Chapter III: Part 3

The Landwehr is formed into two distinct bodies, which are also quite distinct from the Active Army; each Landwehr is under its own ministry of defence. In peace-time only the cadres exist; that is to say, that of 92 Infantry battalions and 6 Cavalry regiments (24 squadrons) of Cis-Leithanian Landwehr, only 1 strong company per battalion and 1 strong squadron per Cavalry Regiment are kept up.

The Native Rifles (Landesschützen) of the Tyrol and Vorarlberg consist of 10 battalions in time of peace, which are in war-time increased by ten Reserve battalions.

[Sidenote: +The Honvéd.+]

In Trans-Leithania the Landwehr forms a peculiar national Hungarian Army, the so-called Honvéd Army, which is subject in war-time only to the commander-in-chief, and in peace-time only to the Royal Hungarian jurisdiction, _i.e._ the Ministry of Defence and the Landwehr Ministry. It forms in peace-time the Cadres for 92 battalions of Infantry and 15 regiments of Honvéd Hussars (60 squadrons). The officers of this force are trained in the Honvéd Ludovica Academy at Buda Pesth. It is on this Army, whose standards and badges are of the Hungarian colours, and which in time of war reaches nearly 200,000 men, that the pride of Hungary rests. It is this Army whose predecessors saved the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy from destruction a century and a half ago. On the 21st of September, 1741, the Empress Queen, Maria Theresa, came to her Parliament at Presburg in dire distress. Dressed in the national Hungarian dress, with her newly born son (destined to become Joseph II.) in her arms, pain and courage depicted on her noble countenance, she advanced towards the Hungarian nobles, and in a powerful Latin speech asked for the National Army to be called out, to protect her and her country from her many foes. Then the Hungarian magnates tore their crooked swords from their scabbards, clashed them wildly together, and shouted: “Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa!” With the help of her brave Hungarians, Maria Theresa, after making peace with Frederick II. of Prussia, succeeded in beating off her numerous enemies.

_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]

_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]

[Sidenote: +Conclusions.+]

If we consider that the total strength (on a war establishment) of the Austro-Hungarian Army, Line and Landwehr included, exceeds one million of trained men, of which 778,889 belong to the 1st Line, and we remember that the Cis-Leithanians are in no way inferior in warlike spirit, that inheritance of their forefathers, to their brethren on the far side of the Leitha, we shall come to the conclusion that in the Austrian Army, with its excellent Corps of officers and excellent material in the shape of men and horses, any State in Europe would find either a powerful adversary or a most desirable ally.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 18: Turkey set this example long ago.—_Tr._]

ITALY.

In Italy we have the third of the Powers who have formed the Triple Alliance in order to maintain the peace of Europe and to make common cause against any disturber thereof. The history of this country has been very similar to that of Germany. In this instance also, an energetic Prince, King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia (died 1878), supported by an active statesman, Count Cavour, placed himself at the head of the national movement in favour of unity, and formed the various States of the Peninsula into one kingdom under his rule.

The kingdom of Italy appears thenceforth as the last formed among the European Powers, and it has raised an excellent Army in order to maintain its position as such. The development of the latter has since that time progressed considerably, and especially so during the last decade, when a distinct advance has been apparent.

Constituted on the principle of Universal Conscription, the land forces of Italy are formed, similarly to those of the German Empire, into a Standing Army, a Landwehr (Milizia mobile), and a Landsturm (Milizia territoriale).

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

The liability to serve commences with the twentieth year, and continues till the thirty-ninth. It consists of eight years in the Standing Army (three with the Colours and five in the Reserve); four years in the Landwehr, and seven years in the Landsturm. Those who have been exempted from service by ballot are sent straight to the Landsturm for nineteen years.

When the young men attain the age rendering them liable to serve, those physically unfit are “cast,” and some are put back who are ill or excused for domestic reasons. The remainder of the men draw lots and are placed according to their lottery number in the 1st or 2nd class, those excused being placed in the 3rd class. The 1st class conscripts are distributed throughout the Standing Army. The 2nd class go through three months’ training, to form an Ersatz (or reinforcing) Reserve, and the 3rd class men are called out every four years for a few days at a time for instruction in the use and manipulation of their arms.

The Standing Army consists accordingly of eight yearly batches of the 1st class and eight of the 2nd class; the Landwehr of four yearly batches of men who have served their time in the Standing Army, and four batches of the 2nd class; and the Landsturm comprises seven batches of the 1st, seven of the 2nd, and nineteen of the 3rd class.

[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]

The Infantry of the Standing Army consists of 96 regiments (including 2 Grenadier regiments), each of 3 battalions and 1 Ersatz company. Besides these, there are the special Corps d’Élite, the Bersaglieri (“marksmen”—from bersaglia = a target), and the Alpini (Alpine Rifles).

The Bersaglieri, in 12 regiments, each of 3 battalions and 1 Ersatz company, are Light Infantry, trained to execute all movements at the “double,” exceedingly good shots, and looking very smart in their neat uniforms, the large hats of which are ornamented with a waving bunch of cock feathers.

The Alpine Troops consist of 7 regiments (forming 75 companies), to which are attached 9 mountain batteries. These are also considered Corps d’Élite.

Composed of herdsmen and gamekeepers, familiar with every footpath in the Alps, never fatigued, quick of sight and hearing, and excellent shots, they are equally valuable in reconnoitring work or on the field of battle, although their original rôle is that of acting in defence of their mountain passes. The Alpine companies are placed in summer as near as possible to the particular mountain passes whose defence is assigned to them, and are stationed for only half the year in the towns as winter quarters.

Their duty is carried out with a particular object in view, and consists mostly in shooting, skirmishing, constant marches over mountain paths, reconnaissance duty and patrolling, and in minor tactics.

