Chapter II: HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES--(Continued)

GROUP IV. THE LARCH AND CYPRESS

How to tell them from other trees: In summer the larch and cypress may
easily be told from other trees by their _leaves_. These are
needle-shaped and arranged in clusters with numerous leaves to each
cluster in the case of the larch, and feathery and flat in the case
of the cypress. In winter, when their leaves have dropped off, the
trees can be told by their cones, which adhere to the branches.

There are nine recognized species of larch and two of bald cypress.
The larch is characteristically a northern tree, growing in the
northern and mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere from the
Arctic circle to Pennsylvania in the New World, and in Central
Europe, Asia, and Japan in the Old World. It forms large forests in
the Alps of Switzerland and France.

The European larch and not the American is the principal species
considered here, because it is being planted extensively in this
country and in most respects is preferable to the American species.

The bald cypress is a southern tree of ancient origin, the
well-known cypress of Montezuma in the gardens of Chepultepec having
been a species of Taxodium. The tree is now confined to the swamps
and river banks of the South Atlantic and Gulf States, where it
often forms extensive forests to the exclusion of all other trees.
In those regions along the river swamps, the trees are often
submerged for several months of the year.

How to tell them from each other: In summer the larch may be told from
the cypress by its leaves (compare Figs. 14 and 16). In winter the
two can be distinguished by their characteristic forms. The larch is
a broader tree as compared with the cypress and its form is more
conical. The cypress is more slender and it is taller. The two have
been grouped together in this study because they are both coniferous
trees and, unlike the other Conifers, are both deciduous, their
leaves falling in October.

THE EUROPEAN LARCH (_Larix europaea_)

Distinguishing characters: Its leaves, which are needle-shaped and about
an inch long, are borne in *clusters* close to the twig, Fig. 14.
There are many leaves to each cluster. This characteristic together
with the *spire-like* form of the crown will distinguish the tree at
a glance.

Leaf: The leaves are of a light-green color but become darker in the
spring and in October turn yellow and drop off. The cypress, which
is described below, is another cone-bearing tree which sheds its
leaves in winter.

Form and size: A medium-sized tree with a conical head and a straight
and tapering trunk. (See Fig. 90.)

Range: Central Europe and eastern and central United States.

Soil and location: Requires a deep, fresh, well-drained soil and needs
plenty of light. It flourishes in places where our native species
would die. Grows very rapidly.

Enemies: The larch is subject to the attacks of a _sawfly_, which has
killed many trees of the American species. A _fungus_ (_Trametes
pini_) which causes the tree to break down with ease is another of
its enemies.

Value for planting: A well-formed tree for the lawn. It is also useful
for group planting in the forest.

Commercial value: Because its wood is strong and durable the larch is
valuable for poles, posts, railroad ties, and in shipbuilding.

Other characters: The _fruit_ is a small cone about one inch long,
adhering to the tree throughout the winter.

Comparisons: The tree is apt to be confused with the _American larch_,
also known as _tamarack_ and _hackmatack_, but differs from it in
having longer leaves, cones twice as large and more abundant and
branches which are more pendulous.

The larch differs from the bald cypress in the broader form of its
crown and the cluster-like arrangement of its leaves. The twigs of
the bald cypress are flat and feathery. The larch and bald cypress
have the common characteristics of both shedding their leaves in
winter and preferring to grow in moist or swampy soils. The larch,
especially the native species, forms the well-known tamarack swamps
of the north. The bald cypress grows in a similar way in groups in
the southern swamps.

BALD CYPRESS (_Taxodium distichum_)

Distinguishing characters: The *feathery character* of the *twigs*, Fig.
16, and the *spire-like form* of the tree, Fig. 17, which is taller
and more slender than the larch, will distinguish this species from
others.

Leaf: The leaves drop off in October, though the tree is of the
cone-bearing kind. In this respect it is like the larch.

Form and size: Tall and pyramidal.

Range: The cypress is a southern tree, but is found under cultivation in
parks and on lawns in northern United States.

Soil and location: Grows naturally in swamps, but will also do well in
ordinary well-drained, good soil. In its natural habitat it sends
out special roots above water. These are known as "_cypress knees_"
(Fig. 18) and serve to provide air to the submerged roots of the
tree.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: An excellent tree for park and lawn planting.

Commercial value: The wood is light, soft, and easily worked. It is used
for general construction, interior finish, railroad ties, posts and
cooperage.

Other characters: The _bark_ is thin and scaly. The _fruit_ is a cone
about an inch in diameter. The general _color_ of the tree is a
dull, deep green which, however, turns orange brown in the fall.

Comparisons: The cypress and the larch are apt to be confused,
especially in the winter, when the leaves of both have dropped. The
cypress is more slender and is taller in form. The leaves of each
are very different, as will be seen from the accompanying
illustrations.

GROUP V. THE HORSECHESTNUT, ASH AND MAPLE

How to tell them from other trees: The horsechestnut, ash, and maple
have their branches and buds arranged on their stems *opposite* each
other as shown in Figs. 20, 22 and 24. In other trees, this
arrangement is *alternate*, as shown in Fig. 19.

