Chapter V: Injuries to the Bones of the Limbs (2)

Impact oblique. Wound of entry 1 inch below the insertion of the deltoid; exit, on inner aspect of arm at a slightly lower level. The bullet probably struck the bone laterally, and drove out the central fragment.

Prolonged suppuration resulted, but the humerus healed well, and good movement of the elbow was preserved.

The effect of oblique impact together with high velocity is well illustrated. Had the resistance been greater, as in the case of the femur, a nearer resemblance to the effect seen in plate XV. would have been the result.]

Of _fractures of the hand_ I have little to say. In the case of the _carpus_, the slight degree of resistance offered by the bones rendered injuries of an explosive character rare. I never saw one. Fractures of the _metacarpus_, on the other hand, presented exactly the opposite features. The density of these small bones was well illustrated by the frequency with which the bullet suffered injury, even amounting to fragmentation, and the great comminution they themselves suffered. The breaking up of the bullet in these fractures was a curious feature, which may perhaps be explained by the tendency of the distal part of the limb to be driven in the course of the bullet, with the result of somewhat lengthening the period of contact of the projectile, or more probably by somewhat frequently occurring irregular impact. Plate XI. is a good example of an injury of this nature of moderate severity. The soft parts suffered much in these injuries, the tendons were torn and lacerated at the moment, and were very apt to acquire more or less permanent adhesion. This latter condition was sometimes to be improved by the removal of bone fragments, and I have freed tendons from actual clefts in the bones where they had been carried in by the bullet. In some cases very great deformity of the digits, due to shortening, developed, even when no fragments were removed beyond those blown away by the bullet.

One form of injury of some interest was multiple fracture of the phalanges produced by a bullet travelling in a course parallel to the length of the rifle when pointed by the patient. Occasionally several digits were lost.

_Treatment of fractures of the upper extremity._--The general lines of this have already been foreshadowed in the general section, the remarks as to transport being applicable to all serious fractures of the shaft of the humerus, and this is the only one of the bones of the upper extremity on which anything special need be said, as the treatment of all the other fractures exactly coincides with that of ordinary civil practice.

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(26_a_) CONDITION OF THE SAME FRACTURE SHOWN IN PLATE VI., A YEAR AFTER ITS PRODUCTION

The ensheathing callus is still very abundant, but less so than at an earlier date. No trouble with the musculo-spiral nerve was noted, but residual abscesses occurred from time to time in connection with the fracture.]

(German Ambulance, Heilbron)]

The treatment of wounds should be on the lines already laid down: thorough cleansing, and then an attempt to seal. In severely comminuted fractures, however, the exit wound may be of very large size, and then frequent dressings are necessary. Loose fragments, by which those freed from their periosteal connections are meant, need removal. The question which most interested me was the best method of fixation. This needs to be sufficient to effect immobility, but on the other hand in many cases the weight of the arm as a means of extension is very valuable. Some of the most successfully treated cases that I saw were fixed by means of simple strips of pasteboard, applied moist, and fixed with an adhesive bandage. Ordinary book-muslin bandages are as good as anything for this purpose, as they can be reinforced by a stronger form outside them. Where necessary, an angular piece of cardboard can be applied on the inner aspect, or a wooden angular splint may be substituted, if it is at hand; but in this case most of the advantage of the weight of the arm as a means of extension is lost. The cardboard cases possess the great advantage of being readily cut off and reapplied much as is done with plaster of Paris. During the period in which dressing may be necessary I believe this form of splint is as good as can be got for use in Field hospitals, the only point needing care being to ensure that the bandaging is not too tight. It is much more reliable than are ordinary splints if transport is unavoidable, and is much lighter and less irksome to the patient. With such strips of cardboard, a few of the gauze splints (fig. 54), and a few angular and wooden splints, I believe a Field hospital is fully equipped for the treatment of any fractures of the upper extremity.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

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(27) OBLIQUE FRACTURE OF THE HUMERUS OF THE NATURE OF A PERFORATION

Range more than '1,000 yards.'

The distance was probably much greater, as the bullet was retained and undeformed, and the comminution of the bone was very slight. The wound of entry was just below the elbow.

The bullet has cut its way through the inner half of the humerus, producing little comminution and mere solution of continuity of the bone without displacement]

_Fractures of the pelvis._--These, as a rule, were of so slight a nature as to form a very insignificant part of the entire injury with which they were associated, or when uncomplicated they were of little more importance than simple wounds of the soft parts. The very great majority were of the simple perforating type. I had the opportunity of examining three at the brim of the pelvis, these all passing in a downward direction. The openings were of about the same calibre as the bullet, and at their entrance was a small amount of bone dust such as would be found at the entry hole of a gimlet. It was these that made me consider the possibility of the rifle grooves having some part in the ease with which certain perforations are made. Of a large number of cases in which bullets traversed the ilium, the openings in the bone, as a rule, were with difficulty palpated. I must say that I was astonished that I never met with an instance of an extensive stellate fracture in the case of the ilium. Such may have occurred in some of the cases fatal on the field or shortly afterwards, but I never came across one in the hospital. It says much for the combined density and toughness of the human pelvis.

