Chapter XXXI: Language

Aboriginal dialects euphonious and full—Words largely
imitative of natural call-notes—Derivations from
other characteristics—Linguistic generalizations
impossible—Vocabularies replete in certain directions—Gesture
and sign languages—Passionate conversationalist—Reckoning of
time—Computation of numbers—Word expressing action—Terminal
syllables—Affirmation and negation—Exclamations—Specific
suffixes—Diminutive expressions—Verb endings—Word
with a variety of meanings—Personal pronouns—Aspirate
sounds rare—Consonantal combination “_ng_” very
frequent—Greetings—Exclamation and Interrogative—Curious
Similarities.

As full as the aboriginal legends are of poetry, so their dialects are full of music. For euphony, fullness, and vowel quality, few modern languages equal the primitive tongue; and much of the charm is derived from a natural source. Even in our own language, the vernacular name of a bird or animal is often derived from the particular call made by the creature. In Europe we have christened the cuckoo, the peewit, and the boo-book owl because of their distinctive cries; in a like sense, the central Australian natives call the bell-bird “_ban-ban-balele_,” the mopoke “_kore-gore_,” and the spur-wing plover “_kurreke-tar-tar_,” all three names being sounded like the natural cries of the birds themselves.

As further illustrations we might mention the Dieri and Arunndta word for kangaroo, viz. “_arre_,” which, one is told, is what the animal “says” when brought to bay, and the Sunday Islanders’ name for a grasshopper, “_dingi-ding_,” which alludes to its chirrup.

In regard to the coining of words, quite apart from the sonorous qualities the object named might possess, the aboriginal is no less inventive. The Arunndta call thunder “_kwatche-ingoma_,” i.e. “roaring water,” and a sharp shower of rain pattering on the ground “_kwatche unndoma_,” i.e. “dancing water.” What is commonly known as the milk-bush in Australia (_Sarcostemma_) is called “_epi-epi_” by the Aluridja because it exudes a milk-like sap when broken and reminds them of the female breast (“_epi_”). Kangaroo grass (_Anthistiria_) is referred to by the Arunndta as “_arre-arre_” because, they maintain, the red colour of its seed stalks resembles that of the marsupial. The Arunndta for the familiar beef-wood tree of central Australia is “_iltjija_,” meaning long fingers, the word drawing attention to the length of the leaves.

Whereas in our own language words like “choleric” have originated because the bile in a human system was supposed to beget wrath, and whereas one bushman might accuse another of being “livery” when he is ill-tempered, the Arunndta have a verb, “_lunbatunbatterama_,” meaning to grumble or to be sulky, in which “_unba_” stands for bile.

In view of the great number of Australian tribes and the multiplicity of their dialects, any attempt at linguistic generalizations would seem to be futile, when often even adjoining tribes have adopted totally different vocabularies for the most common commodities of life. As a matter of fact, the groups which build up one and the same big tribe often have considerable differences in their vocabularies. For instance, the eastern groups of the Arunndta make use of very many words and expressions which are quite foreign to the western. Yet in respect of certain words, it is known that with slight modifications their significance has carried far beyond the borders of a single tribe and has been accepted by a group of tribes living up to a few hundred miles apart.

Although the aboriginal tongue is crude in its construction, it is, nevertheless, wonderfully rich and scientifically exact. Whereas a modern language becomes very commonplace in the ordinary course of conversation, and is inclined to handle subject matter somewhat flippantly, the aboriginal system of nomenclature is both profuse and incontrovertible. During his descriptive narrations from Nature, a European rarely bothers about discriminating between objects composing one big class. If he talks of a forest, he is usually satisfied to convey the idea of a number of trees standing collectively at the site his story is dealing with; if he wishes to be exact he might specially describe the trees as pines or gums. But the aboriginal wants, and gives, more; his vocabulary, in fact, rarely includes such words as “tree,” “animal,” “meat,” or “seed”; he tells you immediately, without being specially asked, that the “tree” is a gum, the “animal” a wallaby, the “meat” that of kangaroo, and the “seed” that of the water-lily. Moreover, his verbal supply is so copious that in a single word he can tell one the name, the age, the habitat, and many characteristics.

