Chapter XXXII: Appendix: How Mandarins Are Made

The literature of no country is so abundant in noble sentiments as that of China. Happy, indeed, would be the people who should be governed according to the precepts of Confucius, of Mencius, and of Lao Tsŭ! The highest moral and political principles are in every mouth, at the tip of every pen. From the first day of his entering school the Chinese boy learns unctuously to recite the most virtuous precepts of the sages, yet learning is the one road to fortune through robbery, peculation, and extortion in their most refined shapes. With every rise in rank the opportunities of robbing the “Hundred Names” and defrauding the state are multiplied in a ratio increasing like the value of carats in diamonds: the wealth amassed by some of the great mandarins must be something fabulous. Take as an instance the war with Japan. The Chinese soldier, when properly led and fairly treated is an excellent fighting man. It is difficult to believe that the sons of the braves who under Tsêng Kwo Fan and San Ko Lin Sin, so stubbornly defended the bridge against the French and English in 1860, could have been driven from an impregnable position like Fort Arthur by the Japanese some thirty years later. But what troops could fight without food, arms, ammunition? Food, arms, ammunition, and pay had all found their way into the pockets of the mandarins. Would the brigade of Guards itself have stood to be mown down without being able to fire an effective shot in return? I was told on high authority that at the famous naval battle of the Yalu, which some experts have quoted as an object lesson in the naval warfare of the future, on the Chinese side only three live shells were fired, one of which disabled the Japanese flagship, and sent her steaming away into space. The comparison of the bankers’ books of some of the great mandarins before and after the war would be an interesting study.

The mandarins—one is compelled to use the old Portuguese word for want of a better—are recruited from two classes: the hereditary nobility, and those who obtain office nominally by examination, but often by purchase.

The hereditary nobility is composed of the members of the Imperial family with the five ranks, Kung, Hou, Po, Tsŭ, Nan,—which it has been the fashion to translate by duke, marquis, earl, viscount, baron.

The highest rank in the Imperial family is that of Chin Wang—“related prince,” or as we should say “Prince of the Blood.” In some cases this title is continued from generation to generation; in others there is a sliding scale downward through the ranks of Pei Lo and Pei Tsŭ to that of Kung or duke, below which members of the Imperial family do not descend.

In the same way with subjects, the rank of Kung is sometimes transmitted; in others the son of a Kung becomes a Hou, the son of a Hou a Po, and so on. The inheritor of a title must be the eldest son of the one legitimate wife, and not of a secondary wife, for although polygamy exists in China, there is, except in the case of the Emperor’s family, only one legitimately married wife, nor in her lifetime can there be another. The younger sons of nobles, even of the Imperial family, have no rank either by right or by courtesy; but the latter are generally raised to rank by being appointed general officers. Patents of nobility cannot be bought, at any rate not in theory.

The representative of the eldest branch of a family can, in the event of his being childless, adopt the child of a younger branch, and the child so adopted inherits the title. It sometimes happens that a younger brother who has become rich will bribe his eldest brother to adopt his child to the exclusion of the lawful heir and his issue.

The sovereign is, as with us, the fountain of honour, and it is he who confers these titles of nobility, which are accompanied by grants of land. As a general rule the land assigned to a Kung or a Hou would not exceed a circumference of 100 li = 33 miles, to a Po 70 li, and to the two lesser ranks 50 li.

Conspicuous among the nobles of China are the Pa Ta Chia, “the Eight great Families.” These are the descendants of the eight Princes who, waiving any claim to the throne, followed the reigning dynasty from Manchuria. Their rank remains unchanged for all generations. The representative of one of these, the Prince of I, was famous in the war of 1860. A year later, at the time of the Prince of Kung’s _coup d’état_, he fell into disgrace, and was “presented with the white kerchief” (made to commit suicide).

But the Imperial family and the hereditary nobles at Peking, valuable instruments of obstruction as they doubtless are, form but an infinitesimal portion of that colossal octopus of fraud and corruption which strangles the whole vast empire in its tentacles. The myriads of officials, from the exalted viceroys down to petty bloodsuckers of a rank about equal to that of a parish beadle, are either drawn from the so-called graduates of the examination halls, or have obtained their promotion by purchase—of the latter mode of reaching distinction there is nothing to be said; it is beautifully simple. But the examination system is very complicated and deserves some notice.

The following account of how mandarins are made is based upon an article of mine, for the most part translated from a paper by a native graduate, and published in _Macmillan’s Magazine_ in 1871:—

At the age of from six to eight years the Chinese boy is removed from the petting and pampering of the women’s apartments and is sent to school, where he receives his first lessons in reading and writing as purely mechanical processes. He is taught to read by droning out passages from the classics in hideous unison with his schoolmates, and to write by painting over characters printed on thin whitey-brown paper. This preliminary process of education lasts for some two years or more, at the end of which the young student is looked upon as sufficiently advanced to be instructed in the meaning of what he reads. The books now put into his hands are, of course, the famous Four Books and the Five Classics, every passage in which, with its hidden obscurities and doubtful interpretations, is diligently and painfully explained to him, until not only the text itself, but also every note and commentary with which successive ages of scholars have overlaid it, are familiar in his mouth as household words. Having accomplished this end the youth is allowed to try a flight upon his own wings, and begins to write essays and poetry, which, by useful and assiduous reading, he must model upon the best patterns. “Poetry of the Tang dynasty, handwriting of the Chin dynasty, essays of the Han dynasty,” says the proverb; these, with all humility, should the student endeavour to follow at however great a distance.

As soon as the young man’s compositions begin to take some sort of shape, and to satisfy the keen criticism of his master, when his language is neatly fitted to his thoughts, and he does not use so much as a particle out of its place, he may look forward to preparing himself to undergo his examination for the degree of Hsin Tsai, or Bachelor of Arts.

The examiner for this degree is an officer from the Han Lin (lit. Forest of Pencils), or Imperial Academy of Peking, and is specially appointed by the Emperor; one examiner is appointed for each province throughout the country, and he holds his examinations from town to town in the chief places of the province to which he is accredited.

