Chapter II: Preface: To the Second French Edition

More than twenty years ago we published, with the aid of our friend Ferdinand Séré, whose loss we regret, and with the co-operation of other learned men and of the most eminent writers and artists, an important work, entitled “THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE.” That work, which consists of no less than five large quarto volumes, treated in detail the manners and customs, the sciences, literature, and the arts of those two great epochs, a subject as vast as it is interesting and instructive. Thanks to the learning it displays, to its literary merit and its admirable execution, it had the rare good fortune to attract immediately the attention of the public, and even now it maintains the interest which marked its first appearance. It has taken its place in the library of the amateur, not only in France but also among foreigners; it has become celebrated.

This exceptional result, especially as regards a publication of such extent, induces us to believe that our work, thus known and appreciated by the learned, may and ought henceforth to have still greater success by addressing itself to a yet larger number of readers.

With this conviction we now present to the public one of the principal portions of that important work, and perhaps the most interesting, in a form more simple, easier, and more pleasing; within the reach of youth who desire to learn without weariness or irksomeness, of females interested in grave authors, of the family that loves to assemble round a book altogether instructive and attractive. We would speak of the “ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES, AND AT THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE.” After having reunited the scattered materials on this subject, we have ranged them each in its own rank, taking care to discard all crudity of learning and to preserve in our work the brilliant colouring in which it was first clothed.

All the Arts are interesting in themselves. Their productions awaken attention and excite curiosity. But here it is not one Art only that is treated of. We pass in review all the Arts, starting from the fourth century to the second half of the sixteenth--Architecture raising churches and abbeys, palaces and public memorials, strong fortresses and the ramparts of cities; Sculpture adorning and perfecting other Arts by its works in stone, marble, bronze, wood, and ivory; Painting, commencing with mosaic and enamels, contributing to the decoration of buildings jointly with stained glass and frescoes, embellishing and illuminating manuscripts before it arrived at its highest point of perfection, with the Art of Giotto and Raphael, of Hemling and Albert Dürer; Engraving on wood and metal, with which is associated the work of the medallist and the goldsmith; and after attempting to touch upon Playing-cards and Niello-work, we suddenly evoke that sublime invention destined to change the face of the world--Printing. Such are, in brief, some of the principal features of this splendid picture. One can imagine what an infinity, what variety and richness, of details it should contain.

Our subject presents, at the same time, another kind of interest more elevated and not less alluring. Here each Art appears in its different phases and in its diversified progress. It is a history, not alone of the Arts, but of the epoch itself in which they were developed; for the Arts, regarded in their generality, are the truest expression of society. They speak to us of tastes, of ideas, of character: they exhibit us in their works. Of all an age can leave to the future concerning itself, that which represents it most vividly is Art: the Arts of an epoch revivify it, and bring it back before our eyes.

It is this which forms our book. Yet, we must remark, here its interest is redoubled, for we retrace not only a single era, but two eras very distinct from each other. In the first, that of the Middle Ages, which followed the invasion of the Northmen, society was in a great measure formed of new and barbarous elements, which Christianity laboured to break up and fashion. In the second epoch, on the contrary, society was organised and firmly established; it enjoyed peace, and reaped its fruits. The Arts followed the same phases. At first rude and informal, they rose slowly and by degrees, like society, out of chaos. At length they nourished in perfect freedom, and progressed with all the energy of which the human mind is capable. Hence the successive advances whose history presents a marvellous interest.

During the Middle Ages, Art generally followed the inspirations of that Christian spirit which presided at the formation of this new world. It arose to reproduce in an admirable manner the religious ideal. Only towards the end of that period it searched out for beauty of form, and began to find it when the Renaissance made its appearance: the Renaissance, that is, the intellectual revolution, which, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, restored among modern nations the sceptre to Literature and the Arts of antiquity. Then, with the Renaissance, the Arts changed their direction, and especially the principal Arts, those by which the genius of man expresses most forcibly his ideas and his feelings. Thus, in the Middle Ages, a new style of architecture is created that rapidly attained the highest degree of perfection, the _ogival_ (later Gothic or flamboyant), of which we see the _chefs-d’œuvre_ in our cathedrals: at the Renaissance, this was replaced by architecture derived from that of the Greeks and Romans, which also produced admirable works, but almost always less in harmony with the dignity and splendour of worship. In the Middle Ages, Painting chiefly applied itself to represent the _beau idéal_ of the religious mind reflecting itself in the countenance; at the Renaissance, it is the beauty of the physical form, so perfectly expressed by the ancients. Sculpture, which comes nearer to Painting, followed at the same time all similar phases, drawing the art of Engraving with it. Do not the diversified changes through which the Arts passed, as retraced in this book during two epochs, present to the intelligent reader a succession of facts of the highest interest and a history most instructive?