A language without words is known to most Australian natives; thoughts and messages are communicated by means of gestures from individual to individual, and from tribe to tribe. This system is so perfect, and the code so well understood by all, that important tidings are transmitted from one centre to another in incredibly short time. The method might to a certain extent be compared with the flag-signalling of a marine; it is too complicated to be discussed in detail, but we shall select a few code signals by way of illustration.

_Halloa!_ To attract the attention of a person whom conversation is to be taken up with, the native, standing as erect as possible, and with his legs astride, lifts his hands to his head and swings them outwards (in opposite directions), downwards, and upwards again, time after time. Whilst doing so, he calls aloud, with a shrill, piercing note, even though the other fellow be well beyond hearing distance.

Aluridja man rendering a musical accompaniment with boomerangs.

“... he claps their ends together in quick succession, and by so doing produces rhythmic clanks to suit the style of any dance or the time of any song.”]

_Come here!_ Maintaining the erect position, he throws both hands upwards, to above a shoulder on one side, then sweeps them (extended) in front of his body to well behind it on the opposite side, at the same time bending his body forwards from the hips.

_I am coming to you._ The person places his hands upon his chest, and throws them towards the stranger.

_Follow behind me._ He slaps his right hand against his buttock.

_Stop_ or _stay there_. The arms are held, bent at the elbows, at each side of the body, with the open palms of the hands turned towards the distant man, and vertical circles are described with them in that position.

_Go that way._ He points the index finger in the required direction and jerks the hand forwards several times.

_A woman._ He places his hands over his breasts.

_Kangaroo._ The hand is passed, with successive semi-circular movements, indicating the hopping, from one side of the body to the other.

_A snake._ The hand is moved forwards in a wavy line.

_I can see._ He touches one or both eyes with his hand.

_Dead man._ Throws his head back and extends his arms laterally upwards.

_A man._ He strokes his chin.

_I can hear._ He points to his ear.

_To kill._ The palms of the hands are placed together and moved as if striking an object.

_Emu._ Bends the fingers of one hand at right angles to palm and sways the arm to and fro.

_Sleeping._ He lays his head upon the palm of a hand.

_Sitting._ He points to the ground.

_Running._ His legs are moved in a running fashion.

_Hungry._ He draws in his abdomen and shows his ribs.

An intricate system of sign language is carried on by movements of the hands and fingers when the natives are at close enough range for the signals to be visible. The following are a few of the more common signs used every day by the Arunndta tribe:

To call the attention of a person, a man holds his open hand in front of his face, with the palm towards him, and drops it again. The sign having been acknowledged, a mutual exchange of gesture correspondence is indulged in, by means of which an almost inexhaustible number of ideas can be communicated in the form of coherent “speech.” The following few signs (most of which are sketched on page 391, Fig. 57) may be taken as typical of a vocabulary which in its entirety is both elaborate and intricate:

_Which way?_ The forefinger is held erect (the other fingers
of the hand being closed) and several times
moved downwards or away from the face (No. 1).

_Big!_ The hand is held supine while the fingers are
first extended and then closed in again upon
the palm. The thumb is kept more or less erect
(No. 2).

_Little!_ The hand is held with its palm upwards, and the
fingers moved towards the thumb, the middle one
touching it (No. 3).

_To rest (“I am The hand is held semi-prone, with the fingers
going to sit extended and lying closely together, the thumb
down”)_ resting at the top. It is jerked downwards two
or three times (No. 4).

_To camp (“I am With the hand in the same position as in No. 4,
going to camp”)_ the middle, fourth, and fifth fingers are closed
in upon the palm, while the index is made to
touch the thumb (No. 5).

_To camp The hand remains in semi-prone position, but with
(collectively)_ the forefinger pointing towards the ground at
half a right angle, and the same three fingers
as mentioned in No. 5 remaining closed (No. 6).

_To walk_ The hand is held supine with only the forefinger
extended; it is moved from side to side (No. 8).

_Come this way Holding the hand nearly horizontal and semi-prone,
quickly!_ the fingers are closed in upon the palm and the
thumb placed over them; in that position the hand
is jerked sideways (No. 7).

_Listen!_ The hand, with fingers fully extended, is held with
its palm turned towards the face and moved to and
from the face a number of times (No. 9).

_Hear him!_ The hand is kept prone, with the middle and fourth
fingers closed and the remaining three digits
extended. Thus it is several times jerked towards
an ear of the man who is “speaking” (No. 10).

_What did you say?_ The hand is held erect, with the palm towards the
face; the thumb and forefinger are kept straight,
but the other fingers flexed; the forefinger is
jerked to and fro (No. 11).

_Fighting_ With the hand in an erect position, but the palm
turned away from the face, all digits except the
index are closed; the last-named, moreover, is
jerked with a circular motion (No. 12).

_On the summit The sign-maker extends his hand and with the small
of a Hill_ finger border of it taps the crest of his head
(No. 13).

_Running up the He extends the index and middle fingers upwards,
Hill_ while the hand is more or less prone, and jerks
them up and down (No. 14).

_It is no good!_ The hand in a prone position (with the index and
small fingers extended, the fourth finger closed
in, and the tips of the thumb and middle finger
touching) is moved in a circle from the wrist
(No. 15).

_He is dead_ Change the position of hand from that of No. 7 to
that of No. 16.

_Moving up the The hand is held partly extended in a prone position
Valley_ and moved horizontally, from side to side, at the
side of the man’s head (No. 17).

_Behold the ears He holds the hand in a vertical position with the
(of a Kangaroo)_ index and middle lingers extended, moving them
in imitation of an animal’s ears (No. 18).

_Steady!_ Hold the hand in position indicated in No. 7 and
move it vertically with a striking action.

_A Euro_ Much the same position as shown in No. 18, but the
index and middle fingers are only semi-extended;
the other fingers are made to touch the thumb
(No. 19).

_An Echidna or The hand is held prone and horizontally, with only
Native Porcupine_ the forefinger extended, which is moved regularly
from side to side (No. 20).

_An Opossum_ Hand semi-prone and horizontal; thumb extended and
forefinger bent in second joint from the tip; the
remaining fingers closed in upon palm. The hand
is moved downwards (No. 21).

_An Iguana_ Hand semi-prone and horizontal. The tip of
forefinger is brought nearly into contact with
that of thumb, the remaining fingers being fully
extended. The hand is moved vertically up and
down (No. 22).

_A Carpet Snake_ Hand semi-prone and horizontal. The points of the
fingers are bunched against the thumb, and
circular movements made with the hand (No. 23).

_A Tiger Snake_ Hand semi-prone. The forefinger extended and
directed downwards at about half a right angle;
thumb extended; the remaining three fingers are
moved alternately away from and towards the palm
of the hand (No. 24).

_A Black Snake_ Hand semi-prone and horizontal. All fingers closed
in upon palm, thumb extended upwards. Slight
downward movements (No. 25).

_The Evil Spirit_ Hand in prone position and directed downwards.
Thumb, index and small fingers extended, the
remaining fingers closed. Frequent down and
up movements (No. 26).

_Native Pear Hand held erect; forefinger flexed to touch the tip
(Marsdenia)_ of thumb; the remaining fingers closed (No. 27).

_Native Orange Hand prone; index and middle fingers flexed; thumb,
(Capparis fourth and fifth fingers extended. Forward and
Mitchelli)_ slightly upward jerks (No. 28).

_Marsupial Mice_ The hand is held in a supine position, while the
points of the fingers are grouped around the
thumb and jerked towards the sign-maker’s mouth
(No. 29).

