Chapter I: Preface

One of the most useful directions for facilitating the study of history, is to begin with authors who present a compendium, or general view of the whole subject of history, and, afterwards, to apply to the study of any particular history with which a more thorough acquaintance is desired. The Historical Department of this work has been compiled with a view to furnishing such a compendium. It covers the whole ground of Ancient History, including China, India, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, the Phœnicians, Jews, Assyrians, Babylonians, Lydians, Modes and Persians, together with Greece and Rome, down through the dark ages to the dawn of modern civilization. It also embraces the history of the leading nations of modern Europe, and of the United States of America.

Wisdom is the great end of history. It is designed to supply the want of experience; and though it does not enforce its instructions with the same authority, yet it furnishes a greater variety of lessons than it is possible for experience to afford in the longest life. Its object is to enlarge our views of the human character, and to enable us to form a more correct judgment of human affairs. It must not, therefore, be a tale, calculated merely to please and addressed to the fancy. Gravity and dignity are essential characteristics of history. Robertson and Bancroft may be named as model historians in these particulars. No light ornaments should be employed――no flippancy of style, and no quaintness of wit; but the writer should sustain the character of a wise man, writing for the instruction of posterity; one who has studied to inform himself well, who has pondered his subject with care, and addresses himself to our judgment rather than to our imagination. At the same time, historical writing is by no means inconsistent with ornamented and spirited narration, as witness Macaulay’s popular History of England. On the contrary, it admits of much high ornament and elegance; but the ornaments must be consistent with dignity. Industry is, also, a very essential quality in an accurate historian.

As history is conversant with great and memorable actions, a historian should always keep posterity in view, and relate nothing but what may be of some account to future ages. Those who descend to trivial matters, beneath the dignity of history, should be deemed journalists rather than historians. As it is the province of a historian to acquaint us with facts, he should give a narration or description not only of the facts, or actions themselves, but likewise of such things as are necessarily connected with them; such as the characters of persons, the circumstances of time and place, the views and designs of the principal actors, and the issue and event of the actions which he describes. The drawing of characters is one of the most splendid, as it is one of the most difficult, ornaments of historical composition; for characters are generally considered as professed exhibitions of fine writing; and a historian who seeks to shine in them, is often in danger of carrying refinement to excess, from a desire of appearing very profound and penetrating. Among the improvements that have of late years been introduced into historical composition, is the attention that is now given to laws, customs, commerce, religion, literature, and every thing else that tends to exhibit the genius and spirit of nations. Historians are now expected to exhibit manners, as well as facts and events. Voltaire was the first to introduce this improvement, and Allison, Macaulay, and others, have adopted it.

The first and lowest use of history is, that it agreeably amuses the imagination, and interests the passions; and in this view of it, it far surpasses all works of fiction, which require a variety of embellishments to excite and interest the passions, while the mere thought that we are listening to the voice of truth, serves to keep the attention awake through many dry and ill-digested narrations of facts. The next and higher use of history is, to improve the understanding and strengthen the judgment, and thus to fit us for entering upon the duties of life with advantage. It presents us with the same objects which occur to us in the business of life, and affords similar exercise to our thoughts; so that it may be called anticipated experience. It is, therefore, of great importance, not only to the advancement of political knowledge, but to that of knowledge in general; because the most exalted understanding is merely a power of drawing conclusions and forming maxims of conduct from known facts and experiments, of which necessary materials of knowledge the mind itself is wholly barren, and with which it must be furnished by experience. By improving the understanding history frees the mind from many foolish prejudices that tend to mislead it. Such are those prejudices of a national kind, that have induced an unreasonable partiality for our own country, merely as our own country, and as unreasonable a repugnance to foreign nations and foreign religions, which nothing but enlarged views resulting from history can cure. It likewise tends to remove those prejudices that may have been entertained in favor of ancient or modern times, by giving a just view of the advantages and disadvantages of mankind in all ages. To a citizen of the United States, one of the great advantages resulting from the study of history is, that so far from producing an indifference to his own country, it disposes him to be satisfied with his own situation, and renders him, from rational conviction, and not from blind prejudice, a more zealous friend to the interests of his country, and to its free institutions. It is from history, chiefly, that improvements are made in the science of government; and this science is one of primary importance. Another advantage is, that it tends to strengthen sentiments of virtue, by displaying the motives and actions of truly great men, and those of a contrary character,――thus inspiring a taste for real greatness and solid glory.