Our work is the only existing one on this great and magnificent subject, of which the materials are scattered through a multitude of volumes. Thus for the success of this undertaking it became necessary to unite with us in our task men most distinguished by their learning and talents: we are permitted to cite the names of MM. Ernest Breton, Aimé Champollion, Champollion-Figeac, Pierre Dubois, Duchesne, Ferdinand Denis, Jacquemart, Arch. Juvinal, Jules Labarte, Lassus, Louandre, Prosper Mérimée, Alfred Michiels, Gabriel Peignot, Riocreux, De Saulcy, Jean Designeur, le Marquis de Varennes. After such a list we record our own name only to acknowledge that we have gone over and recast these various works, and presented them in a form which gives them more unity, but owes to them all the interest and all the charm it may offer.

The numerous illustrations that adorn the work will engage the eye, while the text will speak to the intelligence. The designs in chromolithography are executed by M. Kellerhoven, who for several years has made the art one of a high order, worthy to shine among the finest works of our greatest painters, as is proved by his “Chefs-d’œuvre of the Great Masters,” “Lives of the Saints,” and “Legend of St. Ursula.”

No one is ignorant of the attention given in these days to archæology. Information about objects of antiquity is necessary to every instructed person. It ought to be studied so far as to enable us to appreciate, or at least to recognise, the examples of olden time in Architecture, Painting, &c., that present themselves to our notice. Thus it has become for the young of each sex indispensable to good education. The perusal of this book will be for such an attractive introduction to that knowledge which for too long a time was the exclusive domain of the learned.

PAUL LACROIX (Bibliophile Jacob).

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page

FURNITURE: HOUSEHOLD AND ECCLESIASTICAL 1

Simplicity of Furniture among the Gauls and Franks.--Introduction of costly taste in articles of Furniture of the Seventh Century.--Arm-chair of Dagobert.--Round Table of King Artus.--Influence of the Crusades.--Regal Banquet in the time of Charles V.--Benches.--Sideboards.--Dinner Services.--Goblets.--Brassware.--Casks.--Lighting.--Beds.--Carved-wood Furniture.--Locksmith’s Work.--Glass and Mirrors.--Room of a Feudal Seigneur.--Costliness of Furniture used for Ecclesiastical Purposes.--Altars.--Censers.--Shrines and Reliquaries.--Gratings and Iron-mountings.

TAPESTRY 37

Scriptural Origin of Tapestry.--Needlework Embroidery in Ancient Greek and Roman Times.--Attalic Carpets.--Manufacture of Carpets in Cloisters.--Manufactory at Poitiers in the Twelfth Century.--Bayeux Tapestry, named “De la Reine Mathilde.”--Arras Carpets.--Inventory of the Tapestries of Charles V.; enormous Value of these Embroidered Hangings.--Manufactory at Fontainebleau, under Francis I.--The Manufacture of the Hôpital de la Trinité, at Paris.--The Tapestry Workers, Dubourg and Laurent, in the reign of Henry IV.--Factories of Savonnerie and Gobelins.

CERAMIC ART 53

Pottery Workshops in the Gallo-Romano Period.--Ceramic Art disappears for several Centuries in Gaul: is again found in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries.--Probable Influence of Arabian Art in Spain.--Origin of Majolica.--Luca della Robbia and his Successors.--Enamelled Tiles in France, dating from the Twelfth Century.--The Italian Manufactories of Faenza, Rimini, Pesaro, &c.--Beauvais Pottery.--Invention and Works of Bernard Palissy; his History; his _Chefs-d’œuvre_.--The _Faïence_ of Thouars, called “Henri II.”

ARMS AND ARMOUR 75

Arms of the Time of Charlemagne.--Arms of the Normans at the Time of the Conquest of England.--Progress of Armoury under the Influence of the Crusades.--The Coat of Mail.--The Crossbow.--The Hauberk and the Hoqueton.--The Helmet, the Hat of Iron, the Cervelière, the Greaves, and the Gauntlet; the Breastplate and the Cuish.--The Casque with Vizor.--Plain Armour and Ribbed Armour.--The Salade Helmet.--Costliness of Armour.--Invention of Gunpowder.--Bombards.--Hand-Cannons.--The Culverin, the Falconet.--The Arquebus with Metal-holder, with Match, and with Wheel.--The Gun and the Pistol.

CARRIAGES AND SADDLERY 107

Horsemanship among the Ancients.--The Riding-horse and the Carriage-horse.--Chariots armed with Scythes.--Vehicles of the Romans, the Gauls, and the Franks: Carruca, the Petoritum, the Cisium, the Plastrum, the Basterna, the Carpentum.--Different kinds of Saddle-horses in the Days of Chivalry.--The Spur a distinctive Sign of Nobility: its Origin.--The Saddle, its Origin and its Modifications.--The Tilter.--Carriages.--The Mules of Magistrates.--Corporations of Saddlers and Harness-makers, Lorimers, Coachmakers, Chapuiseurs, Blazonniers, and Saddle-coverers.