How to tell these three from each other. If the bud is large--an inch to
an inch and a half long--dark brown, and _sticky_, it is a
_horsechestnut_.

If the bud is _not sticky_, much smaller, and _rusty brown to black_
in color, and the ultimate twigs, of an olive green color, are
_flattened_ at points below the buds, it is an _ash_.

If it is not a horsechestnut nor an ash and its small buds have
many scales covering them, the specimen with branches and buds
opposite must then be a _maple_. Each of the maples has one
character which distinguishes it from all the other maples. For the
sugar maple, this distinguishing character is the _sharp point of
the bud_. For the silver maple it is the _bend in the terminal
twig_. For the red maple it is the _smooth gray-colored bark_. For
the Norway maple it is the _reddish brown color of the full, round
bud_, and for the box elder it is the _greenish color of its
terminal twig_.

The form of the tree and the leaves are also characteristic in each
of the maples, but for the beginner who does not wish to be burdened
with too many of these facts at one time, those just enumerated
will be found most certain and most easily followed.

THE HORSECHESTNUT (_Aesculus hippocastanum_)

Distinguishing characters: The *sticky* nature of the *terminal bud* and
its *large size* (about an inch long). The bud is dark brown in
color. See Fig. 20.

Leaf: Five to seven leaflets, usually seven. Fig. 21.

Form and size: Medium-sized tree, pyramidal head and coarse twigs.

Range: Europe and eastern United States.

Soil and location: Prefers a deep, rich soil.

Enemies: The leaves are the favorite food of caterpillars and are
subject to a blight which turns them brown prematurely. The trunk is
often attacked by a disease which causes the flow of a slimy
substance.

Value for planting: On account of its showy flowers, the horsechestnut
is a favorite for the park and lawn.

Commercial value: The wood is not durable and is not used commercially.

Other characters: The _flowers_ appear in large white clusters in May
and June. The _fruit_ is large, round, and prickly.

Comparisons: The _red horsechestnut_ differs from this tree in having
red flowers. The _buckeye_ is similar to the horsechestnut, but its
bud is not sticky and is of a lighter gray color, while the leaf
generally has only five leaflets.

THE WHITE ASH (_Fraxinus americana_)

Distinguishing characters: The terminal *twigs* of glossy olive green
color are *flattened* below the bud. Fig. 22. The bud is
rusty-brown.

Leaf: Five to nine leaflets. Fig. 23.

Form and size: A large tree with a straight trunk.

Range: Eastern North America.

Soil and location: Rich, moist soil.

Enemies: In cities it is very often attacked by sucking insects.

Value for planting: The white ash grows rapidly. On account of its
insect enemies in cities, it should be used more for forest planting
and only occasionally for ornament.

Commercial value: It has a heavy, tough, and strong wood, which is
valuable in the manufacture of cooperage stock, agricultural
implements, and carriages. It is superior in value to the black ash.

Other characters: The _bark_ is gray. The _flowers_ appear in May.

Comparisons: The white ash is apt to be confused with the _black ash_
(_Fraxinus nigra_), but differs from the latter in having a
lighter-colored bud. The bud of the black ash is black. The bark of
the white ash is darker in color and the terminal twigs are more
flattened than those of the black ash.

SUGAR MAPLE (_Acer saccharum_)

Distinguishing characters: The *bud is sharp-pointed*, scaly, and
reddish brown. Fig. 24.

Leaf: Has sharp points and round sinus. Fig. 25.

Form and size: The crown is oval when the tree is young and round in old
age. Fig. 26.

Range: Eastern United States.

Soil and location: Moist and deep soil, and cool, shady positions.

Enemies: Subject to drouth, especially in cities. Is attacked by the
_sugar maple borer_ and the _maple phenacoccus_, a sucking insect.

Value for planting: Its rich and yellow color in the fall, and the fine
spread of its crown make it a desirable tree for the lawn,
especially in the country.

Commercial value: Its wood is hard and takes a good polish; used for
interior finish and furniture. The tree is also the source of maple
sugar. Fig. 27.

Other characters: The _bark_ is smooth in young trees and in old trees
it shags in large plates. The _flowers_ appear in the early part of
April.

Other common names: The sugar maple is sometimes called _rock maple_ or
_hard maple_.

SILVER MAPLE (_Acer saccharinum_)

Distinguishing characters: The tips of the *twigs curve upwards* (Fig.
28), the bark is scaly, and the leaves are very deeply cleft and are
silvery on the under side.

Leaf: Deeply cleft and silvery under side. Fig. 29.

Form and size: A large tree with the main branches separating from the
trunk a few feet from the ground. The terminal twigs are long,
slender, and drooping.

Range: Eastern United States.

Soil and location: Moist places.

Enemies: The _leopard moth_, a wood-boring insect, and the
_cottony-maple scale_, a sucking insect.

Value for planting: Grows too rapidly and is too short-lived to be
durable.