We will suppose the examination to be taking place at Shun Ti̔en Fu, the provincial capital of Chih Li (the province in which Peking is situated). The examiner, having arrived with no small arrogance of dignity, takes up his abode in the Examination Hall inside the town. On an appointed day the undergraduate candidates from the various Chou and Hsien, or lesser towns which are dependent upon Shun Ti̔en Fu, crowd into the hall, and take their places each according to the township to which he may belong. As soon as his flock is gathered together, the examiner gives out two themes selected from the Four Books to serve as texts for essays, and one subject for an exercise in verse. Each candidate is expected to produce two essays and one set of twelve verses in rhyme; but he has plenty of time to perform his task, for the examination begins at four o’clock in the morning, and the papers are not given in until between five and seven o’clock in the evening. On the third day the examination list is given out: the examiner writes out the names of the successful candidates in order of merit, and gives it to the overseers of the hall, who, carrying it respectfully on their heads, go out and paste it on the wall fronting the entrance gate. Then follows a scene of excitement when the undergraduates besiege the gate to search for their names on the list. (Oxford over again!) “Should they have been successful,” says a native account, “they are now entitled to call themselves Hsin Tsai, and are so delighted that in their joy everything in heaven and earth seems lovely to them,” and they look forward to the day when they will receive the much-coveted official button.[19] The unhappy plucked ones must make the best of it and try again. Even now the Hsin Tsai’s troubles are not over; for there is a second examination, in which they are divided into three classes—the first class being privileged graduates eligible for honorary degrees entitling the possessors to become candidates for bettermost civil appointments. There is yet another distinction open to the privileged bachelors. Once in twelve years the degree of Pa Kung is given to a representative of each petty township: it is also conferred on the successful competitor in an examination held of privileged bachelors, in which case it is awarded to the cleverest, most respectable, and youngest of his class. When certain official appointments of an inferior grade are about to be made, the Emperor summons the bachelors of the grade of Pa Kung to court, where they are again made to go through an examination, and divided into three classes. The members of the first class are employed as brass button mandarins (officials of the seventh, eighth, and ninth classes); those of the second class are sent to be Chih Hsien, or magistrates of small towns; while the remainder are only eligible for employment as assistants in the public examinations.

Such, briefly, are the honours and offices open to a man who has passed his first examination. The degree of Chü Jên is a much more serious affair.

This examination takes place in fixed years; and when the appointed time comes all bachelors ambitious of promotion, together with a class of graduates called Chien Shêng, who have purchased their degree, prepare in fear and trembling for the ordeal.

On the 6th day of the 8th month of the year an Imperial decree is issued, appointing the officials who are to conduct the examination. There are three chief examiners and eighteen assistant examiners, with a whole number of subordinates, who search the candidates as they come in, to see that no books, or memoranda, or other aids to intelligence, are smuggled in; besides these there is a strong _posse_ of Imperial informers, who watch all that goes on, and keep up a sort of secret police in the hall. The whole of the compositions of the masters expectant are handed over to copyists, who transcribe them, lest the handwritings of the candidates being recognised by the examiners there should be any foul play, and the copies so made are compared with the originals by clerks appointed for the purpose. Besides all these persons, there are 180 minor officials who superintend all petty details. The examination is divided into three parts. On the 8th day of the month the first part begins. The candidates are divided into four companies, to each of which is assigned a door. At each of the doors stand two Imperial informers—the one a Manchu, the other a Chinese—whose duty it is to mark off the names of the candidates, and to distribute to each a roll of paper, giving the number of the cell allotted to him, to which he carries his provision of food and bedding, for he will be locked up in solitary confinement for three days and nights. In the evening, when the candidates have all been pricked in, every door is sealed, and all coming in or going out is rendered impossible.

The exercises set for the first part of the examination consist of three essays from the Four Books, and one composition in verse. The first subject is selected, or supposed to be selected, by the Emperor in person, and the remainder are chosen by the chief examiners. The _Cycle_, an English newspaper published at Shanghai, once gave the texts chosen for such exercises at an examination held at Wu Chang.

I. From the _Lun Yu_, the _Analects of Confucius_:—“Tsŭ Yu, being governor of Wu Ching, the master said to him, ‘Have you got such a thing as a real Man in the place?’ He answered, ‘Here is Tan Tai Mieh Ming, who does not in walking side off by a short cut, nor come to my office except on public business.’”

II. From the _Chung Yung_ of Kung Chi, the grandson of Confucius:—“He only who is accomplished, learned, profound, and critical, has wherewith to exercise sound judgment.”

III. From the _Shang Mang_ of Mencius:—“When any one told Tsŭ Lu that he had a fault he was pleased with him. When Yu heard anybody say a wise thing he bowed to him.”

Each of these essays was required to contain not less than three hundred, nor more than eight hundred words.

The theme for the poetical exercise was “An observer of the beauties of Nature being so absorbed as to forget the march of a whole round of seasons.”

Such are the proofs of superior wisdom and learning in which if a man excel he is qualified to rule others! Chinese scholarship is very difficult of attainment; perhaps if it were impossible the world would hardly be much the poorer.

When the subjects have been selected and approved by the Emperor, they are sealed up in a box and given over to the care of a chief eunuch of the palace, to be handed to the chief examiners, who cause them to be engraved on wood and printed. On the 10th day of the month the essays are handed in, and the candidates leave the building.

The officers having received the exercises, examine them carefully to see whether there be any informality in them: if they should discover anything like an infringement of prescribed custom the papers are rejected, the peccant candidate’s name is struck off the list, and he is incapacitated from taking part in the second examination. If the papers are in due form they are sent into the copying department, where they are copied in red ink; thence into the comparing department, and sealing department, where the mottoes borne by the originals are pasted on to them. They now find their way into the superintendent’s office, and he forwards them to the eighteen junior examiners.

With pain and care, measuring every word and weighing to a nicety the fitness of every particle, these learned men apply themselves to the criticism of the papers before them. Those that find favour in their eyes are docketed as good, and given back to the superintendent, who passes them to the three chiefs. Should they fail to satisfy these they are thrown into the waste-paper basket, but the candidate still has the credit of having passed the first test. Should they satisfy the chiefs they are marked with the character Chung, signifying that they have hit the mark; but only a limited number of candidates are admitted to the degree at one examination.

The second examination takes place on the 11th day of the month, and consists in writing five essays upon texts taken from the Five Classics; the third test, which is held on the 14th of the month, is devoted to the propounding of five sets of questions on the subject of literature, political economy, or general science. According to the _Cycle_, “the first question asked at Wu Chang was of the nature of criticism of the classics; the second question was on historical matters; the third on military colonisation. (The Chinese Government hoping to save their western provinces by allotting land to soldiers on the frontier line, requiring them to keep themselves in readiness for fighting.) The fourth question entered into the various plans adopted by previous dynasties in the selection of suitable persons to hold the offices of government. The fifth question referred to the ancient and modern geography of Ching Chan Fu, the course of the waters of the Han and the Yangtze, and the history of the Tung Ting Lake.” The answers to each of the five questions were to contain a minimum of five hundred words.