GOLD AND SILVER WORK 123

Its Antiquity.--The Trésor de Guarrazar.--The Merovingian and Carlovingian Periods.--Ecclesiastical Jewellery.--Pre-eminence of the Byzantine Goldsmiths.--Progress of the Art consequent on the Crusades.--The Gold and Enamels of Limoges.--Jewellery ceases to be restricted to Purposes of Religion.--Transparent Enamels.--Jean of Pisa, Agnolo of Siena, Ghiberti.--Great Painters and Sculptors from the Goldsmiths’ Workshops.--Benvenuto Cellini.--The Goldsmiths of Paris.

HOROLOGY 169

Modes of measuring Time among the Ancients.--The Gnomon.--The Water-Clock.--The Hour-Glass.--The Water-Clock, improved by the Persians and by the Italians.--Gerbert invents the Escapement and the moving Weights.--The Striking-bell.--Maistre Jehan des Orloges.--Jacquemart of Dijon.--The first Clock in Paris.--Earliest portable Timepiece.--Invention of the spiral Spring.--First appearance of Watches.--The Watches, or “Eggs,” of Nuremberg.--Invention of the Fusee.--Corporation of Clockmakers.--Noted Clocks at Jena, Strasburg, Lyons, &c.--Charles-Quint and Jannellus.--The Pendulum.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 187

Music in the Middle Ages.--Musical Instruments from the Fourth to the Thirteenth Century.--Wind Instruments: the Single and Double Flute, the Pandean Pipes, the Reed-pipe.--The Hautboy, the Flageolet, Trumpets, Horns, _Olifants_, the Hydraulic Organ, the Bellows-Organ.--Instruments of Percussion: the Bell, the Hand-bell, Cymbals, the Timbrel, the Triangle, the _Bombulum_, Drums.--Stringed Instruments: the Lyre, the Cithern, the Harp, the Psaltery, the _Nable_, the _Chorus_, the _Organistrum_, the Lute and the Guitar, the _Crout_, the _Rote_, the Viola, the _Gigue_, the Monochord.

PLAYING-CARDS 223

Supposed Date of their Invention.--Existed in India in the Twelfth Century.--Their connection with the Game of Chess.--Brought into Europe after the Crusades.--First Mention of a Game with Cards in 1379.--Cards well known in the Fifteenth Century in Spain, Germany, and France, under the name of _Tarots_.--Cards called _Charles the Sixth’s_ must have been _Tarots_.--Ancient Cards, French, Italian, and German.--Cards contributing to the Invention of Wood-Engraving and Printing.

GLASS-PAINTING 251

Painting on Glass mentioned by Historians in the Third Century of our Era.--Glazed Windows at Brioude in the Sixth Century.--Coloured Glass at St. John Lateran and St. Peter’s in Rome.--Church-Windows of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries in France: Saint-Denis, Sens, Poitiers, Chartres, Rheims, &c.--In the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries the Art was at its Zenith.--Jean Cousin.--The Célestins of Paris: Saint-Gervais.--Robert Pinaigrier and his Sons.--Bernard Palissy decorates the Chapel of the Castle of Ecouen.--Foreign Art: Albert Dürer.

FRESCO-PAINTING 269

The Nature of Fresco.--Employed by the Ancients.--Paintings at Pompeii.--Greek and Roman Schools.--Mural Paintings destroyed by the Iconoclasts and Barbarians.--Revival of Fresco, in the Ninth Century, in Italy.--Fresco-Painters since Guido of Siena.--Principal Works of these Painters.--Successors of Raphael and Michael Angelo.--Fresco in _Sgraffito_.--Mural Paintings in France from the Twelfth Century.--Gothic Frescoes of Spain.--Mural Paintings in the Low Countries, Germany, and Switzerland.

PAINTING ON WOOD, CANVAS, ETC 283

The Rise of Christian Painting.--The Byzantine School.--First Revival in Italy.--Cimabue, Giotto, Fra Angelico.--Florentine School: Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo.--Roman School: Perugino, Raphael.--Venetian School: Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese.--Lombard School: Correggio, Parmigianino.--Spanish School.--German and Flemish Schools: Stephen of Cologne, John of Bruges, Lucas van Leyden, Albert Dürer, Lucas van Cranach, Holbein.--Painting in France during the Middle Ages.--Italian Masters in France.--Jean Cousin.