Commercial value: Its wood is soft, weak, and little used.

Other characters: The _bark_ is light gray, smooth at first and scaly
later on. The scales are free at each end and attached in the
center. The _flowers_ appear before the leaves in the latter part of
March or early April.

Other common names: The silver maple is sometimes known as _soft maple_
or _white maple_.

RED MAPLE (_Acer rubrum_)

Distinguishing characters: The *bark is smooth and light gray*, like
that of the beech, on the upper branches in older trees, and in
young trees over the whole trunk. Fig. 30. The buds are in clusters,
and the terminal twigs, Fig. 31, are quite red.

Leaf: Whitish underneath with three-pointed lobes. Fig. 32.

Form and size: A medium-sized tree with a narrow, round head.

Range: Eastern North America.

Soil and location: Prefers moist places.

Enemies: Leaf blotches (_Rhytisma acerinum_) which, however, are not
very injurious.

Value for planting: Suitable as a shade tree for suburban streets. Its
rich red leaves in the fall make it attractive for the lawn.

Commercial value: Its wood is heavy, close-grained, and takes a good
polish. Used for furniture and fuel.

Other characters: The _bud_ is small, round, and red. The _flowers_
appear before the leaves are out in the early part of April.

Other common names: The red maple is sometimes known as _swamp maple_.

Comparisons: The red maple is apt to be confused with the silver maple,
but the latter can be distinguished by its turned-up twigs and scaly
bark over the whole trunk of the tree, which presents a sharp
contrast to the straight twig and smooth bark of the red maple. The
latter has a bark similar to the beech, but its branches are
_opposite_, while those of the beech are _alternate_.

NORWAY MAPLE (_Acer platanoides_)

Distinguishing characters: The bud, Fig. 33, is *oval and reddish-brown*
in color; when taken off, a *milky juice exudes*. The bark is close.
Fig. 34

Leaf: Like the leaf of the sugar maple but thicker in texture and darker
in color. Fig. 35.

Form and size: A tall tree with a broad, round head.

Range: Europe and the United States.

Soil and location: Will grow in poor soil.

Enemies: Very few.

Value for planting: One of the best shade trees.

Commercial value: None.

Other characters: The _bark_ is close like that of the mockernut
hickory.

Comparisons: The Norway maple is apt to be confused with the _sycamore
maple_ (_Acer pseudoplatanus_), but differs from the latter in
having a reddish bud instead of a green bud, and a close bark
instead of a scaly bark.

BOX ELDER (_Acer negundo_)

Distinguishing characters: The terminal *twigs are green*, and the buds
are round and small. Fig. 36.

Leaf: Has three to seven leaflets.

Form and size: A medium-sized tree with a short trunk and wide-spreading
top.

Range: Eastern United States to the Rocky Mountains.

Soil and location: Grows rapidly in deep, moist soil and river valleys,
but accommodates itself to the dry and poor soil conditions of the
city.

Enemies: Few.

Value for planting: Used as a shade tree in the Middle West, but the
tree is so ill formed and so short-lived that it is not to be
recommended.

Commercial value: None. The wood is soft.

Other characters: The _bark_ of the trunk is smooth and yellowish-green
in young trees and grayish brown in older specimens. The _flowers_
appear in the early part of April. The _fruit_ takes the form of
yellowish-green keys which hang on the tree till late fall.

Other common names: The box elder is also commonly known as the
_ash-leaf maple_.

GROUP VI. TREES TOLD BY THEIR FORM: ELM, POPLAR, GINGKO AND WILLOW

How to tell them from other trees: The trees described in this group are
so distinctive in their general _form_ that they may, for the
purpose of study, be grouped together, and distinguished from all
other trees by this characteristic.

How to tell them from each other: The American elm is _vase-like_ in
shape; the Lombardy poplar is narrow and _spire-like_; the gingko,
or maidenhair tree, is _odd_ in its mode of _branching_; and the
weeping willow is extremely _pendulous_.

AMERICAN ELM (_Ulmus americana_)

Distinguishing characters: The tree can be told at a glance by its
general branching habit. The limbs arch out into a wide-spreading
*fan or vase-like crown* which loses itself in numerous fine
drooping branchlets. See Fig. 37.

Leaf: The leaves are simple, alternate, and from 2 to 5 inches long.

Form and size: It is a tall tree with a trunk that divides a short
distance above ground. Its general contour, together with the
numerous branches that interlace its massive crown, give the elm an
interesting and stately appearance which is unequaled by any other
tree.

Range: Eastern North America.

Soil and location: The elm prefers a deep, rich and moist soil, but will
adapt itself even to the poor soil of the city street.

Enemies: _The leopard moth_, a wood-boring insect, and the _elm leaf
beetle_, a leaf-eating insect, are the two most important enemies of
the tree. Their ravages are very extensive.

Value for planting: The tree has a character of its own which cannot be
duplicated for avenue or lawn planting.

Commercial value: The wood is strong and tough and therefore has a
special value for cooperage, agricultural implements, carriages, and
shipbuilding.