The second department of our work has been devoted to BIOGRAPHY,――a species of history more entertaining, and in many respects equally useful, with general history. It represents great men more distinctly, unincumbered with a crowd of other actors, and, descending into the detail of their actions and character, their virtues and failings, gives more insight into human nature, and leads to a more intimate acquaintance with particular persons, than general history allows. A writer of biography may descend with propriety to minute circumstances and familiar incidents. He is expected to give the private as well as the public life of those whose actions he records; and it is from private life, from familiar, domestic and seemingly trivial occurrences, that we often derive the most accurate knowledge of the real character. To those who have exposed their lives, or employed their time and labor, for the service of their fellow men, it seems but a just debt, that their memories should be perpetuated after them, and that posterity should be made acquainted with their benefactors. To a volume of biography may be applied the language of a pagan poet:――

“Here patriots live, who for their country’s good,
In fighting fields were prodigal of blood;
Priests of unblemished lives here make abode,
And poets worthy their inspiring god;
And searching wits of more mechanic parts,
Who graced their age with new invented arts;
Those who to worth their bounty did extend,
And those who knew that bounty to commend:
The heads of these with holy fillets bound,
And all their temples are with garlands crowned.”

In the lives of public persons, their public characters are principally, but not solely, to be regarded. The world is inquisitive to know the conduct of its great men as well in private as in public; and both may be of service, considering the influence of their examples. In preparing this department of our work we have aimed to introduce variety,――selecting representative men from all the various pursuits of life.

The third department of our work has been designated as the Department of TRAVEL. It embraces the principal voyages of discovery and the lives of great navigators and travelers, since the days of Columbus and Vasco de Gama. In the history of scientific expeditions, the five following divisions may be made: 1. The earliest age of the Phœnicians down to Herodotus, 500 years before Christ. The Phœnicians undertook the first voyages of discovery for commercial purposes, or to found colonies. 2. The travels of the Greeks and the military expeditions of the Romans, from 500 B. C. to 400 A. D. The Greeks made journeys to enlarge the territories of science. The armies of Rome, during this period, supplied an extensive knowledge of a part of Asia, Egypt, the northern part of Africa, and Europe to South Britain. 3. The expeditions of the Germans and Normans until 900 A. D. The Normans discovered the Faroes, Iceland and Greenland. 4. Besides the commercial and military voyages of the Arabs and Mongols, the travels of the Christian Missionaries, and other Europeans, down to 1400, furnished much valuable information. 5. The fifth period, from the year 1400 to the present time, is the period particularly embraced in this work. During this time, North and South America, a portion of Asia, and the interior of Africa, have been explored, and the adventurous voyagers in the Arctic and Antarctic seas, have pushed their researches to within twelve degrees of the poles. Sir J. Ross reached the south latitude of 78 deg. 4 min. in the year 1841. Such are the results of the labors of four centuries. The knowledge has been slowly gathered, but it will remain a lasting testimony to the triumphs of intellect. It is but recently that human enterprise has penetrated many of the secrets of the Antarctic regions,――that realm of mighty contrasts,――and it will doubtless pursue the investigation. ‘Meantime the wintry solitudes of the far south will be undisturbed by the presence of man; the penguin and the seal will still haunt the desolate shores; the shriek of the petrel and the scream of the albatross will mingle with the dash and roar of continual storms, and the crash of wave-beaten ice; the towering volcano will shoot aloft its columns of fire high into the gelid air; the hills of snow and ice will grow and spread; frost and flame will do their work; till, in the wondrous cycle of terrestrial change, the polar lands shall again share in the abundance and beauty which now overspread the sun-gladdened zones.’

