Ontogeny and Phylogeny of Sphinx-markings, 177.

Ophiuroidea, want of parallelism in, 396.

Orchids, reversion in, 614.

Organic compounds, synthesis of, 643.

Organism, parts independently variable, 514.

P.

_Pachylia Ficus_, early stages of larva, 232.

Packard, insect phylogeny, 493.

Pangenesis, theory of, 668.

_Papilio._ _P. Ajax_, seasonal forms, 30;
_P. Turnus_, a dimorphic form, 32;
_P. Machaon_ and _Podalirius_, seasonally dimorphic in Spain and
Italy, 74;
_P. Ajax_, experiments with, 126;
_P. Merope_, young larva, 166;
_P. Homerus_, young larva, 167;
_P. Machaon_, larva rejected by lizards, 339.

Parallelism, phyletic, in metamorphic species, 390;
phyletic, law of, 510.

_Pararga Ægeria_, sexually dimorphic, 68;
climatic variation of, 68.

Pascoe, F. P., “Zoological Classification” referred to, 488, 498.

_Pelobates_, experiments with tadpoles, 607.

_Pergesa Mongoliana_, larva, 194.

_Philampelus achemon_ and _P. satellitia_, larvæ, 523;
_P. labruscæ_, larva, 195;
_P. vitis_, and _P. anchemolus_, larvæ, 232.

Philosophy, function of, 640.

_Phyciodes Tharos_ and _P. Marcia_, seasonal dimorphism of, 4;
experiments with, 140.

Phylogeny, conclusions from, 270;
and ontogeny of Sphinx-markings, 177;
of insects, 493.

_Pierinæ_, seasonal dimorphism of, 13;
analogous seasonal dimorphism in, 60, 108;
experiments with, 122.

_Pieris Napi_, experiments with, 13;
summer form the younger, 29;
reversion of, caused by mechanical vibration, 38;
var. _Bryoniæ_, the potential winter form, 39;
experiments with this var., 40;
this var. the parent form of _Napi_, 41;
a climatic var., 41;
very variable, 43;
variability due to crossing, 43;
var. _æstiva_ more variable than var. _vernalis_, 43;
_P. Napi_, summer and winter forms compared, 56;
incongruence in this species, 457;
_P. Krueperi_, seasonal dimorphism of, 78;
_P. Brassicæ_, larva rejected by lizards, 337;
constant in three stages, 405;
photographic sensitiveness of pupa, 405;
_P. Napi_, variable in two stages, 405.

Plants, cultivated, 107;
sterility of reverted, 596.

Plastidule theory, 667.

_Plebeius amyntas_ and _P. polysperchon_, seasonal dimorphism, 2;
_P. Alexis_, do., 3;
_P. pseudargiolus_ and _P. violacea_, do., 4;
_P. agestis_, do., 50;
polymorphism of females in this genus, 251.

Pluvial period, 621.

Polar animals, colour of, 658, 660.

_Polyommatus phlæas_, distribution and climatic variation, 49;
seasonal dimorphism, 50;
Italian summer and winter forms compared, 55.

_Polyptychus dentatus_, larva, 244.

Ptarmigan, seasonal colours of, 6.

_Pterogon_, larvæ of, 255;
_P. ænotheræ_, larva, 256.

_Pulmonifera_, functional change in lungs, 590.

_Pygæra bucephala_, larva rejected by lizards, 337.

Q.

Quatrefages, De, spermatozoa of _Amblystoma_, 593.

R.

_Rana temporaria_ of Upper Engadine, 618.

Ratzeburg, larva of _Anc. Pinastri_, 265.

Reproduction and growth, 664.

Reversion, of species, 611;
two modes of, 612;
periodic, 613.

_Rhopalocera_, characters of, 433, 471.

_Rhytina Stelleri_, extinction of, 651.

Riley, C. V., descriptions of caterpillars referred to, 437, 521, 522;
on sexual dimorphism in caterpillar, 535.

Ring-spots, 325;
development, 327;
signs of distastefulness, 341;
resembling berries, 344.

Rösel, breeding of _Aras. Levana_ by, 6;
on larva of _Deil. Euphorbiæ_, 206;
of _D. Galii_, 213;
of _Smer. Tiliæ_, 236;
of _S. ocellatus_, 240;
of _Anc. Pinastri_, 265, 268.

Roux, Dr. W., struggle of parts in the organism, 689.

Rutherford, D. G., colour variations of _Ater. meleagris_, 8.

S.

Sacc, on sterility of _Amblystoma_, 593.

Salamanders, habits of Italian land species, 617;
oviposition of, 630.

_Salamandra atra_, experiments with, 615.

_Salamandrina_, characters of, 577;
_S. perspicillata_, habits of, 617.

Sars, development of _Leptodora hyalina_, 94.

_Saturnia._
_S. Yamamai_, variable in first stage only, 406;
_S. carpini_, development of larva of local forms, 419.

_Satyrinæ_, hibernation of larvæ, 73.

Saussure, De, on _Siredon Mexicanus_, 565, 602;
physical character of Mexican Lake, 603.