Comminuted fractures were, however, occasionally met with when the bullet passed in a track parallel to the plane of the bone. One such of an unusual character has already been mentioned on p. 171. A still more interesting form, and one highly characteristic of flat bone injuries, is shown in fig. 55. The patient, a man wounded at Modder River, was struck at a range of 300 to 400 yards. The bullet entered over about the centre of the ilium and emerged in the anterior abdominal wall about 2 inches above the anterior-superior spine. As there was some doubt as to penetration of the abdomen, and as the exit wound was of considerable size, the wound was explored, an anæsthetic having been given. A clean-cut track in the bone was discovered which allowed the middle finger to be placed in it. There was little splintering of either inner or outer table of the bone beyond the width of the track, but plates of each table adhered on the one side to the origin of the gluteus medius, and on the other to the iliacus, the latter muscle being somewhat widely separated from the venter ilii by effused blood. There was no perforation of the abdominal cavity.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

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(28) LOCALISED COMMINUTED FRACTURE OF THE HUMERUS

Range '100 yards.'

The entry and exit wounds were on the front and back aspects of the arm, about 3 inches above the elbow.

Fragmentation of the mantle of the bullet has occurred. It will be noted that the fragments are lodged in both the proximal and distal segments of the track. This may indicate that the bullet was damaged prior to entry, or the recoil of fragments. I incline to the latter view. The skiagram was taken a fortnight after the injury.

The large median fragment carried forwards, and the small degree of comminution, suggest the decrease of resistance and prolongation of impact by carriage back of the arm when struck.

The fracture is one of the nearest approaches to a transverse cleft that I met with.

The plate may well be compared with No. XII., where the effect of increased resistance in augmenting the degree of comminution is seen.]

Lesser degrees of the same kind of injury amounting to grooving of the surface or notching of the crest of the ilium were not uncommon, and the occasional large character of exit openings in buttock wounds pointed to contact of travelling bullets with other parts of the external pelvic wall.

Certain portions of the pelvis were subject to more severe comminution; thus in one case in which the bladder was wounded, a very much comminuted fracture of the horizontal ramus of the pubes was produced by a bullet which subsequently lodged in the thigh behind the femoral vessels. In this case the track was so oblique as to have necessitated almost pure lateral impact on the part of the bullet; hence the form of injury was nearly allied to the comminutions of the ilium already described.

Skiagram by H. CATLING

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(29) Wedge-shaped Fracture of the Radius

Range 'a few yards.'

The officer shot the man, his assailant, with a revolver. The entry wound was on the posterior aspect of the forearm at the junction of the middle and lower thirds. The exit wound was on the anterior aspect of the forearm, 1 inch below the elbow crease, and of moderate size.

Some fine fragmentation of the mantle of the bullet is indicated, and very fine comminution of the bone. The fracture healed well, but the resulting mass of callus at the end of three months prevented any movements of pronation or supination.]

I never observed a fracture of the floor of the acetabulum by a bullet which had entered from the back of the pelvis, although tracks entering by the great sciatic notch were not infrequent. I saw one case in which a bullet which traversed the upper part of the shoulder and emerged at the axilla entered a second time an inch behind and above the anterior superior spine, and split off a layer of the outer table of the ilium of the extent of two square inches, which involved the upper portion of the rim of the acetabulum. No displacement upwards of the femur resulted; but external rotation was accompanied by crepitus. The wound suppurated, and some general infection resulted, but six weeks later there was no evidence of fluid in the hip-joint, the limb was adducted and slightly rotated outwards, and some movement in each direction could be made without causing any great amount of pain. I can say nothing of the further course of this case, as I neglected to take the patient's name.

I saw one or two instances of perforation of the sacrum. One is mentioned in the chapter on injuries to the abdomen, in which a central puncture at the level of the fourth vertebra was accompanied by temporary incontinence of fæces.

Fractures of the _femur_ were fairly numerous and formed one of the most serious classes of case we had to treat, as well as one of the most fertile sources of mortality in the Base hospitals. In spite of the last observation, however, it is probable that the results in this campaign will be far better than in any previous war, both as to the smaller proportion in which amputation was needed and as to recovery.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

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(30) COMMINUTED FRACTURE OF THE SECOND METACARPAL BONE

Large fragments of the mantle of the bullet.

Fragmentation of the bullet was comparatively common when the metacarpal bones were struck, also free comminution of a somewhat coarser variety than that seen when bones offering greater resistance were struck.

This may be a result of the more frequent lateral impact of the bullet on these small bones.]

In spite of a considerable experience, I never saw a case of perforation of either the head or neck of the thigh bone. I saw numerous tracks emerging at the side of the femoral vessels and entering at the buttock or vice versa, but never one accompanied either by effusion into the hip-joint or impairment of movement. Considering the regularity with which hæmarthrosis occurred when the other joints were crossed, and also the nature of the compact tissue of the neck of the femur, which must have ensured some splintering, I do not think I can have overlooked an injury of this nature. No doubt also the escape of the neck of the bone was explained in some of the cases by the fact that the injuries were received while the hip-joint was in a position of flexion, the bullet passing over the neck of the femur. In two cases of extensive comminution of the upper third of the femur that I saw, the fissures stopped short at the inter-trochanteric line anteriorly, but in one of them a large angular fragment was torn out of the posterior surface of the neck.