The whole of the Italian Infantry is at this moment armed (until the alteration of their former weapon, the single-loader Vetterli, is completed) with an excellent repeating rifle, the Vitali. Particular attention is paid to musketry instruction, and facilities for shooting are given and encouraged by the holding of National Rifle Meetings at stated times. At these meetings, any soldier on furlough is allowed to compete, with his Service rifle.

[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]

The Cavalry of the Italian Army, on account of the scarcity of useful horses, and the mountainous character of the land, is weak in comparison with the Cavalry of other European armies.

It consists of 24 regiments, each of 6 squadrons and an Ersatz-cadre; _i.e._, 10 Lancer regiments and 14 regiments of Light Cavalry (Cavalleggieri).

The Light Cavalry are armed with a long curved sword, and the Lancers with a lance. In addition to these weapons, the whole of the Cavalry is armed with a rifled breech-loading carbine.

[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]

The Field Artillery consists of 24 regiments, each of 8 batteries; there are also 6 Horse Artillery and 9 Mountain batteries. It can put in the field in war-time 1,196 guns. The heavy batteries are armed with 3·54-inch breech-loaders; the Light and Horse Artillery batteries with 2·76-inch breech-loaders. The mountain guns, for the transport of each of which three horses or mules are provided, are of 2·95-inch calibre, of steel-bronze, and mounted on wooden carriages.

The Garrison Artillery consists of 5 regiments; the Siege-train of 2 parts—each of 200 guns.

[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]

The Engineers consist of 4 regiments, including a Railway and Telegraph Company, a Pontoon and a Bridging Troop.

The Artillery and Engineers provide their own Train.

12 Commissariat companies are told off for service in the depôts.

The men of the Field Artillery and Engineers carry a revolver besides a sword; Garrison Artillerymen are armed with a breech-loading carbine.

[Sidenote: +Gendarmerie.+]

There is also a Corps closely connected with the Army which deserves mention, namely, the Gendarmes, or “Carabinieri Reali,” whose strength amounts to 543 officers, 22,487 Foot Gendarmes, and 11 legions of Mounted Gendarmes.

Formerly many a story was told of the fights between the Carabinieri and the banditti. Nowadays, both the robbers and the old Carabinieri have disappeared, and the present Carabinieri Reali form an excellent Corps, whose duty it is to maintain peace and good order in the country.

In war-time a battalion of them is sent with each Army Corps. They have then to provide orderlies for the Staff, as well as to act as Military Police.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

The whole kingdom is divided into twelve Army Corps Districts.

In peace-time the Army Corps vary in strength. In war, each Army Corps consists of 2 Divisions, the Division numbering 2 Brigades (each brigade consisting of 2 regiments of Infantry), and an Artillery Division of 3 batteries. Besides these, each Army Corps has 1 regiment of Bersaglieri, 1 or 2 Artillery Divisions, each of 4 batteries, 1 regiment of Cavalry, 2 companies of Engineers, with bridging-train, and 1 battalion of Carabinieri, forming altogether 27 battalions of Infantry, 5 or 6 squadrons of Cavalry, 12 to 16 batteries of Artillery, and 2 companies of Engineers, etc.—total, about 29,000 men and 112 guns.

The Alpini are not included in the Corps organisation.

[Sidenote: +Milizie.+]

The Landwehr consists of 48 regiments of Infantry, 18 battalions of Bersaglieri, 22 Alpine Companies, 61 batteries of Artillery, and 35 companies of Engineers. It is formed into twelve divisions in time of war.

Besides the above, there are 342 battalions, 30 Engineer companies, and 100 companies of Foot Artillery of the Landsturm, for garrison purpose. In peace-time depôts for the Landwehr and Landsturm are not organised: preparations are however being made for instituting them.

[Sidenote: +Conclusions.+]

In this manner is organised the Army which has now for about ten years proudly taken its place alongside the proved and war-tried armies of the senior Powers. Anyone accustomed to English or German troops, such as the Brigade of Guards in Hyde Park, or the German Foot-Guards at Potsdam, will find much that is strange on seeing the Italian Army, resulting from the peculiarity of race. He will miss the upright bearing, the regular movements and the steady drill of the Infantry, and the well-groomed and glossy horses of the Cavalry; but he will be pleased with the picturesque uniforms of the Army, the extremely smart appearance and active movements of the Bersaglieri, with their waving green plumes, and with the martial and powerful bearing of the Alpini, with their upright plumes in their head-dress; and he will find that the cry of “Evviva il Re Umberto” sounds just as loud and strong here as our own English “God save the Queen.” The impression that he will take away with him will be that the like spirit of the ancient Romans has not been lost in their descendants, and that the young kingdom of Italy is well prepared to throw her Army as a decisive weight on to the side of victory in some future European war.

ADDENDUM TO ITALY

P. 43. Additional troops have lately been raised for service in Africa. They consist of—

1 Regiment African Rifles (4 battalions),
1 Regiment Native African Infantry (4 battalions),
1 Battalion African Bersaglieri,
1 Squadron Native Cavalry,
3 Batteries African Mountain Artillery.

These are all for service at Massowah.

_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]

FRANCE.

The next on the list is France, our nearest continental neighbour, who for a long time was the foremost of European Military Powers. In the disastrous war of 1870 she lost this position entirely, and has ever since then been making the most strenuous exertions to regain something of her old strength by thorough revision and reorganisation of her Army.

The laws of 1872 and 1873 were passed with a view to this object, and by them Universal Conscription was introduced, as in Germany. On economical grounds, all able-bodied conscripts were divided into two classes, the first of which serves five years with the Colours, and the second only one year.