Saw-flies, protective habits of larvæ, 290.

Schmankewitsch, transformation of _Artemia_, 635.

Schmidt, Oscar, on convergence of character, 396, 459;
on variability, 654.

Schreibers, sexual _Triton_ larvæ, 591;
arrested tadpoles, 607.

Schulze, F. E., parasitism in _Medusæ_, 699.

Science, function of, 640.

Scudder, S. H., embryonic larvæ of butterflies, 166.

Seasonal dimorphism, origin and significance, 1;
seasonal change of colour in animals, 7;
and climatic variation, 45;
seasonal adaptation in caterpillars, 305.

Seidlitz, reproduction of Axolotl, 571;
white var. of hare, 662.

_Selenia tetralunaria_, _S. illunaria_, _S. lunaria_, and
_S. illustraria_, seasonal dimorphism, 4.

Semper, C., origin of alternation of generations, 84;
transformation of _Amblystoma mavortium_, 629.

Semper, G., young Sphinx-larvæ, 166;
figures of caterpillars referred to, 522.

Senses, physiology of, 711.

Sepp, figure of caterpillar referred to, 262.

_Sesiidæ_, affinities of, 370.

Sexual dimorphism, of butterflies, 32, 250;
of caterpillars, 308, 527, 534;
secondary sexual characters, 62;
sexual selection, 69, 102.

Siebold, Von, on _Pulmonifera_, 590.

_Siredon._ _S. Mexicanus_, habits, 565;
_S. lichenoides_, transformation, 567, 630;
phyletic advance of genus, 584;
retention of genus, 610;
_S. tigrinus_ from L. St. Isabel, 626.

Slater, J. W., food of gaily coloured caterpillars, 294.

_Smerinthus_, larvæ of, 232;
_S. Tiliæ_, 233;
4th stage, 235;
_S. Populi_, 236;
and stage, 237;
3rd and 4th stages, 238;
5th stage, 239;
_S. ocellatus_, 240;
dimorphism of larva, 241;
_S. Tiliæ_, variable in two stages, 405;
North American species of, 453;
_S. tatarinovii_, and _S. planus_, larvæ, 244.

Species, causes of transformation of, 116;
nature of, 671.

Specific characters, 91;
may originate through direct action, 100.
Specific constitution, 112.

Spencer, Herbert, theory of descent, 645;
variability, 654;
law of growth, 655.

Spermatozoa, of _Amblystoma_, 593;
of _Lissotriton punctatus_, 595.

Speyer, Dr., seasonal dimorphism of moths, 4;
of _P. phlæas_ in Germany, 50.

_Sphingidæ_, oviposition, 164;
congruence and incongruence in genera, 450.

_Sphinx_-markings, ontogeny and morphology, 177.
Larvæ of genus, 259;
_S. Convolvuli_, 650.
Origination of markings, 273;
law of development, 274;
forms of markings, 309;
_S. Ligustri_, constant in three stages, 405.

Stainton, H. T., larval characters of _Notodontidæ_, 443;
young larvæ of _Triph. pronuba_, 520.

Staudinger, Dr., seasonal dimorphism of _Euch. Belia_ and
_E. Ausonia_, 3, 48;
butterflies of Finnmark, 20;
_P. Napi_ var. _Bryoniæ_ from Lapland, 44, 49;
larvæ of _Ch. alecto_, 193;
affinities of _Nymphalis_ and _Apatura_, 438.

_Stauropus Fagi_, protective habits of larva, 290.

Sterility, causes of, 596;
a result of reversion, 597;
law of, in reversion forms, 599.

Stoat, seasonal change of colour, 7.

Strauch, “Revision of _Salamandridæ_” referred to, 570, 577.

Strecker, H., N. American species of _Smerinthus_, 453.

Stripes, longitudinal, 312, 372;
oblique, 317, 373.

T.

Tadpoles, arrested development, 607.

Tegetmeier, W. B., metamorphosis of _Siredon_, 566.

Teleology and Mechanism, 694.

_Terebrantia_, larvæ, 508.

Transformation, causes of, 460, 496;
factors of, 676.

_Trematoda_, alternation of generations in, 83.

Trimen, Roland;
larva of _Lopho. Dumolinii_, 527;
of _Ch. Capensis_, 529;
phytophagic variability of larva of _Ach. Atropos_, 531.

_Triptogon roseipennis_, larva, 244.

_Triton_;
_T. alpestris_, sexual larva, 585;
reproductive larvæ, 590.
Degeneration in genus, 612.
Species of Upper Engadine, 631.

Typical parts, modified by environment, 501, 513.

U.

Upper Engadine;
Amphibia, 615;
climate, 616;
frog from, 618;
Tritons of, 631.

Urea, synthesis of, 643.

V.

_Vanessa._
_V. Urticæ_, climatic variation, 60;
_V. Atalanta_, _Urticæ_, and _polychloros_, variable in two stages,
405;
_V. Io_, variable in one stage, 407.
Congruence and incongruence in genus, 446;
phyletic completeness of, 447;
arrangement of spines on larvæ, 448.