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

ETHIOPIAN HISTORY 18-20

MONGOLIAN HISTORY.――The Chinese 20-26

CAUCASIAN HISTORY.――Ancient India――Eastern Nations――The
Egyptians――Arabians――Syria――The Phœnicians――Palestine――The
Jews――The Assyrians and Babylonians――The Medes and Persians――
States of Asia Minor――The Lydians――The Persian Empire 26-53

GRECIAN HISTORY.――Early History and Mythology――Religious Rites――
Authentic History――Sparta――Lycurgus――Athens――Persian Invasion――
Pericles――Alcibiades――Decline of Athenian Independence――
Alexander the Great――Concluding Period 53-78

ROMAN HISTORY.――The Latins――The Kings――The Commonwealth――
Struggle between the Patricians and Plebeians――Invasion of
the Gauls――The Samnite Wars――The Punic Wars――The Revolutions
of the Gracchi――Social Wars――Marius and Sulla――Pompey,
Cicero, Cataline, Cæsar――Gallic Wars――Extinction of the
Commonwealth――Civil Wars――Augustus――Dissemination of
Christianity――Division of the Empire――Downfall of the Western
Empire 78-112

MIDDLE AGES.――The Eastern Empire――Constantine――Julian the
Apostate――Theodosius the Great――Justinian; his
Code――Arabia――Mohammed――Empire of the Saracens――The Feudal
System――Charlemagne――The New Western Empire――France――The German
Empire――Italy――Spain――General state of Europe――The
Crusades――Chivalry――Rise of new Powers――Wm. Tell――The Italian
Republics――Commerce――The Turks――Fall of Constantinople――Rise
of Civil Freedom 112-145

MODERN HISTORY.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.――Conquest by the Romans; by the
Saxons; by the Normans――Early Norman Kings――William the
Conqueror――Henry――Richard Cœur de Lion――John――Magna
Charta――Origin of Parliament――Edwards――Conquest of
Scotland――Richard II――House of Lancaster――House of
York――House of Tudor――Henry VIII――The Reformation――Edward
VI――Queen Mary; Elizabeth――Mary, Queen of Scots――The
Stuarts――Gunpowder Plot――Revolution――Irish Rebellion――Oliver
Cromwell――Trial and Execution of Charles I――The
Commonwealth――Subjugation of Ireland and Scotland――The
Protectorate――The Restoration――Charles II――Dutch War――Plague
and Fire in London――The Rye House Plot――Death of Charles
II――James II――Expedition of Monmouth――Arbitrary Measures of
the King――The Revolution――William and Mary――Establishment of
the Bank of England――Queen Anne――Union of England and
Scotland――Marlborough’s Campaigns――House of Hanover――George
I――Rebellion of 1715-16――George II――Rebellion of
1745-46――George III――American Stamp Act――American War of
Independence――French Revolution――Rebellion in Ireland――Union
with Great Britain――War with U. States――George IV――William
IV――Queen Victoria――War with Russia――Alliance with
France――Attack on Odessa――Operations in the Baltic――The
Crimea――Battle of the Alma――Sebastopol described――Allies
opening Trenches――Bombardment――Explosion of French Batteries
and Russian Powder Magazine――The Allied
Fleet――Cannonade――Battle of Balaklava――The Turks――The
Highlanders――The Russian Cavalry――Capt. Nolan――Battle of
Inkermann――Morning of the Battle――The Attack――The
Zouaves――Chasseurs――Night after the Battle――Council of
War――Determination to Winter――Reinforcements demanded 145-256