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

After his five years’ active service (or one year, as the case may be) the soldier goes for four (or eight) years to the Active Reserve. Thereafter he enters the Territorial Army for five years, and the Territorial Army Reserve for a subsequent six years, making twenty years in all. The Active Army and its Reserve form the Army of the 1st Line, and the Territorial Army and its Reserve the Army of the 2nd Line.

The institution of one-year Volunteers covers a much larger area than in the German Army. The main point looked to in a would-be one-year Volunteer is whether he can pay his 1,500 francs; the scientific and educational certificates required from such candidates in Germany are quite a secondary consideration in France.

_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]

France was not content with following the German model when she re-constituted her Army, but endeavoured to organise a system whereby an enormous number of trained soldiers should be turned out in the shortest possible time—something like the “levée en masse” which took place at the time of the French Revolution in 1793. This has been the aim of successive war ministers since 1871. It seems to have been brought to a conclusive issue by the law of the 15th July, 1889, which for severity and harshness appears to surpass any military sacrifices and duties ever demanded of any people.

[Sidenote: +New Law.+]

Hospital Orderly. Surgeon.]

The main points of this law are as follows:—

1. Extension of liability to service from twenty to twenty-five years.

2. Change from five years’ to three years’ service with the Colours.

3. Abolition of all exemptions from service; even the only sons of widows, the eldest sons of orphans, and those whose brothers are already serving, must serve one year, and may be sent away at its conclusion; if, however, they have not given satisfaction in the ranks, they may be kept on for another two years. Candidates for the higher professions and theological students will have to serve for one year, the latter to serve as bearers during active service.

4. One-year Volunteers to be drawn exclusively from students of science, and from a few moderately high schools.

5. Payment of a military tax by all, and an extra one by those who are unfit for service, and by any who are conscribed for less than three years.

A final point is given to this law by stating that no one is to accept a governmental or departmental office without having previously served for five years in either Army or Navy, and during two of these years to have served in the capacity of either officer or non-commissioned officer.

[Sidenote: +War-Strength.+]

The war-strength of France was, before the passing of this law, and according to French sources:—

Army of the 1st Line 2,051,458 men.
Army of the 2nd Line 2,057,196 ”
---------
Total 4,108,654 ”

It is almost impossible to calculate, from the new law, what her strength will be exactly, but it appears to be nearly equal to that of the three Powers together who form the Triple Alliance!

Whether this law has been promulgated in view of an approaching war, or whether it will be carried out in all its Spartan severity throughout the present peace—and long may it last!—is a question only to be determined by the future. In either case the spirit of self-sacrifice which has prompted the French to lay the heavy burden on themselves is much to be admired. The mainspring of this spirit appears, however, to be more the frantic effort to get back the country’s former military prestige than pure patriotism.

The peace-strength of France is no criterion by which to measure the forces that she could put in the field in case of war.

[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]

The Infantry consists of—

162 Line Regiments, each of 3 battalions—486 battalions.
4 Zouave Regiments, each of 4 battalions—16 battalions.
4 Algerian Rifle Regiments (Turcos) 4 battalions—16 battalions.
2 Regiments of the Foreign Legion, 4 battalions—8 battalions.
30 Battalions of Rifles (Chasseurs)—30 battalions.
5 Battalions of African Light Infantry (Zéphyrs)—5 battalions.
Grand total, 561 battalions.

The magazine rifle of the French Infantry, introduced in 1887, and called after its inventor, Colonel Lebel, director of the Normal School of Musketry at Chalons, is certainly equal to both the German and Austrian magazine rifles in shooting and general value. As regards the powder for its cartridges, the composition of which[19] remains a secret up till now, the inventor has claimed that its use will revolutionise Infantry tactics. According to French accounts, the powder is both noiseless and smokeless. If this were the case, no doubt it would produce changes in the mode of fighting, and surprises would be greatly facilitated thereby. Last year, however, experiments were made at the German Artillery School and at the Manœuvres with an almost identical powder, the results of which proved that the advantages of the French powder were greatly exaggerated. The report of the rifle is distinctly heard, and is little, if at all, less loud than that of the old powder. The smoke, it is true, is very much less, but is still quite visible on a still day, its colour being a transparent dull blue. The new powder, therefore, certainly possesses advantages, but these will be of little account when all armies—as seems very probable in the near future—come to use the same powder.

The Lebel rifle is apparently being superseded by a new rifle, that invented by Captain Pralon, and it is said that the Rifle battalions will shortly be armed with it. The uniform of the French Infantry is the same as it has been for the last forty years, the main features in field-order being the long blue-grey great-coat, red képi and loose red trousers. The full dress is shako and double-breasted dark-blue tunic. The Rifle battalions wear blue-grey trousers.

_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]

[Sidenote: +African Troops.+]

The foreign troops, chiefly African, form a remarkable feature in the French Army; they consist of Zouaves, Turcos, Foreign Legion, and Spahis, and take the field with the French troops against any Power, civilised or otherwise.

The Zouaves were originally an Arab tribe, whom the French conquered and forced to pay tribute. Their dress is picturesque, consisting of an open blue jacket, red sash, loose red knickerbockers, and white gaiters, their head-gear being a red fez with or without a white turban. At the present time, there are but few Africans amongst them, the greater portion being Frenchmen, pure and simple.

The Turcos are natives of Algeria and Tunis, induced to enlist by a bounty of £16. Their dress is similar to that of the Zouaves, excepting that their knickerbockers are blue, or white, instead of red.

Both Zouaves and Turcos have many attributes of good Light Infantry. The former are renowned for their energy and activity in the attack, and the latter for their stalking and crawling powers. As long as there is a prospect of victory, these troops are full of _élan_ and courage, but a defeat takes much of their spirit out of them.

Another peculiar body of troops are the five battalions of Zéphyrs Light African Infantry. They consist of very bad characters who are sent to the Corps as a punishment for their crimes. They garrison different districts in Algeria, as a rule the most unpleasant ones, and though formerly never employed in Europe, will now be allowed to do so in future wars.