Variability, origin, 107;
limited, 114, 362, 653, 655;
independent in different stages, 402;
definition of, 404;
a relative term, 408;
causes of, in pupæ, 411;
primary and secondary, 416;
independent in different larval stages, 416;
phytophagic, 305, 531;
Von Hartmann’s views, 646;
not unlimited, 647, 652, 655, 683;
factors of, 676, 684;
mechanical theory of, 677;
individual, 681, 685.

Variation; climatic, 45, 686;
causes of, 105;
analogous, 683;
abrupt not inherited, 701.

Varieties, climatic, distinct from local, 45.

Velasco, Señor, Axolotl of L. St. Isabel, 626.

Vital force, phyletic, elimination of, 287;
objections to, 352, 461, 511, 518;
ontogenetic, abandonment of, 641, 687.

W.

Wallace, A. R.;
introduction of the expression “seasonal dimorphism,” 1;
on the dull colours of female butterflies, 8;
sexual dimorphism of butterflies, 32;
local variation in colour, 60;
comparison of seasonal dimorphism with alternation of generations,
80;
the bright colours of caterpillars, 293;
on adaptation, 589;
on variability, 654, 658.

Wallace, Dr., colour changes in larva of _B. Cynthia_, 7.

Walsh, B. D., phytophagic variation, 305.

Weale, J. P. M., on the young larvæ of _Pap. merope_ and _Gyn. Isis_,
166;
the larva of _Ach. Atropos_ in S. Africa, 263;
habits of S. African Sphinx-caterpillars, 290.

Weir, J. Jenner, the colour variations of _Hip. semele_, 8;
experiments with brightly-coloured, hairy, and spiny caterpillars,
336.

Westwood, Prof. J. O., seasonal dimorphism of _Eph. punctaria_, 4;
figure of caterpillar referred to, 243;
gynandromorphic butterfly, 249.

White colour, protection afforded by, 6, 659, 661.

White, Dr. F. B., local variation in British Lepidoptera, 60;
young _Notua_ larvæ, 166.

Wiedersheim, on the anatomy of _Amblystoma_, 577;
habits of _Geotriton fuscus_, 617;
anatomy of Axolotl, 623.

Wigand, on the non-increase in size of the gooseberry, 654.

Wilde, O., on larva of _Dei. Galii_, 213;
of _Dei. Hippophaës_, 218;
larval characters of the _Notodontidæ_, 443.

Wilson, Owen, figure of larva of _Ch. porcellus_ referred to, 188.

Wöhler, Prof., the synthesis of urea, 643.

Wood, T. W., photographic sensitiveness of Lepidopterous pupæ, 405.

Würtemberger, on Ammonites, 275.

Y.

Yenisei, Swedish Expedition referred to, 20.

Z.

Zeller, P. C., seasonal dimorphism of _Pl. Polysperchon_ and
_Pl. Amyntas_, 2;
of Italian butterflies, 75.

ERRATA.

Page 81, line 8 from top, and throughout essay, for “_Daphnidæ_” read
“_Daphniidæ_.”

Page 95, line 3 from bottom, for “Daphnoidea” read “Daphniacea.”

Page 166, line 7 from bottom (note), for “p. 438” read “p. 433.”

Page 245, line 17 from bottom (note), for “Ställ” read “Stoll.”

Page 263, after the word “insects” (bottom line of note), add, “but
the whole marking is suggestive of distastefulness.”

Page 296, line 3 from bottom, for “Stähelina--collector” read
“Stähelin--a collector.”

Page 305, line 5 from bottom (note), for “In 1869” read “In 1865.”

Page 434, bottom line of note, for “Geometræ” read “Bombycidæ.”

Page 494, line 2 from top, for “from which a larval form” read “from
a larval form which.”

Page 542, line 12 from top, for “_Dione Vanilla_” read “_Dione
Vanillæ_.”

Page 544, line 15 from bottom, for “_Siderome_” read “_Siderone_.”

Transcriber’s Notes

Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced quotation marks were corrected.

Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.

“Errata” at the end of this Volume have been applied to the relevant text of this eBook.

Footnotes and references to them have been renumbered into one continuous sequence and moved to the end of the text of this eBook, immediately preceding the Index. Some “See note” references may be incorrect.

Reading devices that cannot display some of the characters in this eBook may substitute question marks or other placeholders.

Page 137: “lunules, 1 had 3, 1 had 3, and a 4th” was printed that way.

Page 142: “of the 10 females 8 were changed” was misprinted as “7 were”, which was an arithmetic error; corrected here.

Page 151: “No change was observed” was printed as “charge”; changed here.

Page 414: “Hippophae” was printed that way, rather than as “Hippophæ”.

Page 423: “Stage VII. Pupation.” was printed in the second column.

Page 436: “Phaeton” was printed that way, rather than as “Phæton”.

Page 642: “yelk” was printed that way.

Page 539: The names in the “Species” line were italicized, but the underscores used here to represent italics have been omitted from that line to make the diagram narrower.