HISTORY OF FRANCE.――Clovis, A. D. 486; division of his
Empire――The Merovingian Kings――The Carlovingians――Pepin――
Charles Martel――Charlemagne; his Empire――Louis――Division of
the Empire――Charles――Arnulf――Charles the Simple――Invasion of
the Normans――Hugh Capet and his Successors――Philip VI of
Valois――Wars with England, 1328-1415――Charles VI――Maid of
Orleans――Louis XI――Francis II――France during the War of
Religion――Persecution of the Huguenots――Coligni――The Massacre
of St. Bartholomew, 1572――Henry III――Henry IV――Edict of
Nantes――The Age of Louis XIV――Richelieu and Mazarin――
Persecution of the Calvinists――Revocation of the Edict of
Nantes, 1685――The Last Days of Absolute Monarchy――Louis
XV――Louis XVI――The French Revolution――National Assembly――
Mirabeau, Dante, Marat, Robespierre――The 10th of August――
Dethronement of the King――National Convention――Trial and
Execution of the King――Jacobins and Girondists――Exclusion of
the Girondists from the Convention――Execution of the Queen,
Madame Elizabeth, and the Duke of Orleans――La Vendee――Fall of
Danton and Camille Desmoulins――Overthrow of Robespierre and
the Jacobins――Reconstruction of the Government――Napoleon
Bonaparte――Italian Campaign――Expedition to Egypt and Syria――
Return to France――The First Consulate――Consul for Life――Duke
d’Enghein――Napoleon Emperor――Austrian Campaign――Russians――
Battle of Austerlitz――Confederation of the Rhine――War with
Prussia――Alliance of Prussia and Russia――Victory at Friedland――
Peace of Tilsit――Occupation of Portugal――Spain――Annexation of
the Roman States and imprisonment of the Pope――New war with
Austria――Peace of Vienna――Marriage with Maria Louisa――Russian
Campaign――Conflagration of Moscow――Retreat of the French――
Alliance of Russia, Prussia, etc.――Congress of Prague――Austria――
Battle of Leipsic――Retreat of the French――Invasion of France
by the Allies――Abdication of Napoleon――Louis XVIII――Escape of
Napoleon from Elba――Defeat at Waterloo――Death at St. Helena――
Louis XVIII――Charles X――Abdication――Louis Philippe――Revolution――
Louis Napoleon――War with Russia and alliance with England and
Turkey 256-302

HISTORY OF SPAIN.――Gothic Monarchy――The Moors――Castile――Henry IV――
Ferdinand and Isabella――Conquest of Grenada――Christopher
Columbus――Discovery of America――Charles V――Hernando Cortez――
Conquest of Mexico――Francis Pizarro――Conquest of Peru――Ignatius
Loyola――Philip II――War with England――Defeat of the Invincible
Armada――Philip III――Banishment of the descendants of the Moors――
Philip IV――Accession of the House of Bourbon――Charles III――The
Seven Years’ War――Charles IV――Ferdinand――Joseph Bonaparte――
Alliance of the Spaniards and English――Return of Ferdinand――
Isabella II 302-312

GERMANY AND AUSTRIA.――Division of the Empire of Charlemagne,
and formation of the German Empire――Succession of Henry the
Fowler to the throne of Conrad of Franconia――The Germans
build cities――Accession of Hildebrand――Pope Gregory III――His
Excommunication of Henry IV――Strife of Guelphs and Ghibelines――
Pope Adrian IV――Tancred――Richard III of England――The House of
Hapsburg succeeds that of Swabia――Death of Albert――Charles IV
issues the Golden Bull――Council of Constance――Martyrdom of
John Huss and Jerome of Prague――Invention of Printing――Luther;
the Reformation――Thirty Years’ War――Peace of Westphalia――
Insurrection of Hungarians aided by Turks――The War of Succession――
Prince Eugene――Maria Theresa――Pragmatic Sanction――Revolt of the
Netherlands――Confederation of the Rhine――Congress of Vienna――
Hungarian Revolution of 1848 312-326

HISTORY OF RUSSIA.――Russia rescued from the Tartars by John
Basilowitz――Michael Theodorowitz, First of the House of Romanoff,
Czar of Muscovy――Reorganization of Russia by Alexis――Reign of
Peter the Great――Foundation and embellishment of St.
Petersburg――Succession of the Czarina Catherine――Catherine II――
Annexation of the Crimea――Dismemberment of Poland――Kosciusko――
Suwarrow――Resignation of Stanislaus――Paul――War against the French
Republic――Assassination of Paul――Alexander――Coalition against
Napoleon, by Austria and England――Peace of Tilsit――Napoleon
declares war against Russia――Smolensko――Burning of Moscow――
Constantine――Nicholas――Extirpation of Poland――Siege of Sevastopol
by France, England, and Turkey――Death of Nicholas――Succession of
Alexander II 326-334

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.