_Native Plum With all fingers semi-extended, the hand is held
(Santalum)_ in a supine position and jerked towards the face
(No. 30).

_A Dingo or Wild The hand is held in a vertical position, with the
Dog_ forefinger extended; the other digits are flexed,
the tips of the middle finger and thumb touching.
Side movements are made with the forefinger (No.
31).

_A Bustard or Wild Hand prone; thumb, middle, fourth, and fifth fingers
Turkey_ bunched together, the forefinger bent downwards.
Vertical movements (No. 32).

_A Lizard_ Hand semi-prone; forefinger and thumb fully
extended, the remaining fingers flexed. Upward
and downward movements from the wrist (No. 33).

_A Crow_ The thumb, index and middle fingers extended, the
remaining fingers flexed. The two extended fingers
are moved against each other (No. 34).

_Wild Bee Honey_ The tip of the forefinger is repeatedly flicked
from the thumb, while the three remaining fingers
are kept in a flexed position (No. 35).

_A Wallaby_ Hand semi-prone; the forefinger and thumb are
extended while the remaining fingers lie against
the palm. Small, jerking, upward movements are
made with the forefinger, in which the hand also
takes part (No. 36).

_My Son_ The sign-maker taps his chin with the extended
forefinger of his hand.

_My Sister’s He holds his right nipple between the thumb and
Daughter_ forefinger of his right hand.

_My Sister’s He surrounds his right nipple with the tips of his
Daughter’s fingers and alternately opens and closes them
Daughter_ with a scratching action.

Wordaman youth playing on the “drone pipe” or “bamboo trumpet.”

“When using the ‘trumpet,’ the operator blows into the end having the smaller diameter, with a vibratory motion of the lips....”]

In the course of conversation, an aboriginal aids his speech by gesticulation. When inclined to be cheerful, he smiles and laughs in a decidedly refreshing sort of way, and often smacks his lips out of sheer pleasure, but when his feelings have been ruffled and he is angry, he pouts out his lips and does not hesitate to let you know how he feels. He betrays his feelings by most apparent tone inflections in his voice. He frequently nods his head to indicate assent, but rarely shakes his head to betoken dissent. When in doubt over any matter, especially in answer to a question, he shrugs his shoulders. His hands are used a great deal during conversation. If he wishes to give one an idea of nearness, the finger is directed to the ground a short way off, and if distance is implied the finger points to the horizon.

In reply to a question concerned with the location of a thing, he does not point, as a European would, but turns his face in the direction he wants to indicate and thrusts out his lips. When beckoning with his hand, an aboriginal does not move his hand upwards towards his face as we do, but passes it downwards with a scooping action. The course a traveller has taken, or an animal decamped in, is indicated by extending an arm in the direction and snapping the fingers.

A native has a very good idea of time. The hour at which a past event has happened, or at which a coming event is to happen, is indicated by pointing at the assumed altitude of the sun. To fix a time definitely for a contemplated or proposed action, a stone is placed upon a cliff, or in the fork of a tree, at the hour decided upon, a day or two in advance, in such a position that a sunbeam just strikes it at the moment. When the correct day arrives, the stone is watched until it is again illumined in the same way; and the natives then know that it is time to act. This method is employed when, say, the men have left camp early, and they order the women to follow them at a later hour.

Days are reckoned by the number of sleeps they have had, and the biggest measurement of time goes by so many moons.

When he comes to computing numbers, his fingers are of the greatest service to him, and at times his toes as well. An aboriginal is not a mathematician, and his vocabulary does not contain running series of numerals. The usual method of counting low figures is after the following pattern of the King Sound natives:

“_arra_” (one).
“_kwiarra_” (two).
“_kwiarra arra_” (three).
“_kwiarra kwiarra_” (four).