It occasionally happens that after the list of successful candidates has been made up, the work of some new bachelor is recommended to the notice of the examiners. Should the essays which he sends in show pre-eminent ability, their fortunate author is rewarded with the degree of Fu Pang, or assistant master; and if the list of Fu Pang be already full, then he is appointed Tan Lu, a distinction bringing with it no advancement in rank in the state, but rendering its possessor eligible for certain offices.

During the examination at Wu Chang a subordinate official of the examination hall was convicted of having passed manuscripts to one of the candidates. The punishment was summary. The official was beheaded, the candidate banished to the frontiers, and the graduate who wrote the forged essay was sentenced to be executed when captured. As the writer of the article in the _Cycle_, from which I have quoted, observes, “It is interesting to find the Chinese authorities so prompt and just in punishing the guilty. If some unfortunate foreigner had been murdered by these precious literati, the governor would have declared it to be impossible to touch the offenders in the presence of a myriad of members of their order.” More probably he would either have declared that he could not find them, or have executed a certain number of jail-birds as substitutes.

Perhaps the candidate was a foolish candidate, and hush-money was either wanting or insufficient. But in that case it was as it should be, for by not bribing he clearly showed his incapacity for holding high official position. He did not recognise the privileges of the class which it was his ambition to enter, and he gave the officers of the hall an opportunity of showing a little cheap zeal in the execution of their duty, to his great discomfiture.

When the three tests are ended and the degrees have all been conferred, the superintendent of the examination hall addresses a petition to the Emperor, praying that a day may be fixed for publishing the names of the successful candidates. This generally takes place on the 10th day of the following month. On the first day of the ceremonies of publication a table is ordered to be set out in the hall called Chih Kung Tang, the Hall of Justice unsurpassed. The three chief examiners, with the two chief superintendents, solemnly take their places at the table, and on either side, spread out diagonally “like a goose’s wings,” as the Chinese writer puts it, are the eighteen junior examiners, all clad in their official robes. All this galaxy of learning and wisdom is gathered together to witness the breaking of the seals of the exercises, and to hear the calling out of the names which are written on the list. Next morning, before daybreak, the list is rolled up and placed inside a palanquin of honour, richly decorated with coloured silks; a procession is formed, headed by standard-bearers carrying emblems, as at a wedding, and the whole heaven is filled with the sound of drums and of delicate music, gongs being beaten to clear the road. Immediately behind the palanquin containing the precious list march the chief examiners and their subordinates, who accompany it outside the Dragon Gate. This gate of the examination hall is so called allegorically, because in the same way as the fish rose from the sea to heaven, and became perfected into the heavenly dragon, so the successful candidates have, by the grace of learning, cast off the grosser clay of which they were formed, and have risen to the heaven of rank and fame. The superintendents of the hall escort the list as far as the outer gate of the provincial capital, where it is hung up on a high platform specially erected for the purpose.

When the list has thus been finally published, etiquette requires that the new Masters of Arts should go and pay their respects to the chief and junior examiners. At these visits much wine is drunk, and an adjournment to the theatre takes place, where the party witness the deadly dulness of an historical piece, relieved, it is true, by the performance of grossly indecent farces, and by the consumption of the usual refreshments of fried melon-seeds, sweetmeats, cakes, and tea.

In spite of all the pains taken nominally to insure fairness and exclude any possibility of trickery, Chinese ingenuity would belie itself if it did not find means of giving the slip to all law and rule, and of satisfying greed thereby. Though the candidate’s name is not known until the papers have been examined and judged, they will be framed in such a way as to let the examiner know who is the author—as, for instance, by agreeing beforehand that the briber’s essay shall begin and end with certain words. On the other hand, if the officers of the copying and comparing departments have not received their fee, they can throw any candidate’s work all out of tune with the greatest ease. Nor is there any appeal. The copy in red ink which is sent in to the junior examiners stands as the _ipsissima verba_ of the writer. By one slip a spiteful copyist may spoil the best essay.

The examination for the third and highest degree, that of Chin Shih, or Doctor, does not differ materially in character from that of Chü Jên or Master of Arts, except in the fact that whereas the latter is held in provincial capitals, the former is held only at Shun Tien Fu, at which city the candidates from every part of the empire have to attend. The expense and difficulties of what may be a very long and expensive journey naturally tend to limit the number of aspirants.

After the publication of the list of successful candidates a last examination is held at Peking in the Imperial palace. According to their performances in this final test the doctors are divided into three classes. The first class consists only of the three best men in order of merit, who are called respectively Chuang Yüan, Pang Yüan, and Tan Hwa, which might be translated Senior Wrangler, Second Wrangler, and Golden Spoon; the second class contains from seven to ten names; and the third class is made up of the remainder, and may consist of two hundred men or more. At the second part of this examination the doctors are presented to the Son of Heaven, who in person appoints them to various offices in the state. The Senior Wrangler is usually employed as a writer of records in the Forest of Pencils, while the Second Wrangler and the Golden Spoon are appointed to be correctors. All the doctors are sure of obtaining some appointment, but not of keeping it unless they show official capacity, of which the most infallible proof is the liberal opening of a long purse.

“In the olden time,” writes a native author, “a man need only pass the degree of Hsin Tsai, or Bachelor, to be sure of obtaining some office in the state. But nowadays there are too many who buy their rank, so that a man’s merit is measured by the capacity of his purse, while the right men are pushed out of the right place. Hence it comes that many a ripe scholar, if he have but enough means to keep the life within him, and be a man of spirit to boot, will rather remain in obscurity as a private individual than be mixed up with such men as hold office. Good men holding aloof, the officials of the country are but a sorry lot after all. How can we be surprised if discontent and treason are rife?”

These are the words of a modern scholar, savouring somewhat of sour grapes, it is true. Yet as early as five hundred years before Christ, Lao Tsŭ, the founder of the Taoist sect, pointed out the vanity and hollowness of the system of education and government into which the country was drifting. “If some men,” said the sage, “would abandon their learning and cast away their wisdom the people would be benefited a hundred-fold.” Of all the Chinese philosophers Lao Tsŭ was probably the one whose teaching of simple virtue approached the nearest to the Christian standard. Confucius himself, after having had an interview with him, said to his disciples, “I know how the birds fly, how the fishes swim, how the beasts run, and the runner may be snared, the swimmer may be hooked, and the flyer may be shot by the arrow.[20] But there is the dragon. I cannot tell how he mounts on the wind through the clouds and rises to heaven. To-day I have seen Lao Tsŭ, and can only compare him to the dragon.”[21]

It can hardly be said that matters have improved since the old days of Lao Tsŭ.

By permission of “The Times.”

REFERENCE.

1. British Legation.
2. Russian ”
3. American ”
4. German ”
5. Spanish ”
6. Japanese ”
7. French ”
8. Austrian ”
9. Italian ”
10. Imperial Maritime Customs
11. American Mission and Hospital Buildings.
12. British do. do.
13. French Eastern Cathedral and Mission Buildings.
14. French Southern Cathedral and Mission Buildings.
15. French Northern Cathedral and Mission Buildings.

London: Macmillan & Co., Ltd.

_Stanford’s Geog^l. Estab^t. London_]

INDEX

Acrobats, 233

Agriculture, soil, etc., 87, 109, 137, 261, 298, 318

Albazines, Russian colony in Peking, 212, Pref. li.

Alcock, Sir Rutherford, at Peking, 177, 182, 184, 189, 240; municipal
system established by, at Shanghai, 40

American commercial interests in China, 263

Ancestor worship and religious rites, 171, 222, 345, Pref. xxix.–xxxiv.
(See also Monks.)

Anti-foreign feeling in China, 29, 39, 238, Pref. vi.–viii. xi. xiv.
xli.

Anting plain, 75

Apakwai, widow, 284–286

Arithmetic, Chinese method of counting on fingers, 248

Army, Chinese, inferiority of, 83; review, 75; war with Japan, 357

Astrology, belief in influence on health, 94

“Beggar’s Bridge,” Peking, 95, 127

Belgian interests in China, 264

Boat women, 2, 18

Books on China, Pref. v. xvi. xli. lviii.

Boots, Chinese pockets, 70, 259

Brenchley, Mr., 312, 313

Brick tea made for Mongolia, 272

British Legation, Peking, described, 66

Bruce, Sir Frederic, 71, 317

Buddhism, Pref. xiii. xiv. xix.

Buildings described—
British Legation, Peking, 66
Hong-kong houses, 3
Interior of a Peking mandarin’s home, 230
Shih-san-Ling, Ming tombs, 156–162, 249
Temples (see that name)
Theatre in Peking, 347
Yuen-Ming-Yuen, Imperial summer palace, 111–116

Burmah, Pref. li.

Business methods, 147

Caffieri, 244

Camels, 322

Candida, Christian convert in seventeenth century, 22, 36

Canton, description of, 17–32; bombardment of, in 1856, 24; population,
24; prosperity of, 29; Shah-Meen, English quarter, 30; temples, 25;
gardens, 30

Capital city, advisability of change, Pref. xliv.–lvii.

Cavagnari, Sir Louis, murder of, at Cabul, Pref. viii.

Céladon, Jaspé, 244

Cemeteries, beauty of sites for, 87, 158

Cha Mai Chu, muleteer, 317

Cha Tao, 254

Chai Ling, Mongolia, 326

Chang Chia Ko̔u, frontier town, Mongolia, 261, 265, 313, 315

Chang Hsi, Mr. Mitford’s servant, 178, 246, 249, 270

Chang Leang, Mongolia, 320

Chang-ma-tsze-chin, Mongolia, 283

Chang-Ping-Chou, scene of tragedy of 1860, 153, 155, 249

Chang-tu-ho, Mongolia, 286

Chien-Lung, Emperor, 65, 100, 101, 335

Chien Mên, gate in Peking, 222

Chien Shêng, class of graduates, 365

Chih Hsien, magistrates of small towns, 364

Chihfu town, 45

Chihli, province in which is Peking, 362, Pref. li.

Chi-ling, or Kylin, 157

Chin Shih, degree, 372

Chinese characteristics, etc.—
Anti-foreign feeling, 29, 39, 238, Pref. vi.–viii. xi. xiv. xli.
Clothing, 185, 190
Country folk, civility of, 96, 129, 294, 304, 345; exception, 138
Dirt of, 34, 95
Domestic life, unknown to foreigners, 229
Ignorance of European life and customs, 124
Inquisitiveness, 96, 123, 258, 295
Noise, love of, 102, 122, 260, 341
Superstitions, a bar to progress, 167
Sweetmeats, fondness for, 171
Thieves, cleverness of, 9
Traders, ability as, Pref. xxxix.

Chinese Mesopotamian treaty, 174

Ching dynasty (the present), Pref. xxiii.–xxv.

Ching Ta̔i, Emperor, 244

Cholera, 204

Chopsticks, 78, 232

Chou-Hsin, Emperor, 214

Christianity (see under Religion)

Chü Jên, degree, 364–372

Chu-Yung-Kwan, town, 253

Chung, Minister of Foreign Office, 237

Chung Ch’êng, Emperor, Pref. xxv.

Chwang Yuen, Chinese senior wrangler, 373

Civilisation of China, ancient _v._ modern, Pref. ix.–xi.

Clement XI., Pope, important decision of, Pref. xxxiii.

Climate and temperature, 80, 87, 106–108, 163, 179, 184, 200, 209, 217,
239, 282, 308, 310, 315, 342; Hong-kong, 12; rain and snow prayed
for, 88, 209, 217, 314

Cloisonné enamel, 126, 244

Clothing, Chinese, 185, 190

Coalfields, 257

Confucius—
Enlightened teaching of, Pref. x. xxxii.; worship of, Pref.
xxix.–xxxiv.; eulogy of Lao Tsŭ, 374

Conolly, Dick, 344

Cooks, Chinese, ability of, 20, 114

Corea, expedition to, by Mr. Thomas, 206–208

Country folk, civility of, 96, 129, 294, 304, 345; exception, 138

Crealock, Mr., 57

Currency, 311

_Cycle_, the, Shanghai paper, quoted, 366, 369

Davis, Sir John, referred to, 150, Pref. v.

Degrees (see under Education)

Denmark, interests in China, 264

Dirt of Chinese, 34, 95

Diseases and medicine—
Chinese doctors and remedies, 93, 107, 116
Cholera, 204
Deafness, 305
Goitres, 305
“Ho ting hung,” poisonous drug, 193
Ophthalmia, 117
Smallpox, 71, 310

Dogs, 23, 82, 96, 164, 246, 275, 281, 285

Domestic life of Chinese, unknown to foreigners, 229

Dominicans, Pref. xxvi. xxx.–xxxiv.

Dragons, myths concerning, 154, 314

Dust storms, 63

Education, early, 361; degrees, 142, 362–373; village school, 303;
morality taught, but not practised, 357

Elgin, Lord, 68

Emperors—
Chien-Lung, 65, 100, 101, 335
Ching Ta̔i, 244
Chou-Hsin, 214
Chung Ch’êng, Pref. xxv.
Dynasties of, Pref. x. xxiii.
Hsien Fêng, 73 (note)
Ka̔ng-Hsi, 212, 302, 345, Pref. xxv. xxvii. xxxi.–xxxv.
Kwang Hsu (reigning), Pref. xlix. lvi.
Ming dynasty established, Pref. xvii.; Ming tombs, 156–162, 249
Ming Ti, Pref. xiii.
Names given to, 160
Shih, builder of the Great Wall, 148
Shun Chih, Pref. xxv.
Tao Kwang, 74
Tung Chi, 73 (note)
Wan Li, Pref. xx.
Wu Wang, 213
Yung Chêng, Pref. xxxv.
Yung-Lo, 159

Empress Tsŭ Hsi (reigning), history of, 73 (note); choice of capital,
Pref. xlvii. xlviii. l. lii.

Empress-dowager, honours paid to, in China, 73 (note)

England, commercial interests in China, 263, Pref. li.; Lord
Salisbury’s policy, Pref. liv.

Execution, Chinese, described, 190–199

Farquhar, Sir Eric, 311, 340, 344

Feet, women’s, 137

Felt, Chinese method of making, 321

Fêng Ming Hsien, Mongolia, 301

“Fêng Shui,” wind and water system, 167

Fireworks, 171

“Flower-boats,” 19

Fohkien, province, 181

Food, ability of Chinese cooks, 20, 114; daily meals in Hong-kong,
13; feasts given by Hêng-Chi, 77–79, 203; breakfast given to
Europeans by a mandarin, 232; restaurant in Peking, 312; in Mongol
yurts, 279; difficulty of obtaining in the country, 331; game,
180; sweetmeats, or “po-po,” 171, 203; brick tea in Mongolia, 272;
“Rice,” term for meals, 138

France, China question and, 263, Pref. li.

Franciscans, Pref. xxvi. xxx.–xxxiv.

Frater, Mr., 128, 150

Funeral, Chinese, 306

Game, 180

Gardens, private, in Canton, 30

Germany, China question and, 263, Pref. xlvii. l.

God (Christian) controversy concerning Chinese name for, Pref. xxvi.
xxix. xxxi.–xxxiv.

Gods and goddesses—
Kwan-Ti, god of war, 201, 223, 273
Kwang-Yin, goddess of mercy, 154
Ti Tsang Wang, 346
Tsai-shên, god of commerce, 172
Tsao, god of the hearth, 220
Wên Shên, god of pestilence, 204

Goitres, 141, 305

Gordon, Gen., 84

Government, Chinese—
Foreign policy, 85, 118, 169, 174–177, 181, Pref. xlvii.–l.; dread of
reform, Pref. xi.; corruption of officials, 360, 370; over-taxation
in the country, 153

Government, foreign, past and future policy, Pref. xliv.–lvii.

Great Wall, 137, 148–150, 273, 318

Gros, Baron, 68, 165, 167

Ha Pa Chiao, Mongolia, 289

Hai Tien, village, 331

Hailstones, formation and size, 310

Han Chang-kwei-ti, merchant, Peking, 347

Hart, Sir Robert, 118, 226

“Heavenly Flowers” (smallpox), 310

Hei Lung Tan, temple, 344

Hêng-Chi, Minister of Foreign Affairs, 69, 72, 75–79, 168, 203, 237, 260

Ho Nan, province, Pref. xiii.

“Ho ting hung,” poisonous drug, 193

Hong-kong—
Landing at, 1–3; general description, 3–15; life in, 12; mixed
population of, 5

Horses, 51, 164, 257, 275, 284, 332; horse brigands, 288; horse-fair,
292

House-steamers between Hong-kong and Canton, 16

Hsi an Fu, intended creation of, as capital, by Empress Tsŭ Hsi, Pref.
l. liii.

Hsiang Shui Pu, town, 257

Hsien Fêng, Emperor, 73 (note)

Hsin Pao An, town, 255

Hsin Tsai, 363

Hsü, Minister of Foreign Affairs, 181

Hsü Hsien Shêng, Mr. Mitford’s teacher, 178

Hsüeh, Minister, degradation of, 182

Hsuên Hwa Fu, town, 260

Hsuan Hua Fu, city, 257

Hung Tu̔ng Tien, Mongolia, 297

Hwai Lai Hsien, town, 254

I, Prince of, 360

Inns and lodgings (see under Travelling)

Inquisitiveness of Chinese, 96, 123, 258, 295

Insects, 91, 101, 123, 139, 326

Intemperance, rarity of, in China, 255

Japan, war with China, 357; civilisation of, Pref. viii. x.

Jesuits, history of, in China, Pref. xvii.–xxxvi.

Jews in China, Pref. xii.

Jo Hol, palace in Manchuria, 101

John of Monte Corvino, Pref. xv.

Jugglers, 234

Junks, 18

Kai Fêng, Jewish colony, Pref. xii.

Kambaluk, ancient name for Peking, Pref. xv.

Kang (stove), 133

Ka̔ng-Hsi, Emperor, 212, 302, 345; Pref. xxv. xxvii. xxxi.–xxxv.

Kites, 221

Kou Mên Tzŭ, Mongolia, 295

Kowloon, peninsula, 14

Ku, Mr. Mitford’s teacher, 81, 178

Ku Pei Ko̔u, frontier town, Mongolia, 141–150, 307, 315, 327

Ku-Lin-Shu, village, 129

Kung, Prince of, 67–72, 165, 187, 189, 240

Kwa Ti Erh, Mongolia, 298

Kwa Yo Erh, Mongolia, 304

Kwan-Ti, god of war, 201, 223, 273

Kwang Hsu, Emperor (reigning), Pref. xlix. lvi.

Kwang—Yin, goddess of mercy, 154

Kwei Chao, town, Pref. xlvii.

Kwo Chia Tu̔n, Mongolia, 298

Language—
“Pidgin” English, 4; how Mr. Mitford learnt Chinese, 81, 91;
difficulties of, incident, 342; accurate knowledge of, necessary to
missionaries, Pref. xxxvi.

Lao Tsŭ, founder of Taoist sect, 374

Lao Wo Pu̔, Mongolia, 297

Li, governor of province, 84

Li, herbalist at Ku Pei Ko̔u, 327

Li Hung Chang, Pref. xi. xlix. lvii.

Liang, minister, 213

Liang Kung Fu, British Legation, Peking, 66

Lien Hwa Tan, Mongolia, 318

“Ling Chih,” punishment by slow death, 198

Literary style, importance of, in China, Pref. xix.

Liu, account by, of Ta-Chio-Ssŭ, 333

Liu-Li-Chang, street in Peking, 126, 224

Lizards, 110

Llama Miao, Mongolia, 290–294

Llama temple, Peking, 119

Llamas (see Monks)

Longobardi, Father, Pref. xxii.

Lung Wang Miao, temple, 314

Ma, merchant, Canton, 241–243

Ma Shên Miao, temple, 286

Macao, 32, 264

Maigrot, Bishop, Pref. xxxi. xxxiii. xxxiv.

Manchuria, reigning dynasty from, 360;
Russia and, Pref. li.

Mandarins—
Attainment of rank, 358–374; unprincipled character of, 217, 357;
hostility to foreigners, Pref. vi. xi. xiv. xli.

Martin, Dr., Chinese translation of Wheaton’s _International Law_, 86

Mas, M. de, Spanish Minister, 168

Medicine (see Disease)

Mezzabarba, papal legate to Ka̔ng Hsi, Pref. xxxiv.

Miao Fêng Shan, shrine, 309

Military review, 75

Ming dynasty, Pref. xvii. xxiii.–xxv.

Ming Ti, Emperor who introduced Buddhism, Pref. xiii.

Ming Tombs, Shih-san-Ling, 156–162, 249

Missionaries—
History of early missions, Pref. xv.–xxxvi.; religious dissensions
amongst themselves, Pref. xxix.–xxxiv. xliii.; qualifications
necessary to succeed in China, Pref. xxxvi.–xxxviii.; French, 169;
unwise championship of converts, Pref. xlii.; Russian Mission in
Peking, 210, 212; China Inland Mission, Pref. xliii.

Mi-Yün-Hsien, city, 136, 150

Mobbing Europeans, 258, 319

Mohammedanism, Pref. xiii. xiv.

Mongolia—
Chai Ling, 326
Chang Chia Ko̔u, 313, 315
Chang Leang, 320
Chang-tu-ho, 286
Chinese boundary of, 308
Chinese colonies in, 283, 307
Dogs, 281
Fêng Ming Hsien, 301
Food eaten in yurts, 272, 279
Ha Pa Chiao, 289
Horses (see that name)
Hung Tu̔ng Tien, 297
Kou Mên Tzŭ, 295
Kwa Ti Erh, 298
Kwa Yo Erh, 304
Kwo Chia Tu̔n, 298
Lao Wo Pu̔, 297
Lien Hwa Tan, 318
Llama Miao, 290–294
Mongols, 120, 134, 281, 284
Niu Chuên Tzŭ, 301
Pa Ta, 273
Pan Shan Tu, 276
Passes into, from China, 315
Po Li Nao, 304
Shi Pa Li Tai, 274
Shou Hu Ying, 302
Shui-Hsien-Tszŭ, 295
Steppes, 274
Ta Kao, 324
Ta Liang Ti, 287
Ta Tan, 321
Tu Shih Ko̔u, 318
Tu-ting, 272
Yurts or huts, 277–282

Monks and llamas, 27, 88, 104, 291, 336–339, 341, 344, 345

Morales, Spanish Dominican, 31

Morrison, Dr., quoted, Pref. xiii. xli.

Mu-Chia-Yu, 137

Mules (see under Travelling)

Murray, Mr., 146, 150

Musical instruments, 121, 222, 233, 348

Nanchang, school established by Father Ricci, Pref. xix.

Nanking, meaning of name, 61; suggested as capital in place of Peking,
Pref. xlv.–liv.

Nan-Ko̔u, town and pass, 250–254

Nei Nei Shan, mountain, 256

New Year festivities in Peking, 220–226

Niu Chuên Tzŭ, Mongolia, 301

Niu-Lan-Shan, 130

Nobility of China, 358–360

Noise, Chinese love of, 102, 122, 260, 341

Ophthalmia, 117

Opium smokers and trade, 300; Pref. xxxix.–xli.

Pa Kung, degree, 364

Pa Ta, Mongolia, 273

Pa Ta Chia, “Eight great Families,” 360

Pa Ta Chu, Russian summer quarters, 340

Pa Ta Ling, ruins of, 254

Palikao bridge, 57

Palladius, Archimandrite, 210

Palmerston, Lord, 188, 213

Palmistry, 107, 328

Pan Shan Tu, Mongolia, 276

Pang Yuen, Chinese second wrangler, 373

Pantoja, companion of Father Ricci, Pref. xx.

Pao, mandarin in Chang Chia Ko̔u, 267–269

Parkes, Sir Harry, 38

Partition of China, Pref. l.–liv.

Passport difficulties, 266–269

Peiho river, 48–50, 55

Peking—
“Beggar’s Bridge,” 95, 127
British Legation, 66
Chien Mên gate, 222
Chihli, in province of, 362, Pref. li.
Division into two cities, 61
Dust in, 63
“House of Eternal Prosperity,” restaurant, 312
Kambaluk, ancient name for, Pref. xv.
Llama temple, 119
Liu-li-chang (street), 224
Outrages of 1900, Pref. xliv.–lvii.
_Peking Gazette_, 200
Races, 237
Size and population, 64
Street of Lanterns, 221
Tê Shêng Mên (Victory gate), 246
Theatre, 347–355
Unsuitability of, as capital, Pref. xliv.–liv.
Walls of, 59, 61

Peter the Great, 212

Pi Yün Ssŭ, summer quarters of British Legation, 80, 87–94, 99, 102–111

Pichon, M., French attaché, 204

Pigs and pork, 134

Pigtails, 7, 34

“Pilgrim’s Progress,” Chinese translation, 271

Pin Chun, mission to England, 226–228

Po Li Nao, Mongolia, 304

“Po-po” sweetmeats, 171, 203

Po-Ting-Qua, Canton merchant, 30

Pogojeff, Dr., Russian Legation, 240, 340

Pok Fo Lum, 15

Polygamy, 359

Population, Peking, 64; Hong-kong, 5; Canton, 24

Portugal, interests in China, 264

“Psalm of Life,” Chinese translation, 70

Pu-ta-jên, Chinese for Sir F. Bruce, 71

Races at Peking, 237; at Tientsing, 50

Rain and snow, prayers for, 88, 209, 217, 314

Rebellion, Tai Ping, 37, 40, 83, 98, 176, 217, Pref. vi.

Religion—
Ancestor worship and religious rites, 171, 222, 345, Pref.
xxix.–xxxiv. (see also Monks)
Buddhism, Pref. xiii. xiv. xix.
Christianity, history of, in China, Pref. xiv.–xliv. (see also
Missionaries)
Mohammedanism, Pref. xiii. xiv.
Monks and Llamas (see that name)
Taoism, 374, Pref. xiii.
Toleration of other creeds, Pref. xii. xxxviii.

Ricci, Father, life and work of, Pref. xviii.–xxii. xxix. xxx. xxxvi.

Rice, term for meals, 138

Roads, 57, 253, 300, 331

Rocks, curious shapes, 323;
painting on, 324

Ruggiero, Father, Pref. xviii.

Russia, trade with China, 262, 264; partition question, Pref. li.

Sa, mandarin convicted of theft, 218

Saint François Xavier, Pref. xvii.

Salisbury, Lord, policy of, Pref. liv.

San Ko Lin Sin, General, 105, 358

Sangkolinsin, Mongol chief, 59

Saoul, Corea, 206, 207

Saurin, Mr., 50, 91, 128, 150, 188

Scenery—
Hills near Peking, 86; Hong-kong, 14; between Peking and Great Wall,
137, 141, 149; Nan-Ko̔u and Pass, 250–254; Mongolia, 274, 286, 295,
297, 299, 301, 305, 318, 320, 322

Schall, Father, life and work of, Pref. xxiv.–xxvii. xxix. xxxvi.

School, village, 303

Scorpions, 91, 108

Servants, number of, necessary, 92; ability of cooks, 20, 114

Shah-Meen, English quarter of Canton, 30

Shan Hsi, town, 201, 202

Shang Chuen, where St. François Xavier died, Pref. xvii.

Shang Ti, Christian God, Pref. xxvi. xxix.

Shanghai, general description, 37–41; municipal system established by
Sir R. Alcock, 40

Shantung, insurrection, 83, 98, Pref. vi.; partition question, Pref. l.
li.

Shao Ching Fu, first Jesuit church established at, Pref. xviii.

Shao-To, 110, 114, 145

Shi Pa Li Tai, Mongolia, 274

Shih, Emperor, builder of the Great Wall, 148

Shih-san-Ling, Ming emperors’ tombs, 156–162, 249

Shi-ling, village, 136

Shops and street life, Peking, 120–126, 309; Canton, 21–24, 31;
Tientsing, 52

Shou Hu Ying, Mongolia, 302

Shrines, 154, 252, 309

Shui-Hsien-Tszŭ, Mongolia, 295

Shun Chih, Emperor, Pref. xxv.

Shun Tien Fu, town, 362, 373

Skating, 209

Slave-selling described, 241–243

Smallpox, 71, 310

Spain, interests in China, 264

Ssŭ-Chuan, province, 169

Steppes, Mongolia, 274

Street of Lanterns, Peking, 221

Su, Prince of, 171

Sü, Christian convert in seventeenth century, Pref. xx. xxxvi.

Sü Chia Wei, Roman Catholic mission near Shanghai, Pref. xxii.

Suicide, 202, 360

Sun-Ho, near Peking, 129

Superstition a bar to progress, 167

Sweetmeats, Chinese fondness for, 171, 203

Ta-Chio-Ssŭ, summer quarters of British Legation, 330–338

Ta Kao, Mongolia, 324

Ta Liang Ti, Mongolia, 287

Ta Tan, felt factory, Mongolia, 321

Tai Kung, story of, 214

Tai Ping rebellion, 37, 40, 83, 98, 176, 217, Pref. vi.

Taku Forts, 48

Tan Hwa, golden spoon, 373

Tao Kwang, Emperor, 74

Taoism, 374, Pref. xiii.

Tê Shêng Mên, Victory gate, Peking, 246

Tea trade, 4, 97, 272

Telegraph apparatus, attempt to introduce, by Russian Government, 165

Temples—
“Five Hundred Saints,” Canton, 25
Hei Lung Tan, 344
In hills near Peking, 88
Llama, Peking, 119
Llama Miao, Mongolia, 290–294
Lung Wang Miao, 314
Ma Shên Miao, Mongolia, 286
Pa Ta Chu, Russian Legation summer quarters, 340
“Punishments,” Canton, 25
Ta-chio-Ssŭ, British Legation summer quarters, 330–338
Wang-ta-jên Miao, Mongolia, 287
Wo-Fo-Ssŭ, 99

Theatre, Peking, 347–355

Theatricals at British Legation, 216; village, 341

Thieves, cleverness of, 9

Thomas, Mr., expeditions to Corea, 205–208

Thunderstorms, 289, 310

Ti Tsang Wang, a god, 346

Ti-tu, official at Ku Pei Ko̔u, 144–147

Ti̔en, Heaven or God (Christian), Pref. xxvi. xxix. xxxi.–xxxiv.

Ti̔en-Hou, queen of heaven, 154

Tien Wang, chief of Tai Ping rebellion, 217

Tientsing, general description, 50–54

Tournon, Patriarch of Antioch, Pref. xxxiii.

Trade—
England and America, 263
Canton, 29
Opium, Pref. xxxix.–xli.
Russia, 262, 264
Shanghai, 37
Tea, 4, 97, 272
Tientsing, 53
Traders, ability of Chinese as, Pref. xxxix.

Travelling—
Carts, 151, 247, 312
Hong-kong to Canton, 16
Hong-kong to Shanghai, 33
Inns and lodgings, 130, 142, 258, 273, 277–282, 284, 290, 302, 304,
320, 323, 324, 326, 327
Mules, 247; mule litters, 316, 325; muleteers, 249, 264, 269–271, 317
Passport difficulties, 144–147
Peking to Great Wall, 128–162
Peking to Mongolia, 246–309, 313–329
Roads, 57, 253, 300, 331
Shanghai to Tientsing, 41–50
Tientsing to Peking, 55
Yang-tse-Kiang river, 36

Tree cigala, 101

Tsai-shên, god of commerce, 172

Tsao, god of the hearth, 220

Tsêng Kwo Fan, General, 358; Pref. vii.

Tsu Hsi, Empress (reigning), history of, 73 (note); choice of capital,
Pref. xlvii. xlviii. l. lii.

Tsung-Li-Yamên (Chinese Foreign Office), 181, 190, 240

Tu Mu, town, 255

Tu Shih Kou, Mongolia, 315, 318

Tu-ting, Mongolia, 272

Tuan, Prince, Pref. lii. lvi.

Tung Chi, Emperor, 73 (note)

Tung-Ling, tombs of Ching emperors, 173

Tung-ta-jên, translator of “Psalm of Life,” 69, 70; Preface to
Wheaton’s _International Law_, 86

Tungchou, 56

Valignani, Father, Pref. xviii.

Verbiest, Father, life and work of, Pref. xxvii.–xxix. xxxvi.

Vlangaly, M., Russian minister, 166

Wade, Mr., _chargé d’affaires_ at Peking, 57, 59, 71

Wampoa, 17

Wan Li, Emperor, Pref. xx.

Wang-ho-lou, Peking racecourse, 237

Wang-ta-jên Miao, Mongol temple, 287

Wei-ta-jên, Chinese for Mr. Wade, 71

Wên Hsiang, Minister of Foreign Affairs, 85, 173

Wên Shên, god of pestilence, 204

Wên Wang, Emperor, 213

Wheaton’s _International Law_, Chinese translation, 86, 175

Williams, Dr. Wells, referred to, 73 (note), 310, Pref. xii. xvii.
xxiv. xxxi. xxxv.

Wo-Fo-Ssŭ, temple, 99

Wood, scarcity of, 160

Wu Wang, Emperor, 213

Yalu, naval battle of, 358

Yang and Yin, universal principle, 150

Yang Ho, river, 256

Yang Lao Yeh, mandarin in Peking, 229–236

Yang-tse-Kiang, river, 36

Yuen-Ming-Yuen, Imperial summer palace, 111–116, 209

Yun-nan, Pref. li.

Yung Chêng, Emperor, Pref. xxxv.

Yung-Lo, Emperor, 159

Yurt, Mongol hut, 277–282

THE END

_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_.

FOOTNOTES

[1] There have been five Tartar dynasties—the Liao, A.D. 907–1125; the Western Liao, A.D. 1125–1168; the Chin, which came to an end in A.D. 1234; the Yüan, ending A.D. 1341, and the Ching, or present dynasty, which began in A.D. 1627. (I have not taken into account some overlappings of reigns which would need long explanation.)

[2] They are supposed by Mr. Finn “to have belonged to the restoration from Chaldea, as they had portions of Malachi and Zechariah, adopted the era of Seleucus, and had many rabbinical customs.” They were found, by two native Christians sent by Bishop Smith to inquire into their present condition, to be in abject poverty, ignorance, and dejection. They knew no Hebrew, but had been instructed in copying the letters of Holy Writ.—Wells Williams, _Middle Kingdom_, ii. 272.

[3] In those days the jinrikisha had not been invented.

[4] This, be it remembered, was written in 1865, and was the most desponding view taken at that time even by those who were the gloomiest prophets.

[5] Pa Li Chiao, the Eight Li Bridge (a Li is about a third of a mile), so called from its distance from Peking.

[6] Great improvements have been effected in late years.

[7] See Note, p. 73.

[8] This is the more curious, as rice is by no means the staple food of this part of China. It is bad and dear here, the common fare or staple of the people being millet—a poor food—to which they add much garlic for nourishment.

[9] Pulled down in 1864.

[10] The crime of parricide includes high treason, murder of parents, elders in the family, and of the teacher, in such reverence is learning held. The murder of a master by an apprentice comes under the same category. A parricide is said to be an “owl-tiger,” both animals being supposed to devour their parents. The owl especially eats its mother’s head and eyes. The laugh of an owl portends death in a family.

[11] They were massacred a year later, their murder leading to the abortive French expedition against Corea.

[12] In the following year this accomplished and adventurous gentleman made another trip to Corea in an American ship. Not one of the party was ever seen again, but a report reached Peking that the Coreans had burnt the ship with all hands in the river not far from Saoul.

[13] Wang, a prince; Chi̔n Wang, a prince of the first rank who is personally related to the Emperor.

[14] “Fu,” a bat, by a pun, also means happiness. “Wu fu,” the five bats, or five happinesses, are a common emblem in Chinese ornamentation.

[15] I must remind the reader that this was written in 1866.

[16] In the far East the dragon, associated in our myths with fire, is a water spirit. At the miraculous birth of Buddha two heavenly dragons appeared in the air, the one spouting cold, the other warm water, to wash the holy babe. Hence bronze dragons are commonly seen in temples and in other places as water-spouts, where in the West the lion’s head would be used. The lion as a fountain comes from the ancient Egyptians, whose astronomers held that the rising of the Nile was bound to take place when the sun was in Leo.

[17] Alas! both he and Farquhar fell victims to the climate and died of fever.

[18] See preface.

[19] There are nine official buttons, each denoting an official rank—each divided into a first and second class. The civilian takes precedence of the military officer—_cedunt arma togæ_.

[20] Compare the account given of Solomon’s wisdom, 1 Kings iv. 29:—“And God gave Solomon wisdom and understanding exceeding much, and largeness of heart, even as the sand that is on the sea-shore. And Solomon’s wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the children of the east country, and all the wisdom of Egypt.... And he spake three thousand proverbs: and his songs were a thousand and five. And he spake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall: he spake also of beasts, and of fowls, and of creeping things, and of fishes. And there came of all people to hear the wisdom of Solomon, from all kings of the earth, which had heard of his wisdom.”

[21] _The Speculations of the Old Philosopher Lao Tsŭ_, translated by John Chalmers. London, Trübner and Co.

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Transcriber’s Note (continued)

Errors in punctuation and simple typos have been corrected without note. Variations in spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation and accents, particularly of Chinese names and places, have been left as they appear in the original publication unless as stated in the following:

Page 31 – “reburying” changed to “re-burying” (re-burying the dead)

Page 123 - “cicalas” changed to “cicadas” (live crickets and cicadas)

Page 152 - “Chi-hsien” changed to “Chih-hsien” (the Chih-hsien, or
governor of the town)

Page 302 - “Kang Hsi” changed to “Káng Hsi” (famous Emperor, Káng Hsi)

Page 318 - “Chang-Ma-Tzû-Chin” changed to “Chang-Ma-Tzŭ-Chin”
(Chang-Ma-Tzŭ-Chin on the 3rd July)

Page 336 - “abbott” changed to “abbot” (The abbot himself)

INDEX - “Chu Jen” changed to “Chü Jên” (Chü Jên, degree)

INDEX - “Hung Tung Tien” changed to “Hung Tu̔ng Tien” (Hung Tu̔ng Tien,
Mongolia)

INDEX - “Shui-Hsien-Tszê” changed to “Shui-Hsien-Tszŭ”
(Shui-Hsien-Tszŭ, Mongolia, 295)

INDEX - “Te Shêng Mên” changed to “Tê Shêng Mên” (Tê Shêng Mên,
Victory gate, Peking)

INDEX - “Tien” changed to “Ti̔en” (Ti̔en, Heaven or God (Christian))

INDEX - “Tien-Hou” changed to “Ti̔en-Hou” (Ti̔en-Hou, queen of
heaven, 154)

INDEX - “Yung Cheng” changed to “Yung Chêng” (Yung Chêng, Emperor,)

Footnotes have been re-indexed and moved to a FOOTNOTES section after the INDEX.