The Foreign Legion, numbering 5,000 men, consists of foreigners voluntarily enlisted for five years. They do not have a happy time of it.

[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]

The Cavalry, with the latest additions to it, is composed of 79 regiments of 5 squadrons each (including a depôt-squadron), and 4 regiments of Spahis of 6 squadrons each—total, 419 squadrons. They consist of—

12 Regiments of Cuirassiers,
28 ” ” Dragoons,
21 ” ” Chasseurs à Cheval,
12 ” ” Hussars,
6 ” ” Chasseurs d’Afrique,
4 ” ” Spahis.
Total, 83 regiments.

The whole of the Cavalry is armed with the cut-and-thrust sword. Lances there are none. The Cuirassiers carry a revolver, the other regiments a carbine. The cuirass is still worn in Cuirassier regiments.

The French horse is not by a long way as lasting or as fit for service as the German (_i.e._, Lithuanian and Hanoverian) horse. Nor is the French Cavalry soldier a good groom. The Chasseurs d’Afrique and the Spahis, mounted on Arabian stallions, form exceptions to this rule. The Spahis are for the most part natives of Africa, officered by Frenchmen. Their whole appearance produces a novel impression, dressed as they are in their Oriental attire of blue jacket and baggy breeches, long red-leather riding-boots, with the white burnous slung over their shoulders, and mounted on their sinewy little horses, which they guide at will with a mere turn of the wrist. It is a strange sight to see these children of the desert at their games, tearing along with wild war-shrieks and waving their long guns frantically over their heads, each man and horse straining every muscle to be first in the race.

[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]

The Field Artillery consists of 19 brigades (one to each Army Corps), each of 2 regiments. One of these regiments has 12, the other 11 batteries, including between them 3 batteries of Horse Artillery, so that each Army Corps has 23 batteries. Each battery has 6 guns, fully-horsed even in peace-time. Besides these, some mountain batteries are going to be formed, but only in case of need.

The Artillery is armed with an excellent (3·53-in.) gun, on the De Bange system. It was entirely re-armed with these after the 1870–71 campaign, and at an enormous cost.

The Garrison Artillery, 16 battalions of 6 batteries each, is also armed with first-rate new guns.

[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]

Of Engineers there are 4 regiments, each of 5 battalions. An independent Railway Regiment has lately been formed.

The Corps of Gendarmerie, numbering as many as 25,000 men, is more or less connected with the Army, for though in peace-time it is employed on police-duty, in war-time it would be formed into as many Field Divisions of military police as would be required for keeping order in rear of the Army. The Garde-Républicaine of Paris (Cavalry and Infantry), is a branch of the Gendarmerie, and not of the Army, and the Regiment of Sapeurs-Pompiers, though militarily organised, is in reality only the Fire Brigade.

The Train consists of 19 squadrons of 5 companies each.

Besides the above troops, there are military corps organised for Postal and Telegraph service in the field; also a Balloon Corps, a Carrier-pigeon Corps, a Cyclist Corps, and a Dog-training Corps.

[Sidenote: +Military Schools.+]

There are numerous schools in France intended either for military education or further military instruction. Chief amongst them is the Military School of St. Cyr, into which 400 candidates are admitted every year as cadets, after a competitive examination. The course lasts for two years, and the cadets are then sent as 2nd lieutenants to the Infantry and Cavalry. The Polytechnic School in Paris sends 250 cadets annually under like conditions to the Artillery and Engineers. In the time of Napoleon I., a great many of the officers, including some of his most famous marshals, rose from the ranks; and even now a very large proportion of them come from the same source.

[Sidenote: +Total Forces.+]

The whole of France is divided for administrative and organising purposes into 18 Regions, in each of which an Army Corps is quartered. The 19th Corps is in Algeria.

Each Army Corps comprises 2 Infantry Divisions, each of 2 brigades of 2 regiments each, besides a battalion of Rifles, a brigade of Cavalry (2 regiments), and a brigade of Artillery.

On reviewing the size and organisation of the French Army, we cannot help being struck by the fact that, besides being exceedingly numerous, it is well organised, well armed, and endowed with a proper warlike spirit. Although not “the best in the world,” as every Frenchman will tell you, the French soldier is possessed of many excellent and soldier-like qualities. One cannot form one’s judgment by the extremely slack and unsmart appearance of the men, both as regards physique and uniform. The “Piou-piou,” as the Infantry soldier is called by his fellow-countrymen, who lounges about with his képi well on the back of his head and his hands deep in his baggy trouser-pockets, does certainly not present a soldier-like appearance, but all the same he is an active and handy man on service, and on the field of battle advances pluckily through a murderous fire, with little thought of danger or alarm.

If we now come to the question why, with an Army which has given such numerous proofs in many campaigns of its valour and excellence, France has not kept up her prestige, the answer is to be found, not in the morale of the Army, but in that of France herself, a country in which the spirit of order and subjection, and that stern devotion to duty which is the foundation of all discipline, have never taken root. Ambition and desire of conquest form the motive-power of many great and glorious deeds, and are certainly not wanting in the French character. Higher than these, however, stands the feeling of duty which keeps a man at his post through all hardships and perils, without a thought for his own gain or loss, simply because he has learned to subject his will to a higher one. On this foundation can be raised a discipline which permits of no loosening of the bonds of training and order even in times of disaster, and which keeps up the spirit of the Army and faith in its final success even under the heaviest blows of misfortune. This feeling cannot be learnt in a three years’, nor five years’, nor even twenty-five years’ service, if it is not ingrained and actually born in the national character and national system of education. Without these main features even universal conscription itself will not be successful, and the recent Draconian law in France, although it may bring forth vast masses of armed men, will not produce that feeling of combined action and willingness to follow their leaders to the death which is so characteristic of nations in whom the military spirit is thoroughly implanted.