Beyond four, counting either goes by “hands” or “feet,” or for ordinary purposes there are two comprehensive words in use which signify a “small-large number” and a “large-small number.” In some cases, such as the Aluridja, “one” (“_goitarada_”) appears as the diminutive form of “two” (“_goitara_”). In the same sense, a shorter distance is expressed by the Wongapitcha as the diminutive of a great distance by qualifying the word “_wurnma_,” meaning “far,” by affixing “_wimuggitta_,” which means “young.” Hence “_wimuggitta wurnma_” reads the “young (one) of far,” i.e. “close up.” This is really the same way of expressing a fraction of space as the same tribe has adopted for expressing minority in age; a youth or young man is known as “_wimuggitta wardi_,” the second word “_wardi_” standing for an adult man.

1. Making “vegetable down” by pounding grass between two stones. Humbert River, Northern Territory.

2. Worora native making a stone spear-head, Northern Kimberleys, Western Australia.]

The Dieri of the Lake Eyre region have one of the most elaborate systems of numeration, which includes, at any rate, an expression for every number up to eleven.

“_kulno_,” one.
“_mandru_,” two.
“_parkulu_” or “_parkulintja_,” three.
“_mandru mandru_,” four.
“_mandru ja parkulintja_,” five.
or “_marra warra kulno_,” five, i.e. hand part one (one hand).
“_marra pirri kulno_,” six.
“_marra pirri mandru_,” seven.
“_marra pirri parkulintja_,” eight.
“_marra pirri mandru mandru_,” nine.
“_marra warra mandru_” ten, i.e. hand parts two (two hands).
“_tjinna pirri kulno_,” eleven.
“_marrapu_,” many.
“_mörla marrapu_,” very many.

In the above table the following explanations will be found useful:

“_ja_” = and.
“_marra_” = hand.
“_tjinna_” = foot.
“_warra_” = part.
“_pirri_” = nail (toe or finger).

Thus the reading of the numerals runs: One, two, three, two-two (four), two and three (five), or one hand part (five), hand finger-nails one (six), hand finger-nails two (seven), hand finger-nails three (eight), hand finger-nails four (nine), two hand parts (ten), foot toe-nails one (eleven).

To imply a repetition or continuance of action, the frequent use of the same verb is avoided by the Sunday Islanders, but the same effect is achieved by reiterating the word “_garra_” indefinitely. The expression of continued action is usually in the present tense and is mostly applied to words like “running,” “walking,” “jumping,” “sleeping,” “raining,” “blowing,” “bleeding,” etc., etc. For example, a man from a tree or other look-out might be describing to his companions below, the doings of their hunting party out on the plain; while the latter keep moving, he conveys the fact to his hearers by ejaculating “_garra, garra, garra_, ...” The direction of the hunters’ movements is indicated by the swing of his hand. The moment the observer in the tree stops saying “_garra_,” the people below know that the hunters have ducked or have temporarily ceased the pursuit.

The terminal syllable of a word is never uttered very clearly by an aboriginal; and it is consequently difficult to distinguish between a short e, a, o, or u. This is particularly true of the language used by the old men, the defectiveness being often increased by the gaps between the incisors resulting from the initiation ceremonies.

There are occasions, however, when the last syllable receives especial emphasis. The Wongapitcha word for plenty is “_ura_”; when the idea of plenty is great the word becomes “_ura-ku_,” with an intentional intonation upon the “_ku_”; and when the plenty is extraordinary, the word receives yet another syllable and becomes the superlative “_ura-ku-pu_.”

The simple affirmative of the Aluridja, which has also been adopted by the Arunndta, is “_o_,” less commonly “_u_”; but when strong affirmation is intended the word is changed to “_owa_,” or “_owau_.”

The ordinary negative of the Arunndta is “_itja_”; but forcibly expressed this may become “_itjama_” or “_itjingalai_.”

Any sudden exclamation or accidental noise, like a cough or sneeze, might be exaggerated by the addition of a syllable at the end. When a Sunday Islander sneezes he makes a word out of the natural noise sounding like “_Tish-e!_”

An exclamation which is common practically to all Australian tribes, and may express surprise, fear, pain, or disgust, is a very liquid “_irr_.” The Arunndta have strengthened this monosyllabic cry by giving it the suffix “_ai_”; nowadays the word is, however, mostly pronounced “_Yerrai!_” A variety of the last-named, but not quite so forceful, is “_Yakai!_” A sudden fright or the anticipation of harm might produce a very short “_i_,” without any indication of the presence of the liquid consonant.

Appreciation is indicated by “_Aha!_” or “_Hm-hm!_” practically throughout the central and northern districts of Australia; in both cases special emphasis is applied to the second syllable.

A central Australian exclamation calling one to order or attention in a somewhat harsh manner is “_Wai!_” When one person is being irritated by another, such as a parent by a whining child, the offender is thus rebuked. This word may also become a suffix; it may be combined, for instance, with the radical “_irr_” and produce a word “_Yirrawai_,” which is perhaps the strongest in a sense of disgust and reproach available in the Arunndta tongue.

Standing at the end of an adjective, the expression “_’n-dora_” in the same dialect signifies a great or superlative degree; e.g. “_marra_” means “nice,” but “_marr’n-dora_” a conception more like “excellent.” In the opposite sense, “_kurrina_” (bad) becomes “_kurrina’n-dora_” (worst). The same suffix can be attached to an adverb. When, say, an emphatic denial is needed, “_itja_” (no) takes the form of “_itja’n-dora_.”

There are numerous other syllables, which, when fixed to the end of a word, convey a special significance. When, in the Arunndta, the syllable “_tu_” is added to a person’s name in address, it really stands in place of a sentence like “Is it not so?” For instance, “_Nani knulia atoa utnuriraka, Endola-tu?_” when literally translated reads: “This dog man bit Endola, is it not so?” Endola is the name of a woman who is being addressed. In place of “_tu_,” the longer form of “_ditjekwi_” might be used.

Again, the suffix “_lo_” is found in daily use in the same dialect; it stands for the phrase: “Where is?” Hence the completed sentence, “_Kwatche-lo?_” stands for “Where is the water?”

When one finds “_jara_” added to a word, plurality is indicated, the sense conveyed being that many of the kind specified by the noun are assumed. The word for girl in the Arunndta is “_kware_,” consequently “_kwarenjara_” means that a number of girls are being considered, the “_n_” being simply interposed for the sake of euphony.

Any proper noun, like the name of a person, may be modified by adding “_ia_” to it, and, by so doing, one makes it a term of endearment in the vocative case. “_Ware_” ordinarily means “boy,” but by altering it to “_waria_” (i.e. “_ware-ia_”), the meaning becomes “dear boy” or “O boy.”

If the terminal “_a_” of a substantive is found to be changed to “_inna_,” the diminutive of the original is implied. A somewhat common name for a woman in the Arunndta is “_Unnruba_,” but during the years of childhood of a bearer of this name, the appellation is always in the form of “_Unnrubinna_”; in later years this changes to “_Unnruba_” more or less automatically.

A diminutive sense is also conveyed by duplicating an original word. In the eastern Aluridja dialect “_kaitji_” means an ordinary spear, whereas “_kaitji-kaitji_” is an expression applied to a toy spear. The Dieri recognize a Supreme Being whom they call “_Mura_”; any one of their numerous demi-gods, however, from whom they trace their descent is referred to as a “_Mura-Mura_.”

1. Wongapitcha man shaping a spear-thrower with an adze.

2. Aluridja man scraping a boomerang with a sharp stone flake.]

Alterations in the ending of a verb indicate different moods and tenses. The verb “to come” in the Arunndta is “_pitchima_”; its inflections and their meanings will become apparent from the following short sentences:

“_Pitchai arrekutcha!_” Come here, old woman!
“_Pitchikarrerai arrekutch’njara!_” Come here, old women!
“_Arrekutcha pitchama._” The old woman is coming.
“_Arrekutcha pitchika._” The old woman came (or has come).
“_Arrekutcha pitchichinna._” The old woman will come.

If we replace the verb “_pitchima_” by “_lama_” (“to go”), the inflections, taken in the same order as above, become: “_lai_,” “_larrirai_,” “_lakama_,” “_laka_,” “_litchinna_.”

An adverb which finds considerable application in the Arunndta is “_kalla_,” indicating the completion of any deed or action. Most frequently the nearest translation would be supplied by the English word, “already.” If, therefore, we again consider one of the above sentences and interpose the word “_kalla_,” the meaning is strengthened considerably: “_Arrekutcha kalla pitchama_” then means “The old woman is already coming.” But “_kalla_” might further convey the sense of repletion. “_Einga knullia kalla kwatche n’ dai_” would mean, literally translated, “I dog enough water gave.” And finally “_kalla_” might express the completion of an action. A native, after losing the track of an animal, or having eaten as much as he wants, might be heard to say “_kalla_,” meaning “finished.” Finally “_kalla_” might even stand for “dead.” We have already noted a similar word in the vocabulary of the Sunday Islanders, viz. “_Kaleya_,” meaning “finish” or “good-bye.”

The personal pronouns are either used as separate words in a sentence, or they appear as prefixes to the principal verbs.

In the Arunndta, the following are used:

“_einga_,” I; “_nuka_,” mine; “_eingana_,” me.
“_unda_,” thou; “_unguranga_,” thine; “_ngana_,” thee.
“_era_,” he; “_ekurra_,” his; “_erinna_,” him.
“_nuna_,” we; “_nunaka_,” ours; “_nungana_,” us.
“_rankara_,” you; “_rakankara_,” yours; “_rankarana_,” you.
“_etna_,” they; “_etnaka_,” theirs; “_etnana_,” them.

As an illustration let us translate: “I like the boy”; we should have to transpose the words into the following order, “I boy like,” and the Arunndta would be: “_Einga ware unjinum_.” On the other hand, we might select the Sunday Island dialect as an example in which prefixes are used for representing the personal pronouns. The first personal prefix is “_nun_,” the second “_min_,” and the third “_il_” or “_n’_.” If, therefore, we take a simple verb like “_jakuli_” to “break,” we have:

“_nunjaluki_,” I break.
“_minjaluki_,” you break.
“_iljaluki_” or “_n’jaluki_,” he breaks.

The third person plural is represented by “_punjanga n’_”; hence “_punjanga n’jaluki_” stands for “they (altogether) break.”

Whereas we have seen that an “_n_” might be interposed between two words for the sake of euphony, it no less frequently happens that two or more words are contracted into one for similar reasons. If, to quote a simple case, we wish to translate into Arunndta “You give (it) me,” we have three separate words, “_unda_” (you), “_nuka_” (me), and “_dai_” (give), which in the above expression are fused into one word, “_nukundai_.”

Apart from the full and pure vowel sounds, the Australian aboriginal dialects include the modified sounds expressed by the German diphthongs, œ, äu, and ue (i.e. the French u). The pairs of consonants, p and b, k and g, and t and d, are often interchanged during speech. Sibilant sounds are extremely rare. My own name was very difficult, if not impossible, for the Aluridja to pronounce; the best they could make of it was “_Battedu_.” So, also, the imported pet name of the domestic cat, “pussy-pussy,” as it is used by the settlers, cannot be managed. The Aluridja call it “_putte-putte_,” and the Arunndta “_put-pudtha_.”

Let us look into the construction of the Aluridja personal pronouns a little more carefully. Every pronoun consists of a stem, which is different for every person, and an ending, which varies with the case.

The stems are:

First person, singular, “_naiu_”; plural, “_nganan_.”
Second person, singular, “_nuntu_”; plural, “_nurangari_.”
Third person, singular, “_balu_”; plural, “_tana_.”