Excepting transverse fracture every form was met with in the shaft, although I saw only two instances of perforation. One has been already alluded to and was situated in the broadening portion of the lower third, the bullet taking an antero-posterior course. The second is seen in plate XVII.

Plate XII. shows an instance of extreme comminution of the upper third accompanied by the presence of two typical elongated fragments. The course taken by the bullet was almost directly antero-posterior, and the wounds were of moderate size even in the case of the exit one. This seems to preclude the possibility of the injury having been produced by a ricochet bullet, while the fact of perforation and escape of the bullet in spite of the serious damage suffered by the mantle points to the injury having been produced at a short range of fire. The patient himself owns to being quite unable to give any estimate of the distance. Although no suppuration occurred, this fracture was very slow in consolidating, and the free comminution with consequent inaccurate apposition led to the development of four inches shortening of the limb. The skiagram was taken about six weeks after the occurrence of the injury, a few days after I first saw the patient; I have, however, had the opportunity of seeing a second skiagram taken some four months later. This is of considerable interest, as throwing light on the mode of union of such fractures. The two elongated fragments in the later skiagram are widened to three times their original breadth, and form buttresses on either side of the point of union, while the irregular ends of the shaft are rounded off, and the mass of fine fragments behind is consolidated. Beyond this the second skiagram shows that the upper fragment, apparently intact in the first, was really split longitudinally, and therefore was far less useful as a point of support than might have been assumed from the earlier skiagram, plate XIII. The case illustrates well the chief difficulty in the treatment of such fractures: that of maintaining the fragments in line, since absolutely no help is received from the apposition of the two ends, and artificial traction alone must be relied upon.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

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(31) HIGHLY COMMINUTED FRACTURE OF THE UPPER THIRD OF THE SHAFT OF THE FEMUR

Range 'short.'

Impact fairly direct. The wounds were of moderate size and at nearly the same level. The exit wound near the buttock fold was of moderate size, and presented no special features.

Considerable fragmentation of the bullet occurred. The comminution of the bone is very fine, suggesting high velocity, and great resistance by the bone. The skiagram was taken five weeks after the injury was received, and at that time no union had occurred.

Reference to plate XIII. will explain more fully the difficulty experienced in maintaining this fracture in position. The upper fragment is seen to be split into fragments, beyond the separation of the long splinter on the inner side; hence no aid was to be obtained from the apposition of the ends. About 2 inches of the shaft were actually pulverised; the fine fragments seen in a mass to the inner side of the bone in the exit portion of the back, eventually formed a large mass of callus, and the fracture united, with considerable shortening.]

Plate XIV. offers a good contrast; the fracture here presents a typical stellate form, and a good result without shortening was readily obtained. I assume that the difference in character of these two fractures depended mainly on the rate of velocity with which the bullet was travelling, since it passed fairly directly across the limb in each. I think it is clear, however, that the bullet struck the femur rather nearer the centre of the width of the shaft and therefore more directly, in the more severe injury.

This brings me to the question of explosive exit wounds in the thigh. In spite of the great tendency to comminution of the shaft, these were rare in a severe form. This depended simply on the depth and thickness of the coverings of the bone, and, as already mentioned, although the skin openings were often comparatively small, a large cavity or area of destroyed soft tissues may be contained within the limb. I do not think I ever saw an exit wound in the thigh exceeding 1-1/2 inch in diameter.

The oblique fracture illustrated by plate XVI. has been already referred to, and the influence of the weight and movement of the trunk on its production has been considered.

Plate XV. illustrates an obliquely comminuted fracture of another character. The bullet has here been stripped of its mantle, which has undergone fragmentation, but the leaden core is little altered in shape. This is of much interest, since it shows that the bullet struck the bone by its side. The effect of such lateral impact on the part of the projectile is well shown: there is great bone comminution of a less regular character than usual, and the bullet is retained. Retention in this case was probably not a result of low velocity of flight, but of the increased resistance offered by the broad area of bone struck, and the check exerted on the axial rotation of the bullet by the lateral contact.

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(31_a_) THE FRACTURE SHOWN IN PLATE XII., SIX MONTHS AFTER RECEPTION OF THE INJURY

The amount of callus furnished around the loose fragments is very striking.

The upper end of the bone is shown to have been divided into at least two fragments, hence one of the difficulties of maintaining the ends in apposition. The stoppage of the fissuring short of the epiphysis is characteristic.]

Slighter injuries to the femur in which the shaft was chipped or grooved without loss of continuity were not uncommon, and showed well the capacity of the bone to withstand the lateral shock transmitted by small bullets. Two figures inserted in the chapter on wounds in general (figs. 22, 23, pp. 61, 62) are of cases in which, from the appearance of the wound of exit, the bullet probably underwent deformation, or was so deflected as to escape on a considerably altered axis. Beyond the nature of the exit wound in the case depicted in fig. 22, some thickening beneath the femoral vessels denoted bone injury, but unfortunately no skiagram was taken.

I saw no case in which a transverse fracture of the shaft accompanied such injuries, but am under the impression that, if they had been produced by bullets of greater volume and weight, transverse solution of continuity would have been more common. In point of fact, no case of pure transverse fracture of the femur ever came under my notice.

The diagram depicted in fig. 51, p. 164, is from a sketch made of the lower end of a femur in which a severely comminuted fracture followed by suppuration necessitated an amputation of the thigh, performed by Major Lougheed, R.A.M.C. It is inserted as an illustration of the tendency of the fissures to stop short above the actual articular extremities of the bones. In this case the comminution was extreme and accompanied by the usual long lateral fragments, one of which measured five inches in length and might well have extended into the knee-joint had that been an ordinary occurrence.

Perforations of the lower extremity of the bone were very common. These were sometimes transverse and limited to the articular extremity itself, or the same limitation occurred to the antero-posterior tracks. These were the slightest forms of injury, putting on one side incomplete tunnels and grooves on the surface of the bone. With regard to the latter, however, when they invaded the joint cavity the injury was liable to be more severe than a complete perforation, in consequence of the projection of comminuted fragments into the joint cavity near the line of reflection of the synovial capsule and ulterior interference with freedom of movement.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

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(32) TYPICAL STELLATE (BUTTERFLY) COMMINUTED FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR

Range 'short.'

Wounds small, impact direct, very little fine comminution. The bone united without shortening of the limb.]

Other tracks took a direction of longitudinal obliquity, and then implicated both epiphysis and diaphysis. Fig. 52, p. 169, shows an example, and also the peculiarity likely to be assumed by the exit aperture in the bone, especially if the bullet was travelling at a low rate of velocity, a considerable plate of the compact bone being driven out. In some cases these oblique tracks involved both femur and tibia. They will be referred to again under the heading of injuries to the joints, and some remarks will also be found there regarding the synovial effusion so often occurring into the knee-joint in cases of fracture of the shaft of the bone.

It may be of interest to insert here a few remarks as to the clinical characteristics of fractures of the femur. First with regard to the primary signs and symptoms. A very considerable degree of general or constitutional shock usually accompanied them, and this was perhaps more constant than in the case of any other injury in the body. This was, moreover, no doubt increased by the unfavourable conditions in which patients on the field of battle are situated in regard to transport. When the patients were brought into hospital some delay in the primary treatment was often necessary until reaction took place. Local shock to the part was also a prominent feature. Abnormal mobility was very free in the badly comminuted cases. Crepitus was often loose, and of 'the bag of bone' variety. The result of local shock and consequent flaccidity of the muscles was to reduce the development of primary shortening; in some cases of severe comminution this was practically nil during the first day or two, when, with return of tone in the muscles, it sometimes became very considerable. Swelling of the limb was often very great, and vascular injury definitely far more common than in the fractures of civil practice, in consequence, no doubt, not only of the number and sharpness of the fragments, but also of the force with which they were driven into the surrounding tissues. The exit segment of the track was out of all proportion in size to the entry, as a result of the propulsion of bone fragments through it. This often made the closure of the exit wound a very protracted event, the track continuing to discharge a small quantity of bloody serum and fragments of necrosed tissue for many weeks.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

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(33) COMMINUTED FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR

Range 'short.'

Normal entry wound of slightly oval form.

Oblique lateral impact on the part of the bullet, the mantle of which burst into numerous fragments. The bullet is seen to the inner side of the shaft, almost devoid of its mantle, and little deformed at the tip. The comminution of the upper portion of the fracture is very fine; the bullet has merely cut its way down the lower portion, and one or two long fragments are separated. The skiagram shows well the result of lateral impact by the side of the bullet.

Compare this plate with No. VI. as illustrating lesser resistance, and No. VIII. as illustrating the effect of lower velocity.]

In a large proportion of the cases which were transported for any distance suppuration occurred; this must have been the case in at least 60 per cent. of the fractures. Suppuration was of the character already described in the general section, affecting particularly the bone itself, and accompanied by very marked signs of general infection.

_Prognosis in fractures of the femur._--As regards mortality fractures in the upper third of the bone proved one of the most formidable injuries which came under treatment. Suppuration was common, at least 60 per cent. of the wounds becoming infected. This depended on several reasons, often inseparable from the injuries, or from their treatment in Field hospitals: such as (1) the exit wound being situated in the dangerous region of the thigh; (2) ineffective dressing and fixation; (3) the impossibility of ensuring primary cleansing and removal of detached fragments of bone; (4) the necessity of the early transport of patients to the Stationary or Base hospitals, often for great distances; (5) the comparatively long period that often had to elapse before the opportunity of doing the first efficient dressing arrived.

Fractures in the middle and lower thirds of the bone were more easy to treat successfully, but these also added to the list both of amputations and fatalities.

Punctured fractures of the lower articular extremity were usually of little importance, as they progressed without exception, as far as my experience went, favourably.

I can give no idea of the general results obtained during the whole campaign, but I am able to state the results of the fractures of the shaft treated at No. 1 General Hospital during my stay in South Africa. Thirty-two cases of fracture of the shaft of the bone came under treatment, and of these 6 or 18.7 per cent. needed amputation, and of the whole number 5 or 15.6 per cent. died. To emphasise the satisfactory nature of these figures I need only quote the results attained in the American War of the Rebellion; mortality in upper third, 46 per cent.; middle third, 40.6 per cent.; lower third, 38.2 per cent.

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(34) OBLIQUE FRACTURE OF THE SHAFT OF THE FEMUR

Range '300 to 400 yards.'

Aperture of entry just above the centre of the outer aspect of the thigh. Exit, about 2 inches lower, at the junction of the inner and posterior aspects. The bullet was retained just within the wound, and when removed the mantle fell off in two parts. The leaden core was mushroomed. The bullet had passed through another soldier previous to entering the patient's thigh. Only two small fragments of the mantle were retained, as seen in the skiagram. These were in the substance of the great sciatic nerve, and were subsequently removed by Sir Thomas Smith.

It is difficult to determine how the bone was struck; reference to plate XXI. would suggest that the shaft may have been perforated, but no evidence of this remains in the skiagram taken, which was five months later.

The patient was standing at the moment of reception of the injury, and the obliquity of the fracture no doubt depended on his fall and the resulting influence of the weight of the body. The length of the fracture cleft was 9 inches.]

I need hardly dwell upon the difference between the nature of the injuries received in the American War of the Rebellion and in the present campaign, as in the former the old large bullets were employed, and shell injuries are possibly included; but I ought to add in this relation, that the numbers quoted from No. 1 General Hospital included, to my knowledge, at least three severe Martini-Henry wounds.

The first element for a favourable prognosis is a small wound, and opportunity for an efficient primary treatment of the same; the second the absence of necessity for transport of the patient. With regard to the second of these requirements, we were unfortunately situated in South Africa, and the majority of the cases which did badly were moved during the first few days and for a distance of between five and six hundred miles. On the other hand, as a rule, the external wounds were small.

As to functional result, the fractures did well. I think an average of an inch and a half would well cover the shortening, and in many the length was little altered. Considering the serious nature of many of these fractures, this was good.

_Treatment._--In all punctured fractures of the lower extremity, dressing of the wounds like uncomplicated ones and a short period of immobilisation were all that was necessary. In oblique fractures, and those with slight comminution, closure of the wound by dressings, after it had been carefully cleansed, was all that was necessary prior to applying the splints for immobilisation.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

Engraved and Printed by Bale and Danielsson, Ltd. (35) PERFORATION OF THE SHAFT OF THE FEMUR. FLAP OF BONE RAISED AT THE APERTURE OF EXIT IN THE POPLITEAL SURFACE OF THE SHAFT.

Range 'over 1,000 yards.'

Compare with fig. 52, p. 169.]

In the highly comminuted fractures a more radical treatment was indicated, especially if the exit wound was large. In these, after careful preliminary cleansing of the limb, the wounds, especially the exit aperture, needed exploration and, if necessary, enlargement, and all free splinters needed removal. If interference with the entry wound could be avoided, this was always preferable, as it was rare for this not to heal by primary union unless free suppuration occurred. Under Field hospital conditions I think the exit wound should never be sutured, whatever its situation; and in the present campaign, where carbolic acid lotion was freely used, this step was manifestly inadvisable, in view of the abundant serous discharge always to be expected when this disinfectant has been employed. Except in cases manifestly infected at the time of exploration, the use of drainage tubes or plugs is not to be recommended. I would point out also that in the majority of cases it is quite hopeless to attempt to make the entry wound the safety-valve for drainage, as its natural tendency, even if enlarged, is to heal, while the condition of the tissues in the exit segment of the track usually renders primary union an impossibility.

The wound having been dealt with, the next indications were for the reduction of deformity, immobilisation of the limb, and the provision of a proper degree of extension. As to the reduction of the fracture, this was always a matter of ease, needing only slight axis traction. The provision of efficient means of extension and immobilisation was a very different matter. These questions had to be considered under two sets of conditions: (1) when it was possible to keep the patient at rest in the hospital he was first deposited in; (2) when it was necessary for him to be transported for a considerable distance, probably not less than 500 miles.

When transport is a necessity, the best method of immobilisation is the application of breeches of plaster of Paris, and a long outside splint. The latter we often had excellently made on emergency by the Ordnance Department or the Royal Engineers. A perineal band is the only form of extension possible under these circumstances. The Dutch ambulances were provided with a very excellent emergency splint for cases of fractured thigh, which is illustrated in fig. 56. I think something of this kind should be carried in one of the ambulances going on to every field of battle, as being far more suitable than a long outside splint for hasty and inaccurate application. This splint, fixed with some kind of firm bandage, is an excellent temporary one for use during transport.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

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(36) OBLIQUELY TRANSVERSE FRACTURE OF THE PATELLA

Range 'short.'

The entry and exit wounds were small, and a distinct grooving from loss of substance of the bone was palpable superficial to the actual cleft of the fracture.]

In cases which can be treated at a Stationary hospital near at hand, a long outside splint supplemented by plaster breeches, and a well-applied American extension, is a very good method of treatment, the only point to bear in mind being frequent examination of the position of the limb to ensure the extension being efficient. As already mentioned, the shortening in the primary stages is often slight and easily combated, but in many of these cases if examined in a few days the limbs are found to have shortened considerably, principally as a result of recovery of tone by the muscles, and the absence of any help from the resting of the two fragments end to end. The weight, therefore, has often to be progressively increased and the fracture readjusted if necessary. Although this method of treatment is satisfactory in cases with a small wound, it is very troublesome to carry out, even when a bracket is inserted opposite the wound, when frequent dressing is necessary, as is generally at first the case when the wounds are large. For this purpose a much more satisfactory method is the use of Hodgen's splint. This allows of automatic adjustment of the degree of extension, and the dressing of the wound without interference with the position of the fracture. A continuous many-tailed bag is preferable to the strips usually employed for the suspension of the limb, as more easily adjustable and as offering a more even support to the limb.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

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(37) OBLIQUE COMMINUTED FRACTURE OF THE TIBIA

Range '600 yards.'

The entrance wound was large and the exit also. The fracture may have been caused by a Mannlicher (8 mm.) soft-nosed bullet, or possibly a ricochet. The fragmentation is somewhat coarse at the periphery, but very fine in the track of the bullet. Several fragments of the mantle are visible.

The fracture affords a good example of obliquity due to cutting by the bullet, and contrasts well with those due to rectangular impact such as are shown in plates IV. and XIV.]

While at Orange River, in conjunction with Major Knaggs, R.A.M.C., and Mr. Langmore, we treated several cases of fracture of the shaft of the femur by this method. The splints were made for us by the Ordnance Department, while the Royal Engineers erected a kind of gallows for us down the centre of a commissariat marquee in order to avoid the risk of using the tent poles for suspension. The patients were then ranged on each side of the tent in two rows so that the pull of the two sets of limbs opposed each other on the gallows from which they were suspended. Although these patients had to lie on the ground, they were really comfortable compared with those treated with long outside splints, and the results obtained were very good: in three cases which I had the opportunity of measuring later the bones were in good position and the shortening was less than one inch.

I have no doubt whatever that Hodgen's splint is by far the best method of treating all cases of fractured thigh in the Stationary field hospitals; and, more than this, I believe it is the only practicable and efficient one. It can be applied without the use of an anæsthetic without causing undue suffering to the patient, it allows of ready change of the dressing, it is comfortable and permits considerable range of movement on the part of the patient, it is as efficient with patients lying on the ground as in a bed, it keeps the limb in good position and allows of constant inspection on this point, and it is the only method which provides satisfactory extension without constant readjustment.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

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(38) TRANSVERSE FRACTURE OF THE TIBIA, COMMINUTED FRACTURE OF THE FIBULA

Range '300 yards.'

Wound of soft parts nearly transverse, entry on tibial aspect. The bullet crossed and grooved the posterior aspect of the tibia, but struck the fibula full. This is the only instance of a transverse cleft which came under my notice.

The wound suppurated, and a number of fragments of the fibula needed removal; hence the amount of callus present.]

Cases in which operative fixation is indicated are rare, but a few oblique fractures may be treated with advantage in this manner if the conditions surrounding the patient admit of it. Screwing is generally preferable to wiring.

Lastly, we come to the cases in which primary amputation is necessary. I may say at once that I saw no case of wound from a bullet of small calibre in which this was indicated, and only one shell injury in which it was performed. I believe with small bullets that injury to the main blood-vessels is almost the only indication which is likely to be met with, and this by no means always indicates an amputation. First of all the question arises as to whether the wound in the vessel is caused by a bone fragment or by the bullet itself; reference to the chapter on blood-vessels would seem to prove that a bullet wound is by no means a necessary indication for amputation. Given favourable conditions, it might be treated locally by ligature at the time, while if hæmorrhage is not proceeding, developments should be awaited before proceeding to amputation. In the case of bone fragment punctures, secondary hæmorrhage is a more likely indication for amputation than primary.

Broadly, it may be laid down that very extensive injury to the soft parts is the only indication for primary amputation beyond primary hæmorrhage, and it may be added that the condition is rare with wounds from small-calibre bullets. If a primary amputation is necessary the observations as to the transport of fractured thighs are equally applicable. I never saw a primary amputation do well that was moved during the first week; sloughing of flaps or hæmorrhage followed as a rule, and often death.

Intermediate amputations were indicated in cases of septic infection and those of hæmorrhage; they seldom did well, and should be avoided if possible. Secondary amputations for sepsis or hæmorrhage were attended by fair results, but I can give no statistics. Unless extensive osteo-myelitis is evident, or very widespread cellulitis of the limb exists, I am strongly of opinion that the amputations when the fractures are above the middle of the thigh should be through the fracture, and not at the hip-joint, even if a subsequent secondary operation is risked.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

Engraved and Printed by Bale and Danielsson, Ltd.

(39) PERFORATION OF THE SHAFT OF THE TIBIA, AND INCOMPLETE OBLIQUE FISSURE EXTENDING FROM THE LOWER PART OF THE OPENING TO THE CREST OF THE BONE.

Range medium. Entry and exit wounds at same level.

The patient was standing when struck, and fell backwards, his rifle falling at the same time and striking the shin. The fibula is intact.

The perforation indicated by the well-marked translucent spot is small.

The forking of the lower extremity of the cleft suggests the starting of the fissure from above. The fissure comes to the surface at the seat of election, but its position may possibly have been determined by the blow from the falling rifle.

The backward fall of the patient clearly explains the mechanism of production of the fissure, and throws light on the production of an oblique fracture such as shown in plate XVI.]

_Fractures of the patella._--Punctured fractures of the patella were common with direct impact of the bullet; these were often difficult to palpate, and were only to be certainly diagnosed by attention to the direction of the track, and the development of hæmarthrosis. I saw at least three or four in which the bullet, in addition to traversing the knee-joint, injured the popliteal vessels. I have notes of one case in which a bullet traversed the soft parts from above downwards and scored a vertical groove on the surface of the patella; this was readily palpable, but produced no solution of continuity. In several cases the margin of the patella was notched by a passing bullet.

I never saw a case of stellate fracture, and by this my experience in the case of the ilium was confirmed.

On two occasions I saw pure transverse fractures of the bone; in each the wound was produced by a Lee-Metford bullet. This is of some interest as denoting that the greater volume and weight, in conjunction with the blunter tip, of the Lee-Metford may produce more severe injury to the bones than the Mauser. I believe this to be the case, given an equal degree of velocity on the part of the bullet at the moment of impact; but it is probable that the position of the patella with regard to the condyles of the femur when struck is of far greater importance in relation to the production of transverse fractures. The skiagram represented in plate XVIII. shows an obliquely transverse fracture, which in this instance resulted from a crossing bullet, which grooved the surface of the bone.

With regard to the two cases of transverse fracture above referred to, I may add that one occurred in a youth under twenty, and a good result was obtained by treatment with splints, and later by massage. In the second the patient was a man over fifty, who had received other injuries. The wound over the patella healed and some union had occurred, when the patient fell and burst both the bone union and the skin cicatrix. Secondary suppuration of the knee-joint, necessitating an amputation of the thigh, followed, but the patient made a good recovery. The third case also did well.

Skiagram by H. CATLING. Engraved and Printed by Bale and Danielsson, Ltd.

(40) NOTCH FRACTURE OF THE CREST OF THE TIBIA

Range 'short.'

The raising of the margins of the notch suggests a perforation. Compare with figs. 51 and 57 in the text.]

The treatment of these injuries differed in no way from that adopted in civil practice, given satisfactory surroundings. Suture might be indicated in some cases of transverse fracture, but this would only be necessary if the fragments were widely separated. The punctured fractures needed treatment as for simple wounds, combined with a short period of rest and pressure for the condition of hæmarthrosis. It was important not to prolong the period of rest beyond a week or ten days if the effusion was slight, in view of possible ulterior interference with range of movement in the knee-joint.

_Fractures of the tibia._--Some remarks have already been made regarding fractures of the head of the tibia, and the importance of the overhanging prominent margins in the production of somewhat irregular injuries (p. 170). Putting these peculiarities on one side, the cancellous ends are subject to the type forms of injury; thus perforations either of the head of the bone or the malleolus were common injuries. The fractures of the shaft also deviated from the type in so far as the broad flat surfaces in the upper two thirds of the bone rendered it especially liable to the results of lateral impact, and to the production of the extreme wedge-shaped types of fracture. Plate XXII. illustrates the different result of a bullet striking the dense and strong spine at a low rate of velocity, a notch only resulting. If, on the other hand, the lateral surfaces were struck, a wedge with the base corresponding to the posterior surface was the most common injury, the spine in many cases remaining intact and maintaining the continuity of the bone. Wedge-shaped fractures of this bone were apt to show multiple secondary wave fissures concentric with the main line, and consequently free comminution. I saw several examples, the loose fragments being remarkably numerous. Plate XIX. is an example of an oblique fracture produced by a bullet which has ploughed across the bone, displacing large fragments anteriorly, but finely comminuting the bone in its course, and leaving small fragments of the mantle on its way. Plate XX. is an example of the rare condition of transverse fracture.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

Engraved and Printed by Bale and Danielsson, Ltd.

(41) SPURIOUS PERFORATION OF THE FIBULA

Moderate range, 'about 1,000 yards.'

The injury was caused by an 8 mm. bullet, which entered base foremost and lodged in the calf. The fracture is really an incomplete stellate form, two well-marked transverse fissures extending from the point struck. The position of the bullet suggests its entry into the limb base foremost, and as it is retained low velocity may be assumed.]

This fracture was produced by a bullet travelling at a high rate of velocity, which struck the posterior surface of the tibia, and caused a grooving, accompanied by a horizontal fissure through the whole thickness of the bone; later it struck the fibula more directly, and produced an ordinary comminuted fracture two inches above the malleolus. Perforations of the shaft were far more common than in the case of the femur, and I saw them in every part of the length of the bone (plate XXI.). Fig. 57 illustrates a form of peculiar interest as showing the gradual transition of the tunnel to the groove, and also as bringing fractures of the long bones into line with such fractures of the flat bones of the skull as are depicted in fig. 68.

_Fractures of the fibula_ offered no special features of importance. Any form might occur. The plate No. XXIII. is of interest as showing a spurious form of perforation, and also the primary form of displacement of the fragments in stellate fractures. It was produced by a reversed ricochet, but undeformed, bullet, still seen in position in the skiagram; the bullet only possessed sufficient force to perforate the bone, and then appears to have turned on its transverse axis. The following plate, No. XXIV., is inserted to show the depth at which the bullet lay, and its distance from the surface of the tibia, which appears in the first plate to be nil. It is also of interest as showing the ease with which a false impression may be obtained from a single picture, as, beyond a spot of transparency, no obvious injury to the fibula, and certainly no displacement, is discernible.

Skiagram by H. CATLING.

Engraved and Printed by Bale and Danielsson, Ltd.

(41_a_) This skiagram is inserted to show the depth at which the bullet lay from the surface. It is also interesting to note the insignificance of the fracture of the fibula from this aspect. Without the second skiagram the injury might have passed for a simple perforation or a transverse fracture.]

Fractures of the bones of the leg possessed an unenviable degree of importance. First, on account of the very severe injuries to the soft parts that often accompanied them, without an apparently correspondingly serious damage to the bone. Secondly, on account of the frequency with which the vessels were implicated in these injuries to the soft parts, either by the bullet or bone fragments. Beyond this, fracture of either articular end of the tibia was certainly more frequently followed by troublesome joint complications than occurred in the case of any other bone.

In the matter of 'explosive' injuries, I think more were seen in the calf of the leg than in any other part of the body, and this often without solution of continuity of the bones, and sometimes without evidence even of contact of the bullet with either tibia or fibula. Some remarks on this subject have already been made in the chapter on wounds in general, and some sources of fallacy exposed. I believe that in practically all these so-called explosive injuries the wound was either caused by a ricochet, or a bullet which deformed with great ease on bony contact during its progress through the limb. A considerable number of the wounds which were referred by the men to the use of expanding bullets were probably the result of the use of Martini-Henry or large leaden sporting bullets, and evidence of this was often forthcoming on examination of the entry wounds. In other cases the irregularity of the opening plainly pointed to ricochet of a small bullet as the explanation of the character of the injury. The greater frequency of ricochet injuries in the leg and foot when the men were standing is readily understood.

Concurrent injury to the vessels of the leg was common, but primary hæmorrhage, as was the case generally, usually ceased spontaneously. The importance of injury to the vessels was rather in view of secondary hæmorrhage, which occurred with some frequency, and I think more commonly from the anterior than the posterior tibial vessels, usually occurring at the end of a week or ten days, and naturally most frequently in cases which suppurated.

_Prognosis and treatment in fractures of the leg._--In fractures of the leg, except those of extreme severity, almost any form of splint sufficed to maintain the bones in position, but for field purposes the Dutch cane splint (fig. 58, p. 222) was certainly very convenient. For later use in cases that needed frequent dressing, a wooden back splint, with a foot-piece, or, if obtainable, a Neville's splint with a suspension cradle, was the best. Where the wounds were small and frequent dressing was not required, nothing was so good as plaster of Paris, especially when transport was a necessity.

In cases with large wounds suppuration was very frequent, and in connection with this secondary hæmorrhage, or in the case of fractures near the articular ends, especially the upper, joint suppuration. The treatment of these cases varied: in many an amputation was the best or only treatment advisable; but I several times saw good results follow ligation of the anterior tibial artery for secondary hæmorrhage, even when suppuration existed, and occasional good results after incision and drainage of joints if the infection was not of the most acute form.

Primary amputation was rarely needed for any case of injury from a bullet of small calibre, since it was only necessary either in the case of injury to both main arteries, and this was rare, or in cases of very extensive injury to the soft parts. I saw many of the latter make fair results when treated conservatively, even though the condition seemed almost hopeless at first sight. All the primary amputations that I saw were either for shell or large bullet injuries. A word may be inserted here as to the weight that ought to attach to nerve injuries in this relation. From the experience gained elsewhere it is clear that we should attach little importance to these unless the divided nerves are actually in sight, as far as deciding on amputation is concerned. On the other hand, there is little doubt that the presence of concurrent nerve injury, be it only concussion or contusion, exerts an important ulterior influence on the healing of the wound, whether the part be amputated or not. Amputation flaps in such cases possess a very considerably lowered degree of vitality.

Secondary amputations were often needed for sepsis, and on the whole did very well; both for the same cause and for hæmorrhage intermediate amputations had occasionally to be performed; the results of these, as elsewhere, were bad.

_Fractures of the tarsus._--Wounds of these short bones were as a rule of slight importance, given fairly direct impact on the part of the bullet. They then consisted of either simple perforations or surface grooving. A single bone might be implicated or several might be tunnelled; in the latter case the implication of the joints very considerably influenced the prognosis, since the addition of the joint injury caused much more prolonged weakening of the foot.

Wounds of the foot were common from the fact that when the men lay out in the prone position, the foot was often the part least protected by the cover chosen, and particularly the heel. In these circumstances the os calcis was the bone most frequently implicated, and that by tracks taking an oblique course downwards from the leg to the sole. Again the foot was often struck by ricochet bullets, as a result of its position when the erect attitude was assumed. The latter fact was of much importance with regard to the nature of the injury sustained by the bones, as under these circumstances the mode of impact was irregular, and consequently comminution was often produced.