France is well-armed for attack as well as defence; for attack, by means of the great armed masses which she can throw into the enemy country at the first declaration of war, in conjunction with the troops she has had stationed on her frontier during peace-time; and for defence by means of a defensive system on a vast scale, the outer line of which consists of frontier-fortresses and stop-gap forts from the Swiss to the Belgian frontier, from Belfort, over the Vosges ridge to Epinal, now a strong fortress, Toul and Verdun, on the right bank of the Meuse. Behind this first line of defence a second one has been built, consisting of entrenched camps between forty and fifty miles apart, and reaching from Langres to Rheims. There are, in fact, but few roads into France which are not covered by the fire of some fortress or other. The central point of the whole of this vast defensive system is the huge fortress of Paris, which, with her circle of protecting forts surrounding her on a fifteen-mile radius, is more like a fortified province than a fortress.

The secret of victory, however, does not lie in vast armaments like these. “It is the spirit which forms the body” and brings into subjection the material powers for its own objects. War is not only a combat of material forces; it is in a higher sense a combat of cultured forces. Let us, therefore, remember that the best preparation for trial by combat does not lie in continual striving to over-reach another in material and brute force, but in the striving after a more complete development of warlike skill.

ADDENDUM TO FRANCE.

Pp. 46, 47. Now that the new law has come into force, July 1890, the terms of service have been entirely changed. As the law now stands, seven-tenths of the annual contingent of recruits have to serve for 3 years, and three-tenths for 1 year. After his colour-service, a man joins the Active Reserve for 7 (or 9) years, then the Territorial Army for 6 years, and after that the Territorial Reserve for 9 years more—total 25 years.

312,000 youths reach the military age (20) every year. Of these only 174,000 are required for colour-service. The effect of the new law will be that by 1915 A.D. there will be no fewer than 3,500,000 of Frenchmen properly trained as soldiers and ready to take the field, and 60,000 trained men per annum will have been added to the army!

N.B.—The war-strength of over 4,000,000 given on page 47 includes all men, old and young, who have ever received any military training, and is therefore hardly a just estimate of the French fighting-strength. The latest trustworthy estimates put it at 2,790,000 men.

P. 49. The Cavalry is now, or will be very shortly, composed of 92 regiments of 5 squadrons, and 4 regiments of Spahis of 6 squadrons each—total, 484 squadrons.

They consist of

14 Regiments of Cuirassiers,
34 ” ” Dragoons,
22 ” ” Chasseurs à Cheval,
14 ” ” Hussars,
8 ” ” Chasseurs d’Afrique,
4 ” ” Spahis.
Total, 96 regiments.

P. 49. 12 Mountain Batteries are being formed. There are, in addition to the numbers given, 12 batteries in Corsica, Algeria, and Tunis.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 19: Invented by Colonel Bruyère.]

RUSSIA.

Russia is situated, from a military point of view, quite differently to any other European country, for of the whole Russian Empire only about a quarter lies in Europe. This quarter, it is true, is larger than the rest of all Europe put together, but it contains only a third of the population. Although by far the greater part of her dominions lies in another continent, Russia has had a pretty large finger in the European pie, and will in the future, no doubt, often mix herself up in European politics. Her policy, if it can be called so, is to try to influence Western questions in such a manner as eventually to bring all Slav races under her rule.

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

Russia has therefore organised her Army on an European footing, and chiefly on the German model. In 1874 she brought in Universal Conscription, from which, however, the upper classes, _i.e._, the nobility, the clergy, and officials, are exempt. The actual Colour service lasts six years; after that the soldier is sent for nine years more to the Reserve, which can be called out to reinforce the Standing Army. During the rest of his time, _i.e._, up to his twentieth year of service he belongs to the Opoltschenie—a body of men similar to the German Landsturm.

The number of able-bodied young men who annually attain the requisite age, 21 years, comes to about 800,000. Of these only 225,000 are conscribed, and the requisite number for the Army are selected from these by lot; the remainder are sent to the Opoltschenie. The latter body, therefore, consists of a huge mass of men, but mostly untrained. There is no middle body of men, like the German Landwehr, in the Russian Army.

The Regular Army is divided into four bodies, according to the respective duties required from them. They are the Field Forces, Reserve Forces, Ersatz Forces, and Local Forces.

The Field Forces are intended to be the first to take the field in case of war.

[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]

Their Infantry consists of 192 regiments of 4 battalions each, and 58½ Rifle battalions, as follows:—

12 Regiments of the Guard.
16 ” Grenadiers.
164 ” Infantry of the Line.
4 Rifle Battalions of the Guard.
54½ ” ” ” Line.

The Guard Regiments enjoy many privileges denied to the rest, and their officers rank one step higher in the Army.

Many alterations in the uniform have been made by the present Czar. The dark green colour has been preserved, but the cut of the tunic has been altered from that of the Prussian tunic to a loose double-breasted jacket fastened with hook and eye, and with no buttons. The head-gear is a round fur-cap, white in the case of Generals and Staff-officers, and black in all others. The soldier has little to do in the way of metal-polishing, it is true, but still the eye misses the accustomed glint which one usually associates with a military uniform. The Regiments of the Guard and Grenadiers have special distinguishing marks on their uniform.

The Infantry rifle is a useful breech-loader with bayonet, on the system of the American General Berdan. Regarding the question of magazine-rifles, the Government has not yet made up its mind; so that, for the present at all events, Russia is rather behindhand in the matter.

[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]

The Cavalry of the Field Forces consists of:—

Guard Cavalry:—

4 Regiments of Cuirassiers,
2 ” ” Dragoons,
2 ” ” Hussars,
2 ” ” Lancers,

and 46 regiments of Dragoons of the Line.

The Cuirassier regiments have 4, the remainder 6 squadrons each. Besides the above, there is a Division (2 squadrons) of Crimean Tartar Cavalry, which would be expanded in case of war to a regiment.

The uniform of the Guard Cavalry, as can be seen by our plates, is very brilliant compared with that of the Dragoons of the Line. The whole Cavalry is armed with a light and slightly-curved sabre, called a “Shashka,” which is worn on a narrow band over the right shoulder. The front-ranks of the Cuirassiers and Lancers carry lances on garrison-duty and on full-dress occasions, but these would not be taken on service. The Dragoons carry a rifle, somewhat shorter than that of the Infantry, the bayonet of which is worn on the “Shashka”-scabbard; other Cavalry regiments carry the Berdan carbine.

[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]

The Field Artillery consists of:—

3 Brigades of Guard Field Artillery,
4 Brigades of Grenadier Field Artillery,
44 Brigades of Field Artillery of the Line.

Each brigade numbering 6 batteries.

The Horse Artillery consists of 1 Brigade of Guard Artillery, and 23 batteries of Horse Artillery of the Line; besides the above, there are two Mounted Mountain Batteries.

The Field Batteries have 8 guns, only 4 of which are horsed in peace-time. A Horse Artillery Battery always has 6 fully-horsed guns.

The matériel consists of excellent steel-guns, mostly from Krupp works in Essen, the bore of the heavy field-guns being 4·16 inches, and that of the light ones 3·39 inches.

[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]

The Engineers consist of 17 battalions of Sappers (including 1 Guard and 1 Grenadier Battalion), and a few independent companies, 8 battalions of Pontonniers, 9 Railway battalions, 6 Field-parks, 16 Military Telegraph-parks, and 2 Siege-parks.

There is no Train; it is formed in war-time by taking men from the Cavalry Reserves. Hence it would appear that the mobility and manœuvring power of the Army in the field would not be very great.

During peace-time the Reserve forces, which would have to complete the Army to war strength on its taking the field, and the Ersatz forces, whose duty it would be to fill up gaps caused by death, wounds, disease, etc., during the war, are only represented by depôt-cadres.

To the Local forces belong 50½ battalions of Garrison Artillery, distributed amongst the fortresses of the country, besides 32 Line battalions, quartered in Asiatic Russia for garrison duties; they may, however, if necessary, be employed on Active Service. To these forces also belong the “Instruction troops,” which practise new regulations, tactical and otherwise, as they are brought out, and experimentalise with new arms and equipment when necessary. The Corps of Gendarmes and the Frontier Guards may also be said to form part of the Local forces.

[Sidenote: +Total Forces.+]

The Field Forces are in peace-time divided into 19 Army Corps (including the Guard Corps and the Grenadier Corps); 2 to 3 Infantry Divisions, and 1 Cavalry Division, with their Artillery, form an Army Corps. The Infantry Division numbers 2 Infantry Brigades, each of 2 regiments and 1 brigade of Field Artillery. A Cavalry Division numbers in the same way 2 brigades of 2 regiments each; besides 2 batteries of Horse Artillery.

The peace-strength of the Regular Army comes to something like 700,000 men and 1,538 field-guns, and the war-strength to 1,800,000 men and 3,260 guns.

In addition to this enormous number there are the Irregular troops—a force quite peculiar to Russia—namely, the Cossacks.[20]

[Sidenote: +Cossacks.+]

The Cossacks are tribes of mixed Russian, Turkish, and Tatar blood. They are descended from tribes of horsemen, who after the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century settled on the Don and Dnieper and established their own forms of government. Every three years they used to elect a “Hetman” as chief, with a council of elders, “Narschines,” to assist him. The Don Cossacks of Great Russia have their head-quarters north of the Sea of Azov and in the mountainous districts of that region. Branches of these Cossacks have settled on the Volga, on the shores of the Sea of Azov, along the Ural, in the Kuban North-Western Caucasus and in Siberia. Ever since they became subject to Russia they have assisted in carrying the Russian dominion further into Asia. The history of the settlement of these tribes in Siberia, led by the Cossack chief Jermac, is exceedingly interesting. This bold leader crossed the Ural mountains in 1758 with a following of only 840 Cossacks. His conquering progress equalled that of the Spaniards under Cortez in Mexico for adventure and for the great results that flowed from his successes.

Although attached to Russia, the Cossacks are Russian in neither their language, religion, nor customs. Gifted with extraordinarily sharp senses, good-humoured, and hospitable, born warriors, excellent horsemen, and good shots, they are yet difficult to govern, and inclined somewhat to insubordination. Now that they have been bound down to stay in settled districts, instead of wandering all over the country, their wildness has been somewhat toned down, and they are of inestimable value to Russia in her service on the Chinese frontier, in the Ural, in the Kuban, in Siberia, in the Crimea, and on the Seas of Azov or of Aral. In return for lands granted by the government on the different frontiers, every Cossack is bound to serve as a soldier. They have a military organisation and are divided into Cavalry regiments, or “polks.”

_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]

_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]

They are gradually being more and more definitely organised, disciplined, and trained. Each man has to provide himself with clothing and equipment according to regulation, and with a horse, and keep them up during his time of service. The uniform consists in a short coat, “kasakin,” or a long one, “tcherkesska,” with a woollen shirt, “beshmet,” loose trousers, long boots, no spurs, and a fur-cap, “papasha.” Their chief weapon is a long pennonless lance, with sabre (“shashka”), pistol, or in the case of Cossacks of the Caucasus, long knives, “kinzhal,” and finally, a rifle of some sort.