ENGRAVING 315

Origin of Wood-Engraving.--The St. Christopher of 1423.--“The Virgin and Child Jesus.”--The earliest Masters of Wood-Engraving.--Bernard Milnet.--Engraving in _Camaïeu_.--Origin of Engraving on Metal.--The “Pax” of Maso Finiguerra.--The earliest Engravers on Metal.--Niello Work.--_Le Maître_ of 1466.--_Le Maître_ of 1486. Martin Schöngauer, Israel van Mecken, Wenceslaus of Olmutz, Albert Dürer, Marc Antonio, Lucas van Leyden.--Jean Duret and the French School.--The Dutch School.--The Masters of Engraving.

SCULPTURE 339

Origin of Christian Sculpture.--Statues in Gold and Silver.--Traditions of Antique Art.--Sculpture in Ivory.--Iconoclasts.--Diptychs.--The highest Style of Sculpture follows the Phases of Architecture.--Cathedrals and Monasteries from the year 1000.--Schools of Burgundy, Champagne, Normandy, Lorraine, &c.--German, English, Spanish, and Italian Schools.--Nicholas of Pisa and his Successors.--Position of French Sculpture in the Thirteenth Century.--Florentine Sculpture and Ghiberti.--French Sculptors from the Fifteenth to the Sixteenth Century.

ARCHITECTURE 373

The Basilica the first Christian Church.--Modification of Ancient Architecture.--Byzantine Style.--Formation of the Norman Style.--Principal Norman Churches.--Age of the Transition from Norman to Gothic.--Origin and Importance of the _Ogive_.--Principal Edifices in the pure Gothic Style.--The Gothic Church, an Emblem of the Religious Spirit in the Middle Ages.--Florid Gothic.--Flamboyant Gothic.--Decadency.--Civil and Military Architecture: Castles, Fortified Enclosures, Private Houses, Town-Halls.--Italian Renaissance: Pisa, Florence, Rome.--French Renaissance: Mansions and Palaces.

PARCHMENT AND PAPER 413

Parchment in Ancient Times.--Papyrus.--Preparation of Parchment and Vellum in the Middle Ages.--Sale of Parchment at the Fair of Lendit.--Privilege of the University of Paris on the Sale and Purchase of Parchment.--Different Applications of Parchment.--Cotton Paper imported from China.--Order of the Emperor Frederick II. concerning Paper.--The Employment of Linen Paper, dating from the Twelfth Century.--Ancient Water-Marks on Paper.--Paper Manufactories in France and other parts of Europe.

MANUSCRIPTS 423

Manuscripts in Olden Times.--Their Form.--Materials of which they were composed.--Their Destruction by the Goths.--Rare at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.--The Catholic Church preserved and multiplied them.--Copyists.--Transcription of Diplomas.--Corporation of Scribes and Booksellers.--Palæography.--Greek Writings.--Uncial and Cursive Manuscripts.--Sclavonic Writings.--Latin Writers.--Tironian Shorthand.--Lombardic Characters.--Diplomatic.--Capetian.--Ludovicinian.--Gothic.--Runic.-- Visigothic.--Anglo-Saxon.--Irish.

MINIATURES IN MANUSCRIPTS 443

Miniatures at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.--The two “Vatican” Virgils.--Painting of Manuscripts under Charlemagne and Louis le Débonnaire.--Tradition of Greek Art in Europe.--Decline of the Miniature in the Tenth Century.--Origin of Gothic Art.--Fine Manuscript of the time of St. Louis.--Clerical and Lay Miniature-Painters.--Caricature and the Grotesque.--Miniatures in Monochrome and in Grisaille.--Illuminators at the Court of France and to the Dukes of Burgundy.--School of John Fouquet.--Italian Miniature-Painters.--Giulio Clovio.--French School under Louis XII.

BOOKBINDING 471

Primitive Binding of Books.--Bookbinding among the Romans.--Bookbinding with Goldsmith’s Work from the Fifth Century.--Chained Books.--Corporation of _Lieurs_, or Bookbinders.--Books bound in Wood, with Metal Corners and Clasps.--First Bindings in Leather, honeycombed (_waffled?_) and gilt.--Description of some celebrated Bindings of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.--Sources of Modern Bookbinding.--John Grollier.--President de Thou.--Kings and Queens of France Bibliomaniacs.--Superiority of Bookbinding in France.

PRINTING 485

Who was the Inventor of Printing?--Movable Letters in ancient Times.--Block Printing.--Laurent Coster.--_Donati_ and _Specula_.--Gutenberg’s Process.--Partnership of Gutenberg and Faust.--Schœffer.--The Mayence Bible.--The Psalter of 1457.--The “Rationale” of 1459.--Gutenberg prints by himself.--The “Catholicon” of 1460.--Printing at Cologne, Strasbourg, Venice, and Paris.--Louis XI. and Nicholas Jenson.--German Printers at Rome.--_Incunabula._--Colard Mansion.--Caxton.--Improvement of Typographical Processes up to the Sixteenth Century.

TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS.