Chapter I: Preface

Why should an astronomer write a commentary on the Bible?

Because commentators as a rule are not astronomers, and therefore either pass over the astronomical allusions of Scripture in silence, or else annotate them in a way which, from a scientific point of view, leaves much to be desired.

Astronomical allusions in the Bible, direct and indirect, are not few in number, and, in order to bring out their full significance, need to be treated astronomically. Astronomy further gives us the power of placing ourselves to some degree in the position of the patriarchs and prophets of old. We know that the same sun and moon, stars and planets, shine upon us as shone upon Abraham and Moses, David and Isaiah. We can, if we will, see the unchanging heavens with their eyes, and understand their attitude towards them.

It is worth while for us so to do. For the immense advances in science, made since the Canon of Holy Scripture was closed, and especially during the last three hundred years, may enable us to realize the significance of a most remarkable fact. Even in those early ages, when to all the nations surrounding Israel the heavenly bodies were objects for divination or idolatry, the attitude of the sacred writers toward them was perfect in its sanity and truth.

Astronomy has a yet further part to play in Biblical study. The dating of the several books of the Bible, and the relation of certain heathen mythologies to the Scripture narratives of the world's earliest ages, have received much attention of late years. Literary analysis has thrown much light on these subjects, but hitherto any evidence that astronomy could give has been almost wholly neglected; although, from the nature of the case, such evidence, so far as it is available, must be most decisive and exact.

I have endeavoured, in the present book, to make an astronomical commentary on the Bible, in a manner that shall be both clear and interesting to the general reader, dispensing as far as possible with astronomical technicalities, since the principles concerned are, for the most part, quite simple. I trust, also, that I have taken the first step in a new inquiry which promises to give results of no small importance.

E. WALTER MAUNDER.

_St. John's, London, S.E._
_January 1908._

CONTENTS

BOOK I

THE HEAVENLY BODIES

CHAPTER I. THE HEBREW AND ASTRONOMY

Modern Astronomy--Astronomy in the Classical Age--The Canon of
Holy Scripture closed before the Classical Age--Character of the
Scriptural References to the Heavenly Bodies--Tradition of
Solomon's Eminence in Science--Attitude towards Nature of the
Sacred Writers--Plan of the Book 3

CHAPTER II. THE CREATION

Indian Eclipse of 1898--Contrast between the Heathen and
Scientific Attitudes--The Law of Causality--Inconsistent with
Polytheism--Faith in One God the Source to the Hebrews of
Intellectual Freedom--The First Words of Genesis the Charter of
the Physical Sciences--The Limitations of Science--"Explanations"
of the First Chapter of Genesis--Its Real Purposes--The Sabbath 12

CHAPTER III. THE DEEP

Babylonian Creation Myth--Tiamat, the Dragon of Chaos--Overcome
by Merodach--Similarity to the Scandinavian Myth--No Resemblance
to the Narrative in Genesis--Meanings of the Hebrew Word
_tehom_--Date of the Babylonian Creation Story 25

CHAPTER IV. THE FIRMAMENT

Twofold Application of the Hebrew Word _raqia`_--Its Etymological
Meaning--The Idea of Solidity introduced by the "Seventy"--Not
the Hebrew Idea--The "Foundations" of Heaven and Earth--The
"Canopy" of Heaven--The "Stories" of Heaven--Clouds and Rain--The
Atmospheric Circulation--Hebrew Appreciation even of the Terrible
in Nature--The "Balancings" and "Spreadings" of the Clouds--The
"Windows of Heaven"--Not Literal Sluice-gates--The Four
Winds--The Four Quarters--The Circle of the Earth--The Waters
under the Earth--The "Depths" 35

CHAPTER V. THE ORDINANCES OF THE HEAVENS

The Order of the Heavenly Movements--Daily Movement of the
Sun--Nightly Movements of the Stars--The "Host of Heaven"--
Symbolic of the Angelic Host--Morning Stars--The Scripture View
of the Heavenly Order 55

CHAPTER VI. THE SUN

The Double Purpose of the Two Great Heavenly Bodies--Symbolic Use
of the Sun as Light-giver--No Deification of the Sun or of
Light--Solar Idolatry in Israel--_Shemesh_ and _[H.]eres_--
Sun-spots--Light before the Sun--"Under the Sun"--The Circuit of
the Sun--Sunstroke--"Variableness"--Our present Knowledge of the
Sun--Sir William Herschel's Theory--Conflict between the Old
Science and the New--Galileo--A Question of Evidence--A Question
of Principle 63

CHAPTER VII. THE MOON

Importance of the Moon in Olden Times--Especially to the
Shepherd--Jewish Feasts at the Full Moon--The Harvest Moon--The
Hebrew Month a Natural one--Different Hebrew Words for Moon--
Moon-worship forbidden--"Similitudes" of the Moon--Worship of
Ashtoreth--No mention of Lunar Phases--The Moon "for Seasons" 79

CHAPTER VIII. THE STARS

Number of the Stars--"Magnitudes" of the Stars--Distances of the
Stars 95

CHAPTER IX. COMETS

Great Comets unexpected Visitors--Description of Comets--
Formation of the Tail--Possible References in Scripture to
Comets 103

CHAPTER X. METEORS

Aerolites--Diana of the Ephesians--Star-showers--The Leonid
Meteors--References in Scripture--The Aurora Borealis 111

CHAPTER XI. ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND MOON

Vivid Impression produced by a Total Solar Eclipse--Eclipses not
Omens to the Hebrews--Eclipses visible in Ancient Palestine--
Explanation of Eclipses--The Saros--Scripture References to
Eclipses--The Corona--The Egyptian "Winged Disc"--The Babylonian
"Ring with Wings"--The Corona at Minimum 118

CHAPTER XII. SATURN AND ASTROLOGY

The "Seven Planets"--Possible Scripture References to Venus and
Jupiter--"Your God Remphan" probably Saturn--The Sabbath and
Saturn's Day--R. A. Proctor on the Names of the Days of the
Week--Order of the Planets--Alexandrian Origin of the Weekday
Names--The Relation of Astrology to Astronomy--Early Babylonian
Astrology--Hebrew Contempt for Divination 130

BOOK II

THE CONSTELLATIONS

CHAPTER I. THE ORIGIN OF THE CONSTELLATIONS

The "Greek Sphere"--Aratus--St Paul's Sermon at Athens--The
Constellations of Ptolemy's Catalogue--References to the
Constellations in Hesiod and Homer--The Constellation Figures on
Greek Coins--And on Babylonian "Boundary-stones"--The Unmapped
Space in the South--Its Explanation--Precession--Date and Place
of the Origin of the Constellations--Significant Positions of the
Serpent Forms in the Constellations--The Four "Royal Stars"--The
Constellations earlier than the Old Testament 149

CHAPTER II. GENESIS AND THE CONSTELLATIONS

The Bow set in the Cloud--The Conflict with the Serpent--The Seed
of the Woman--The Cherubim--The "Mighty Hunter" 162

CHAPTER III. THE STORY OF THE DELUGE

Resemblance between the Babylonian and Genesis Deluge
Stories--The Deluge Stories in Genesis--Their Special
Features--The Babylonian Deluge Story--Question as to its
Date--Its Correspondence with both the Genesis Narratives--The
Constellation Deluge Picture--Its Correspondence with both the
Genesis Narratives--The Genesis Deluge Story independent of Star
Myth and Babylonian Legend 170

CHAPTER IV. THE TRIBES OF ISRAEL AND THE ZODIAC

Joseph's Dream--Alleged Association of the Zodiacal Figures with
the Tribes of Israel--The Standards of the Four Camps of
Israel--The Blessings of Jacob and Moses--The Prophecies of
Balaam--The Golden Calf--The Lion of Judah 186

CHAPTER V. LEVIATHAN

The Four Serpent-like Forms in the Constellations--Their
Significant Positions--The Dragon's Head and Tail--The
Symbols for the Nodes--The Dragon of Eclipse--Hindu Myth
of Eclipses--Leviathan--References to the Stellar Serpents
in Scripture--Rahab--Andromeda--"The Eyelids of the
Morning"--Poetry, Science, and Myth 196

CHAPTER VI. THE PLEIADES

Difficulty of Identification--The most Attractive
Constellations--_Kimah_--Not a Babylonian Star Name--A Pre-exilic
Hebrew Term--The Pleiades traditionally Seven--Mädler's
Suggestion--Pleiades associated in Tradition with the Rainy
Season--And with the Deluge--Their "Sweet Influences"--The Return
of Spring--The Pleiades in recent Photographs--Great Size and
Distance of the Cluster 213

CHAPTER VII. ORION

_Kesil_--Probably Orion--Appearance of the Constellation--
Identified in Jewish Tradition with Nimrod, who was probably
Merodach--Altitude of Orion in the Sky--_Kesilim_--The "Bands" of
Orion--The Bow-star and Lance-star, Orion's Dogs--Identification
of Tiamat with Cetus 231

CHAPTER VIII. MAZZAROTH

Probably the "Signs of the Zodiac"--Babylonian Creation
Story--Significance of its Astronomical References--Difference
between the "Signs" and the "Constellations" of the Zodiac--Date
of the Change--And of the Babylonian Creation Epic--Stages of
Astrology--Astrology Younger than Astronomy by 2000 Years--
_Mazzaroth_ and the "Chambers of the South"--_Mazzaloth_--The
Solar and Lunar Zodiacs--_Mazzaroth_ in his Season 243

CHAPTER IX. ARCTURUS

_`Ash_ and _`Ayish_--Uncertainty as to their Identification--
Probably the Great Bear--_Mezarim_--Probably another Name for the
Bears--"Canst thou guide the Bear?"--Proper Motions of the
Plough-stars--Estimated Distance 258

BOOK III

TIMES AND SEASONS

CHAPTER I. THE DAY AND ITS DIVISIONS

Rotation Period of Venus--Difficulty of the Time Problem on
Venus--The Sun and Stars as Time Measurers--The apparent Solar
Day the First in Use--It began at Sunset--Subdivisions of the Day
Interval--Between the Two Evenings--The Watches of the Night--The
12-hour Day and the 24-hour Day 269

CHAPTER II. THE SABBATH AND THE WEEK

The Week not an Astronomical Period--Different Weeks employed
by the Ancients--Four Origins assigned for the Week--The
Quarter-month--The Babylonian System--The Babylonian Sabbath not
a Rest Day--The Jewish Sabbath amongst the Romans--Alleged
Astrological Origin of the Week--Origin of the Week given in the
Bible 283

CHAPTER III. THE MONTH

The New Moon a Holy Day with the Hebrews--The Full Moons at the
Two Equinoxes also Holy Days--The Beginnings of the Months
determined from actual Observation--Rule for finding Easter--Names
of the Jewish Months--Phoenician and Babylonian Month Names--
Number of Days in the Month--Babylonian Dead Reckoning--Present
Jewish Calendar 293

CHAPTER IV. THE YEAR

The Jewish Year a Luni-solar one--Need for an Intercalary
Month--The Metonic Cycle--The Sidereal and Tropical Years--The
Hebrew a Tropical Year--Beginning near the Spring Equinox--Meaning
of "the End of the Year"--Early Babylonian Method of determining
the First Month--Capella as the Indicator Star--The Triad of
Stars--The Tropical Year in the Deluge Story 305

CHAPTER V. THE SABBATIC YEAR AND THE JUBILEE

Law of the Sabbatic Year--A Year of Rest and Release--The
Jubilee--Difficulties connected with the Sabbatic Year and the
Jubilee--The Sabbatic Year, an Agricultural one--Interval between
the Jubilees, Forty-nine Years, not Fifty--Forty-nine Years an
Astronomical Cycle 326

CHAPTER VI. THE CYCLES OF DANIEL

The Jubilee Cycle possessed only by the Hebrews--High Estimation
of Daniel and his Companions entertained by Nebuchadnezzar--Due
possibly to Daniel's Knowledge of Luni-solar Cycles--Cycles in
Daniel's Prophecy--2300 Years and 1260 Years as Astronomical
Cycles--Early Astronomical Progress of the Babylonians much
overrated--Yet their Real Achievements not Small--Limitations of
the Babylonian--Freedom of the Hebrew 337

BOOK IV

THREE ASTRONOMICAL MARVELS

CHAPTER I. JOSHUA'S LONG DAY

METHOD OF STUDYING THE RECORD--To be discussed as it stands--An
early Astronomical Observation. BEFORE THE BATTLE--Movements of
the Israelites--Reasons for the Gibeonites' Action--Rapid
Movements of all the Parties. DAY, HOUR, AND PLACE OF THE
MIRACLE--Indication of the Sun's Declination--Joshua was at
Gibeon--And at High Noon--On the 21st Day of the Fourth Month.
JOSHUA'S STRATEGY--Key to it in the Flight of the Amorites by the
Beth-horon Route--The Amorites defeated but not surrounded--King
David as a Strategist. THE MIRACLE--The Noon-day Heat, the great
Hindrance to the Israelites--Joshua desired the Heat to be
tempered--The Sun made to "be silent"--The Hailstorm--The March
to Makkedah--A Full Day's March in the Afternoon--"The Miracle"
not a Poetic Hyperbole--Exact Accord of the Poem and the Prose
Chronicle--The Record made at the Time--Their March, the
Israelites' Measure of Time 351

CHAPTER II. THE DIAL OF AHAZ

The Narrative--Suggested Explanations--The "Dial of Ahaz,"
probably a Staircase--Probable History and Position of the
Staircase--Significance of the Sign 385