Their small insignificant-looking horses are not to be beaten for speed and endurance. A day journey of twenty hours is not too much for them; their hardiness is extraordinary, and the worst forage possible does not come amiss to them.

[Sidenote: +Cossack Characteristics.+]

A Cossack rides in the Oriental manner, _i.e._ with a loose rein, high saddle, short stirrup, and toes down; he is very fond of his horse and treats him kindly.

Their extraordinary mobility, endurance, and cleverness in getting over all obstacles of ground, particularly fit the Cossack troops for outpost and reconnaissance duty, for rapid raids and bold surprises, as well as for the pursuit of the enemy. What is also by no means their least advantage is that this mode of employing them in war would leave the regular Russian Cavalry free for actual combat in the field.

The Cossack Army which best shows the Cossack peculiarities of character and organisation is that of the Don Cossacks, which numbers in peace-time, besides the Bodyguard Regiment of Cossacks, 15 regiments of Cavalry, 1 battery of Guard-Cossacks, and 7 batteries of the Line. In war-time these numbers can be considerably increased, and the whole Cossack Army would amount to 14 battalions Infantry, 136 regiments Cavalry, and 40 Horse Batteries (236 guns).

This gipsy-like nation of horsemen, who eat, drink, sleep, live and die in their saddles, and, eager for plunder, either precede the Regular Army or attach themselves to it, is well known in Germany, where it appeared during the Wars of the Liberation (1806–1815). One might say with Schiller: “The rider and his swift horse are fearsome guests.” On the whole, it seems to be the fate of the Cossacks to be regarded with feelings of greater respect as enemies than as friends.

Still less amenable to discipline than the Cossacks are some of the other foreign tribes found amongst the Russian Irregulars, such as the Tatars of the Crimea, the inhabitants of the Caucasus, the Tcherkesses, the Bashkirs and the Tunguses. Although these people render Russia most valuable service in her Asiatic possessions, still she can hardly count on their services in an European war, so that an invasion by these Asiatic races, like what happened in the times of Tamerlane or Jengiz-Khan, need not be taken into account by the Europe of to-day.

[Sidenote: +Conclusions.+]

Laying aside the question of these Irregular troops, we cannot deny that Russia possesses a well-disciplined Army, and one which is prepared for war. It is a mistaken idea to imagine the Russian soldier to be half a barbarian and a foe to higher culture. Frederick the Great learnt to respect Russia as a powerful adversary, and in the beginning of this century she brought a heavy weight to bear in favour of Austria and Prussia, and fought valiantly as their ally against the power of Napoleon I. Since that period Russia has made important progress, not only in her culture, but in the organisation and arming of her Army; universal conscription has also acted as a powerful assistant to universal education. Whether Russia will fight Germany in the near or in the distant future is a matter that does not concern us here; we will leave the discussion of the probabilities pro and con to the newspapers. The time may come, but all we need know about the matter is that Germany is fully prepared and, though respecting her possible adversary, is not afraid of her.

ADDENDUM TO RUSSIA.

P. 53. The Russian Infantry now numbers—

10 Regiments of the Guard,
18 ” ” Grenadiers,
164 ” ” the Line,
20 ” ” Rifles (2 battalions each),
4 Rifle Battalions of the Guard,
38 Rifle Battalions of the Line.

Pp. 56–58. The Cossacks form altogether—

32 Regiments Regular Cavalry,
136 Squadrons Irregular ”
7 Battalions of Infantry,
12 Batteries of Artillery.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 20: From the Turco-Tataric word Kasak, which means in Turkish a robber, and in Tatar a free lightly-armed warrior.]

DENMARK.

Switzerland. Denmark.

_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]

The military organisations of the Great Powers of Europe have served as patterns to the smaller Powers, for even the smallest State must have an Army of its own wherewith to defend its independence and secure the vindication of its rights, actual or imaginary. Its strength would depend on the size, geographical situation, and historical associations of the State.

[Sidenote: +Historical.+]

In recent times the small State of Denmark has once or twice been obliged to have recourse to arms, in order to keep possession of the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, to the right of attaching which to the Danish crown, or rather to their absorption into the Danish commonwealth, Prussia objected. In the year 1848–49 the small Danish Army succeeded in making such a gallant stand against the might of Prussia, that time was gained for other great Powers, namely, Russia and England, to step in in her favour. The result was that Prussia was obliged to stay her hand from taking under her protection the German inhabitants of the two Duchies.

In 1863–64, when Prussia and Austria took in hand the German rights in the Duchies, circumstances were considerably altered, and the war, which lasted a whole year, was brought at last to a close by the Treaty of Vienna, which once and for all separated the Duchies from Denmark and gave them to Prussia. The resolution and courage, however, with which the men of the tiny Danish Army withstood the vastly superior forces of the other two Powers, and the determined opposition which they offered, more especially in their fortifications at Danewirke, Duppel, and the Island of Alsen, until their last hope of foreign intervention had gone, bear most honourable testimony to the excellence and courage of the Danish troops.

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

After this war Denmark made use of her bitter experience in reorganising her Army on new lines, a proof that she had, in spite of the loss of her lands, by no means given up the idea of being a Power in the North of Europe. She has now made an important step in the military line by introducing universal conscription, the terms of which are four years with the Colours, four in the Reserve, and eight in the “Reinforcement” Reserve.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

The Danish Army is now constituted as follows:—

[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]

Infantry—

1 Battalion of Foot Guards, with 4 battalions Reinforcement Reserve.

10 Regiments of the Line, each of 3 battalions Active and 1 battalion
Reinforcement Reserve, forming 5 brigades (2 Jutland, 2 Seeland and
1 Fünen) of 2 regiments each.

[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]

Cavalry—

1 Regiment Hussars of the Guard and 4 regiments of Dragoons, each of 4
squadrons.

[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]

Artillery—

Field Artillery—2 Regiments of 2 divisions each—total, 12 Line and 4
Reinforcement Reserve Batteries.

Garrison Artillery—2 Battalions—total, 6 Line and 4 Reinforcement
Reserve Companies.

[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]

Engineers—1 Regiment of 5 Line and 3 Reserve Companies. Train—4
Sections.

The total strength of the Danish Army is reckoned at about 50,000 men, with 128 guns. The Reinforcement Reserve battalions and batteries only exist as depôt-cadres.

The Infantry is still armed with a single-loading rifle, the Remington, but it is intended to shortly arm them with a magazine-rifle, which is now in course of preparation.

The Cavalry is armed with the sabre and Remington carbine. Their Jutland horses are clumsy, but enduring, animals. Recently large purchases of horses have been made in Germany to improve the breed.

The Danish character is better adapted for stout resistance and endurance than for daring courage, and the Army accordingly is better fitted for a defensive rôle, such as holding a fortified position to the last extremity, than for offensive action and bold attack.

The general plan of national defence is based on this characteristic, for the capital, Copenhagen, is going to be turned into a great entrenched camp, which would be garrisoned by the larger portion of the Danish Army in case of war.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Sweden. Norway.

_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]

Sweden, which once, in the time of the Thirty Years’ War, represented the first Military Power in Europe, keeps up now only a small Army, just large enough for the needs of the country. The military system of Sweden is a peculiar one, and entirely different from that of other States.

[Sidenote: +Military System.+]

The whole land is divided into a great many small “Rote” or Divisions, each of which has to supply one able-bodied man of the right age for the Army. This man serves for as long as his physical powers last. He receives a small property, consisting of house, farm, and ploughland, and definite pay as long as he is actually with the Colours.

Men for the Cavalry are provided in a very similar manner with their horses by the larger landowners or “Rusthalters,” in return for their exemption from certain taxes.

These troops are called “Indelta” men.

The second portion of the Swedish Army consists of the “Värfvade,” the men of which body enlist voluntarily for from two to six years’ service, and may re-engage for further service.

The Värfvade men can be trained much more thoroughly than those of the Indelta, for the former are continually with their Corps, whilst the latter are, during the greater part of the year, on furlough, looking after their farms.

The third portion is the “Bewäring,” which consists of all men between their twenty-first and twenty-sixth years of age. In case of war they would have to reinforce the other two portions.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

The Swedish Army consists of—

[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]

Infantry—

2 Regiments of the Body-Guard,
2 ” ” Body-Grenadiers,
17 ” ” Infantry,
2 Battalions of Body-Grenadiers, and
4 Rifle battalions.

Each regiment consists of 2 battalions in peace-and 3 in war-time: this would give 48 and 69 battalions respectively.

[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]

Cavalry—

1 Regiment of Life-Guards of 4 squadrons,
4 Regiments of Hussars with altogether 26 squadrons,
2 Regiments of Dragoons with altogether 15 squadrons,
1 Corps of Light Horse of 2 squadrons.
Total, 47 squadrons.

[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]

Artillery—3 Regiments of Field Artillery, of 5 divisions
of 2 batteries each, the regiment consisting of 10
(2 “Driving,” 6 Horse-Artillery, and 2 “Foot”) batteries,
besides the Reserve Artillery of 3 Foot and 6 Driving-batteries.
Each battery has about 6 guns, which gives a total number
of 234 field-guns.

[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]

Engineers—1 Pontoon battalion, including a Field-Telegraph
Company, and 1 battalion of Sappers.

Train—1 battalion of 2 companies.

The Swedish Infantry drill is somewhat out of date. The quiet and leisurely way in which a battalion drills is something astonishing. The skirmishers have to keep exactly in line and are directed by a sergeant in the centre with uplifted rifle. Every time a man in the firing-line snaps his rifle, he shouts out “Piff-paff!” The introduction of a new magazine-rifle will, therefore, probably cause some fatigue to the throats of the Swedish Infantry.

NORWAY.

Although Norway is united under the same Crown with Sweden, still her military system differs entirely from that of the latter.

[Sidenote: +Military System.+]

Every able-bodied man of twenty-two years old is sent to the so-called “Land-armament,” to serve five years in the Line, four in the “Landwehr” and four in the “Landsturm.” The conscripts remain but very few weeks with the Colours. The main portion of the Army consists of men voluntarily enlisted, who are bound to stay for six years.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

The Rifle Corps, of five companies, of which one forms a Guard-Company, consisting entirely of voluntarily-enlisted men, constitutes the only Corps under arms in time of peace; of the remaining troops there are only cadres in existence. In the event of war, the Line Infantry would consist of 5 brigades of 4 battalions each—total, 20 battalions. The Cavalry of 1 brigade of 3 Corps of Light Dragoons—total, 11 squadrons; the Artillery of 5 battalions = 11 batteries with 66 guns; the Engineers of a small division. Grand total, about 18,000 men.

The rifle of the Swedish and Norwegian Infantry is the Remington, which, however, will shortly be replaced by a magazine-rifle invented by Colonel Jarman of their Army.

The Cavalry carries the Remington carbine in addition to the sabre. The Artillery is being re-armed with new guns, made partly in the Krupp works at Essen, and partly in the Swedish cast-steel works.

It is strange to find here, in the north of Europe, a head-dress similar to that south of the Alps. The Norwegian Rifleman wears an almost identical hat with the Italian Bersagliere.

The idea of having their Army organised for a foreign campaign does not appear to have been entertained by the Norwegian-Swedish government. The men, however, are tough fighters and good campaigners, sturdy and enduring, abstemious and unassuming, and there is every reason to believe that the Scandinavian Army would be in any case fully equal to its true and destined use—_i.e._, the defence of the country.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.