Other characters: The _buds_ are small, brown, and smooth, while those
of the European elms are covered with down. The _small side twigs_
come out at almost right angles to the larger terminal twigs, which
is not the case in other species of elm.

Other common names: _White elm_.

Comparisons: The _English elm_ (_Ulmus campestris_) is also a tall,
dignified tree commonly seen under cultivation in America, but may
be told from the American species by the difference in their general
contour. The branches of the English species spread out but do not
arch like those of the American elm, and the bark of the English elm
is darker and coarser, Fig. 38. Little tufts of dead twigs along the
main branches and trunk of the tree are characteristic of the
English elm and will frequently help to distinguish it from the
American elm.

The _Camperdown elm_ may be recognized readily by its dwarf size and
its low drooping umbrella-shaped crown.

LOMBARDY OR ITALIAN POPLAR (_Populus nigra, var. italica_)

Distinguishing characters: Its *tall, slender, spire-like form* and
rigidly *erect branches*, which commence low on the trunk, make this
tree very distinct at all seasons of the year. See Fig. 39.

Leaf: Triangular in shape, similar to that of the Carolina poplar but
smaller, see Fig. 40.

Range: Asia, Europe, and North America.

Soil and location: The poplar is easily grown in poor soil, in any
location, and is very hardy.

Value for planting: The tree has a distinctive form which makes it
valuable for special landscape effects. It is also used for shelter
belts and screening. Like all poplars it is short lived and will
stand pruning well.

Commercial value: None.

Comparisons: The _Carolina poplar_, or Cottonwood (_Populus deltoides_)
can be told from the Lombardy poplar by its wider crown and its more
open branching, Fig. 41. It may be recognized by its big terminal
twigs, which are light yellow in color and coarser than those of the
Lombardy poplar, Fig. 42. Its bark is smooth, light and
yellowish-green in young trees, and dark gray and fissured in older
specimens. Its large, conical, glossy, chestnut-brown bud is also
characteristic, Fig. 42. Its flowers, in the form of large catkins,
a peculiarity of all poplars, appear in the early spring. The
Carolina poplar is commonly planted in cities because it grows
rapidly and is able to withstand the smoke and drouth conditions of
the city. Where other trees, however, can be substituted with
success, the poplar should be avoided. Its very fast growth is
really a point against the tree, because it grows so fast that it
becomes too tall for surrounding property, and its wood being
extremely soft and brittle, the tree frequently breaks in
windstorms. In many cases it is entirely uprooted, because it is not
a deep-rooted tree. Its larger roots, which spread near the
surface, upset the sidewalk or prevent the growth of other
vegetation on the lawn, while its finer rootlets, in their eager
search for moisture, penetrate and clog the joints of neighboring
water and sewer pipes. The tree is commonly attacked by the
_oyster-shell scale_, an insect which sucks the sap from its bark
and which readily spreads to other more valuable trees like the elm.
The female form of this tree is even more objectionable than the
male, because in the early spring the former produces an abundance
of cotton from its seeds which litters the ground and often makes
walking dangerous. The only justification for planting the Carolina
poplar is in places where the conditions for tree growth are so poor
that nothing else will grow, and in those cases the tree should be
cut back periodically in order to keep it from becoming too tall and
scraggly. It is also desirable for screening in factory districts
and similar situations.

The _silver_ or _white poplar_ (_Populus alba_) may be told from the
other poplars by its characteristic smooth, _whitish-green bark_,
often spotted with dark blotches, Fig. 43. The _leaves are
silvery-white_ and downy on the under side. The twigs are dark green
in color and densely covered with a white down. It grows to very
large size and forms an irregular, wide-spreading, broad head, which
is characteristically different from that of any of the other
poplars.

The _quaking aspen_ (_Populus tremuloides_), the _large-toothed
aspen_ (_Populus grandidentata_) and the _balsam poplar_ or _balm of
Gilead_ (_Populus balsamifera_) are other common members of the
poplar group. The quaking aspen may be told by its reddish-brown
twigs, narrow sharp-pointed buds, and by its small finely toothed
leaves. The large-toothed aspen has thicker and rather downy buds
and broader and more widely toothed leaves. The balsam poplar has a
large bud thickly covered with a sticky, pungent, gelatinous
substance.

GINGKO OR MAIDENHAIR TREE (_Gingko biloba_)

Distinguishing characters: The *peculiar branches* of this tree *emerge
upward* from a straight tapering trunk *at an angle of about 45°*
and give to the whole tree a striking, Oriental appearance, which is
quite different from that of any other tree, Fig. 44.

Leaf: Like that of a leaflet of maidenhair fern, Fig. 45.

Range: A native of northern China and introduced into eastern North
America.

Soil and location: The gingko will grow in poor soils.

Enemies: Practically free from insects and disease.

Value for planting: It makes a valuable tree for the street where heavy
shade is not the object and forms an excellent wide-spreading
specimen tree on the lawn.

Other characters: The _fruit_ consists of a stone covered by sweet,
ill-smelling flesh. The tree is dioecious, there being separate male
and female trees. The male tree is preferable for planting in order
to avoid the disagreeable odor of the fruit which appears on the
female trees when about thirty years old. The male tree has a
narrower crown than the female tree. The buds (Fig. 46) are very odd
and are conspicuous on the tree throughout the winter. The leaves of
the gingko shed in the winter. In this respect the tree is like the
larch and the bald cypress.

The gingko belongs to the yew family, which is akin to the pine
family. It is therefore a very old tree, the remains of the forests
of the ancient world. The gingko in its early life is tall and
slender with its few branches close to the stem. But after a time
the branches loosen up and form a wide-spreading crown. In the
Orient it attains enormous proportions and in this country it also
grows to a fairly large size when planted on the open lawn or in
groups far apart from other trees so that it can have plenty of room
to spread. It then produces a picturesque effect of unusual
interest.

WEEPING WILLOW (_Salix babylonica_)

Distinguishing characters: All the willows have a single cap-like scale
to the bud, and this species has an unusually *drooping mass of
slender branchlets* which characterizes the tree from all others,
Fig. 47.

Form and size: It grows to large size.

Range: Asia and Europe and naturalized in eastern United States.

Soil and location: Prefers moist places near streams and ponds.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: The weeping willow has a special ornamental effect
in cemeteries and along lakes and river banks in parks.

Commercial value: It is used in the United States for charcoal and for
fuel.

Comparisons: The _pussy willow_ (_Salix discolor_) may easily be told
from the other willows by its small size; it is often no higher than
a tall shrub. Its branches are _reddish green_ and the buds are dark
red, smooth and glossy. The predominating color of the twigs and
buds in the pussy willow is therefore a shade of _red_, while in the
weeping willow it is _yellowish green_.

GROUP VII. TREES TOLD BY THEIR BARK OR TRUNK: SYCAMORE, BIRCH, BEECH, BLUE BEECH, IRONWOOD, AND HACKBERRY

How to tell them from other trees: The _color of the bark or the form of
the trunk_ of each of the trees in this group is distinct from that
of any other tree.

How to tell them from each other: In the sycamore, the bark is
_mottled_; in the white birch, it is _dull white_; in the beech, it
is _smooth and gray_; in the hackberry, it is covered with numerous
_corky warts_; in the blue beech, the trunk of the tree is _fluted_,
as in Fig. 54, and in the ironwood, the bark _peels_ in thin
perpendicular strips.

THE SYCAMORE OR PLANE TREE (_Platanus occidentalis_)

Distinguishing characters: The peculiar *mottled appearance* of the
*bark* (Fig. 48) in the trunk and large branches is the striking
character here. The bark produces this effect by shedding in large,
thin, brittle plates. The newly exposed bark is of a yellowish green
color which often turns nearly white later on. *Round seed balls*,
about an inch in diameter, may be seen hanging on the tree all
winter. In this species, the seed balls are usually solitary, while
in the Oriental sycamore, a European tree similar to the native one,
they appear in clusters of two, or occasionally of three or four.
See Fig. 49.

Leaf: The stem of the leaf completely covers the bud. This is a
characteristic peculiar to sycamores.

Form and size: A large tree with massive trunk and branches and a broad
head.

Range: Eastern and southern United States.

Soil and location: Prefers a deep rich soil, but will adapt itself even
to the poor soil of the city street.

Enemies: The sycamore is frequently attacked by a fungus (_Gloeosporium
nervisequum_), which curls up the young leaves and kills the tips of
the branches. Late frosts also often injure its young twigs. The
Oriental sycamore, which is the European species, is more hardy in
these respects than the native one and is therefore often chosen as
a substitute.

Value for planting: The Occidental sycamore is now planted very little,
but the Oriental sycamore is used quite extensively in its place,
especially as a shade tree. The Oriental sycamore is superior to the
native species in many ways. It is more shapely, faster growing, and
hardier than the native one. Both sycamores will bear transplanting
and pruning well.

Commercial value: The wood of the sycamore is coarse-grained and hard to
work; used occasionally for inside finishing in buildings.

Other names: _Buttonball_, _buttonwood_.

Comparisons: The _Oriental sycamore_ (_Platanus orientalis_) an
introduced species, is apt to be confused with the Occidental
sycamore, but may be told from the latter by the number of seed
balls suspended from the tree. In the case of the Oriental species,
the seed balls hang in _pairs_ or (rarely) three or four together.
In the Occidental, the seed balls are generally _solitary_ and very
rarely in pairs.

GRAY OR WHITE BIRCH (_Betula populifolia_)

Distinguishing characters: The *dull-white color of the bark* on the
trunk and the _dark triangular patches below the insertion of the
branches_ distinguish this tree; see Fig. 50. The bark of the young
trunks and branches is reddish-brown in color and glossy. The bark
adheres closely to the trunk of the tree and does not peel in loose,
shaggy strips, as in the case of the yellow or golden birch. It is
marked by small raised horizontal lines which are the lenticels or
breathing pores. These lenticels are characteristic of all birch and
cherry trees. In addition to the distinction in the color of the
bark, an important character which distinguishes the gray birch from
all other species of birch, is found in the *terminal twigs*, which
are *rough* to the touch.

Form and size: A small tree. Frequently grows in clumps.

Range: Eastern United States.

Soil and location: The gray birch does best in a deep, rich soil, but
will also grow in poor soils.

Enemies: The _bronze-birch borer_, a wood-destroying insect, and
_Polyporus betulinus_, a fungus, are its chief enemies.

Value for planting: Its graceful habit and attractive bark gives the
tree an important place in ornamental planting. It may be used to
advantage with evergreens, and produces a charming effect when
planted by itself in clumps.

Commercial value: The wood is soft and not durable. It is used in the
manufacture of small articles and for wood pulp.

Other characters: The _fruit is a catkin_.

Comparisons: The _paper birch_ (_Betula papyrifera_) is apt to be
confused with the gray birch, because both have a white bark. The
bark of the paper birch, however, is a clear white and peels off in
thin papery layers instead of being close. It very seldom shows any
dark triangular markings on the trunk. Its terminal twigs are not
rough and its trunk is usually straighter and freer from branches.

The _black_ or _sweet birch_ (_Betula lenta_) has a bark similar to
the gray birch, except that its color is dark gray. See Fig. 51. The
twigs have an aromatic taste.

The _yellow birch_ (_Betula lutea_) has a yellowish or golden bark
which constantly peels in thin, ragged, horizontal films.

The _European white birch_ (_Betula alba_) has a dull-white bark
like the native white birch, but has smooth terminal twigs instead
of rough ones. It is commonly seen in the United States on lawns and
in parks.

AMERICAN BEECH (_Fagus americana_)

Distinguishing characters: The *close-fitting, smooth, gray bark* will
tell this tree from all others except the red maple and yellow-wood.
See Fig. 52. The red maple may then be easily eliminated by noting
whether the branches are alternate or opposite. They are alternate
in the beech and opposite in the maple. The yellow-wood may be
eliminated by noting the size of the bud. The *bud* in the
yellow-wood is hardly noticeable and of a golden yellow color, while
that of the beech is very *long, slender, and sharp-pointed*, and
chestnut brown in color. See Fig. 53.

Form and size: It grows tall in the woods, but on the open lawn spreads
out into a massive, round-headed tree.

Range: Eastern Canada and United States.

Soil and location: Prefers a rich, well-drained soil, but will grow in
any good soil.

Enemies: _Aphides_ or plant lice that suck the sap from the leaves in
spring and early summer are the chief enemies of the tree.

Value for planting: The pleasing color of its bark, its fine spread of
branches, which gracefully droop down to the ground, and its
autumnal coloring, make the beech a favorite for lawn and park
planting. The several European species of beech are equally
charming.

Commercial value: The wood is strong, close-grained, and tough. It is
used mainly for cooperage, tool handles, shoe lasts, chairs, etc.,
and for fuel.

Other characters: The _fruit_ is a prickly burr encasing a sharply
triangular nut which is sweet and edible.

Comparisons: The _European beech_ (_Fagus sylvatica_), and its weeping,
purple-leaved, and fern-leaved varieties, are frequently met with in
parks and may be told from the native species by its darker bark.
The weeping form may, of course, be told readily by its drooping
branches. The leaves of the European beeches are broader and less
serrated than those of the American beech.

BLUE BEECH OR HORNBEAM (_Carpinus caroliniana_)

Distinguishing characters: The *fluted* or muscular effect of its
*trunk* will distinguish the tree at a glance, Fig. 54.

Leaf: Doubly serrated; otherwise the same as that of ironwood.

Form and size: A low-spreading tree with branches arching out at various
angles, forming a flattened head with a fine, slender spray.

Range: Very common in the eastern United States.

Soil and location: Grows in low wet woods.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: Its artistic branching and curious trunk give the
tree an important place in park planting.

Commercial value: None.

Other characters: The bark is smooth and bluish gray in color.

Comparisons: The blue beech or hornbeam is often confused with the
_ironwood_ or _hop hornbeam_ (_Ostrya virginiana_). The ironwood,
however, has a characteristic bark that peels in perpendicular,
short, thin segments, often loose at the ends. See Fig. 55. This is
entirely different from the close, smooth, and fluted bark of the
blue beech. The color of the bark in the ironwood is brownish, while
that of the blue beech is bluish-gray. The buds of the ironwood are
greenish with brown tips, while the bud of the blue beech shows no
green whatever.

HACKBERRY (_Celtis occidentalis_)

Distinguishing characters: The tree may be told readily from other trees
by the *corky tubercles* on the bark of the lower portion of the
trunk. See Fig. 56.

Leaf: Has three predominating veins and is a bit more developed on one
side than on the other.

Form and size: A small or medium-sized tree with a single stem and broad
conical crown.

Range: United States and Canada.

Soil and location: Grows naturally in fertile soils, but will adapt
itself to almost sterile soils as well.

Enemies: The hackberry is usually free from disease, though often its
leaves are covered with insect galls.

Value for planting: It is extensively planted as a shade tree in the
Middle West, and is frequently seen as an ornamental tree in the
East.

Commercial value: It has little economic value except for fuel.

Other characters: The _fruit_ is berry-like, with a hard pit. The fleshy
outer part is sweet.

Other common names: _Nettle tree_; _sugarberry_.

GROUP VIII. THE OAKS AND CHESTNUT

How to tell them from other trees: The oaks are rather difficult to
identify and, in studying them it will often be necessary to look
for more than one distinguishing character. The oaks differ from
other trees in bearing _acorns_. Their _leaves_ have many lobes and
their upper lateral _buds_ cluster at the top of the twigs. The
general contour of each oak presents a characteristic branching and
sturdiness uncommon in other trees.

The chestnut differs from other trees in bearing _burs_ and its
_bark_ is also distinctly characteristic.

How to tell them from each other: There are two groups of oaks, the
_white oak_ and the _black oak_. The white oaks mature their acorns
in one year and, therefore, only acorns of the same year can be
found on trees of this group. The black oaks take two years in which
to mature their acorns and, therefore, young acorns of the present
year and mature acorns of the previous year may be found on the same
tree at one time. The _leaves_ of the white oaks have rounded
margins and rounded lobes as in Fig. 57, while those of the black
oaks have pointed margins and sharp pointed lobes as shown in Figs.
60, 62 and 64. The _bark_ of the white oaks is light colored and
breaks up in loose flakes as in Fig. 58, while that of the black
oaks is darker and deeply ridged or tight as in Figs. 59 and 61. The
white oak is the type of the white oak group and the black, red and
pin oaks are types of the other. For the characterization of the
individual species, the reader is referred to the following pages.

WHITE OAK (_Quercus alba_)

Distinguishing characters: The massive ramification of its branches is
characteristic of this species and often an easy clue to its
identification. The *bark* has a *light gray color*--lighter than
that of the other oaks--and breaks into soft, loose flakes as in
Fig. 58. The *leaves are deeply lobed* as in Fig. 57. The *buds are
small, round and congested* at the end of the year's growth. The
acorns usually have no stalks and are set in shallow, rough cups.
The kernels of the acorns are white and palatable.

Form and size: The white oak grows into a large tree with a
wide-spreading, massive crown, dissolving into long, heavy, twisted
branches. When grown in the open it possesses a short sturdy trunk;
in the forest its trunk is tall and stout.

Range: Eastern North America.

Soil and location: The white oak thrives in almost any well-drained,
good, deep soil except in a very cold and wet soil. It requires
plenty of light and attains great age.

Enemies: The tree is comparatively free from insects and disease except
in districts where the Gipsy moth is common, in which case the
leaves of the white oak are a favorite food of its caterpillars.

Value for planting: The white oak is one of the most stately trees. Its
massive form and its longevity make the tree suitable for both lawn
and woodland planting but it is not used much because it is
difficult to transplant and grows rather slowly.

Commercial value: The wood is of great economic importance. It is heavy,
hard, strong and durable and is used in cooperage, construction
work, interior finish of buildings and for railroad ties, furniture,
agricultural implements and fuel.

Comparisons: The _swamp white oak_ (_Quercus platanoides_) is similar to
the white oak in general appearance of the bark and form and is
therefore liable to be confused with it. It differs from the white
oak, however, in possessing a more straggly habit and in the fact
that the bark on the under side of its branches shags in loose,
large scales. Its buds are smaller, lighter colored and more downy
and its acorns are more pointed and with cups more shallow than
those of the white oak. The tree also grows in moister ground,
generally bordering swamps.

BLACK OAK (_Quercus velutina_)

Distinguishing characters: The *bark* is black, rough and cut up into
firm *ridges* especially at the base of the tree, see Fig. 59. The
_inner bark_ has a _bright yellow color_: the *leaves* have _sharp
points_ and are wider at the base than at the tip as shown in Fig.
60. The buds are _large, downy_ and _sharp pointed_. The acorns are
small and have deep, scaly cups the inner margins of which are
downy. The kernels are yellow and bitter.

Form and size: The tree grows in an irregular form to large size, with
its branches rather slender as compared with the white oak and with
a more open and narrow crown.

Range: Eastern North America.

Soil and location: It will grow in poor soils but does best where the
soil is rich and well drained.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: The black oak is the poorest of the oaks for
planting and is rarely offered by nurserymen.

Commercial value: The wood is heavy, hard and strong, but checks readily
and is coarse grained. It is of little value except for fuel. The
bark is used for tannin.

Other common names: _Yellow oak_.

Comparisons: The black oak might sometimes be confused with the _red_
and _scarlet oaks_. The yellow, bitter inner bark will distinguish
the black oak from the other two. The light-colored, smooth bark of
the red oak and the dark, ridged bark of the black oak will
distinguish the two, while the bark of the scarlet oak has an
appearance intermediate between the two. The buds of the three
species also show marked differences. The buds of the black oak are
covered with hairs, those of the scarlet oak have fewer hairs and
those of the red are practically free from hairs. The leaves of each
of the three species are distinct and the growth habits are
different.

RED OAK (_Quercus rubra_)

Distinguishing characters: The *bark* is perpendicularly fissured into
long, _smooth, light gray strips_ giving the trunk a characteristic
*pillar effect* as in Figs. 61 and 94. It has the straightest trunk
of all the oaks. The leaves possess _more lobes_ than the leaves of
any of the other species of the black oak group, see Fig. 62. The
acorns, the largest among the oaks, are semispherical with the cups
extremely shallow. The buds are large and sharp pointed, but not as
large as those of the black oak. They also have a few fine hairs on
their scales, but are not nearly as downy as those of the Black oak.

Form and size: The red oak is the largest of the oaks and among the
largest of the trees in the northern forests. It has a straight
trunk, free from branches to a higher point than in the white oak,
see Fig. 94. The branches are less twisted and emerge at sharper
angles than do those of the white oak.

Range: It grows all over Eastern North America and reaches north farther
than any of the other oaks.

Soil and location: It is less fastidious in its soil and moisture
requirements than the other oaks and therefore grows in a great
variety of soils. It requires plenty of light.

Enemies: Like most of the other oaks, this species is comparatively free
from insects and disease.

Value for planting: The red oak grows faster and adapts itself better to
poor soil conditions than any of the other oaks and is therefore
easy to plant and easy to find in the nurseries. It makes an
excellent street tree, is equally desirable for the lawn and is
hardly surpassed for woodland planting.

Commercial value: The wood is hard and strong but coarse grained, and is
used for construction timber, interior finish and furniture. It is
inferior to white oak where strength and durability are required.

PIN OAK (_Quercus palustris_)

Distinguishing characters: Its method of *branching* will characterize
the tree at a glance. It develops a well-defined _main_ ascending
_stem_ with numerous _drooping_ side _branches_ as in Fig. 63. The
buds are very small and sharp pointed and the leaves are small as in
Fig. 64. The bark is dark, firm, smooth and in close ridges. The
acorn is small and carries a light brown, striped nut, wider than
long and bitter. The cup is shallow, enclosing only the base of the
nut.

Form and size: The pin oak is a medium-sized tree in comparison with
other oaks. It develops a tall, straight trunk that tapers
continuously through a pyramidal crown of low, drooping tender,
branches.

Range: Eastern North America.

Soil and location: It requires a deep, rich, moist soil and grows
naturally near swamps. Its roots are deep and spreading. The tree
grows rapidly and is easily transplanted.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: The pin oak is an extremely graceful tree and is
therefore extensively used for planting on lawns and on certain
streets where the tree can find plenty of water and where conditions
will permit its branches to droop low.

Commercial value: The wood is heavy and hard but coarse grained and
liable to check and warp. Its principal use is in the construction
of houses and for shingles.

CHESTNUT (_Castanea dentata_)

Distinguishing characters: The *bark* in young trees is smooth and of a
marked reddish-bronze color, but when the tree grows older, the bark
breaks up into *diamond-shaped ridges*, sufficiently characteristic
to distinguish the tree at a glance, see Fig. 65. A close
examination of the _terminal twig_ will show _three ridges_ and _two
grooves_ running down along the stem from the base of each leaf or
leaf-scar. The twig has no true terminal bud. The fruit, a large,
round *bur*, prickly without and hairy within and enclosing the
familiar dark brown, sweet edible nuts is also a distinguishing mark
of the tree.

Leaf: The leaves are distinctly long and narrow. They are from 6 to 8
inches long.

Form and size: The chestnut is a large tree with a massive trunk and
broad spreading crown. The chestnut tree when cut, sprouts readily
from the stump and therefore in places where the trees have once
been cut, a group of two to six trees may be seen emerging from the
old stump.

Range: Eastern United States.

Soil and location: It will grow on rocky as well as on fertile soils and
requires plenty of light.

Enemies: During the past nine years nearly all the chestnut trees in the
United States have been attacked by a fungus disease (_Diaporthe
parasitica_, Mur.) which still threatens the entire extinction of
the chestnut trees in this country. No remedy has been discovered
and all affected trees should be cut down and the wood utilized
before it decays and becomes worthless. No species of chestnut tree
is entirely immune from this disease, though some species are highly
resistant.

Value for planting: The chestnut is one of the most rapidly growing
hardwood trees but, on account of its disease, which is now
prevalent everywhere, it is not wise to plant chestnut trees for the
present.

Commercial value: The wood is light, not very strong and liable to warp.
It is durable when brought in contact with the soil and is therefore
used for railroad ties, fence-posts, poles, and mine timbers. It is
also valuable for interior finish in houses and for fuel. Its bark
is used in the manufacture of tanning extracts and the nuts are sold
in cities in large quantities.