And the endings are as follows:

Genitive, “-_ba_.”
Dative, “-_lukuru_.”
Accusative, “-_na_.”
Ablative, “-_languru_” (from), or “-_lawana_” (with).

A simple sentence embodying three pronouns would be: “_Naiulu tanalawana nuntulukura ngalierra_,” which, literally translated, reads: “I with them to you have come.”

A few of the Arunndta interrogatives are:

“_Ewunna?_” What? or What is it?
“_Unndana?_” Where?
“_Nguna?_” Which?
“_Ngula?_” Who?
“_Ntakinya?_” How many?

The aspirate is very occasionally met with. The local group of the Arunndta, residing at Arltunga, which styles itself “_Herrinda_,” is one of the few exceptions. Even in the settled districts, where the natives have adopted European names, one christened “Harry” is usually spoken of as “_Yarri_.” The sounds which are most commonly aspirated are the exclamations, e.g. “_Hai!_” “_Aha_,” and “_Hm-hm!_”

Used in conjunction with a vowel, usually an “a,” the consonantal combination “_ng_” is common to all Australian dialects. Although to the modern tongue a little difficult to master, the sound is strikingly fluent with the aboriginal; indeed, its frequent inclusion in words of fundamentally simple origin suggests a primitive, natural derivation. Along the north-western coast, the words for “water” are “_ngawa_” (Wave Hill), “_ngauwa_” (Humbert River), “_kornga_” (Sunday Island).

In the Arunndta, “_nga_” stands for either “Here you are!” “There!” or “Take it!” all phrases being used in the sense of offering something to a person, such as mother to infant. “_Ngaboni_” is a modified form of the last-named, having any of the following meanings: “Here!” “Look!” or “Behold!” And “_ngarai_” is yet another modification of similar significance, usually placed immediately behind the object it is desired to draw attention to, e.g. “_Arre ngarai!_” (Look at the kangaroo).

Verbal greetings, akin to our “Good-day!” are rarely, if ever, made use of by natives when they meet; but some of the tribes recognize an orthodox term of salutation at partings, as indicating a friendly feeling which the speaker bears towards the person he is on the point of leaving. The Mulluk-Mulluk and some of their neighbours on the Daly River have adopted the word “_mummuk_” to express their farewell, whilst the Sunday Islanders’ vocabulary includes a similar expression in the word “_tchorrogu_.”

An alarm, such as we would raise in the form of “Look out!” or “Get out of the way!” is rendered by the Arunndta “_Par-le!_”

There are numerous examples which could be mentioned of words appearing in an aboriginal dialect which have a striking resemblance to European words of modern and ancient languages, which at this stage of our knowledge of primitive tongues must be recorded as curiosities rather than linguistic analogies. One of the most remarkable, perhaps, is the Arunndta for head, viz. “_kaputa_”; but to connect this in any way with the Latin word would be as unreasonable as calling the “patriarchal” type of aboriginal a semite.

It is, therefore, not my intention to suggest anything beyond mere coincidence, and it lies far from my mind to attempt theorizing upon little evidence, yet it must be admitted that similarities in points of evolution and culture, no matter how trivial and accidental they may be, are not without interest. Viewed entirely in this light, there is no harm in mentioning one or two similarities which exist between certain words of the Australian dialects and those of other tongues, articulate or otherwise.

Affirmation is expressed in the Cambridge Gulf district by “_yau_,” “_yo-au_,” or “_yowai_.” During latter years, the same expression has found its way south, even as far as the MacDonnell Ranges, where it has largely replaced the original form of “_owa_.” In the adjoining coastal districts of the Northern Territory, a similar word is in use as well as one which sounds more like the German “_ja_.” It is of more than passing interest to note that throughout the Malay Archipelago “_yo-au_” or “_yowai_” is the principal form of affirmation in use among the local primitive peoples. It is not unlikely, therefore, that the early Macassan trepang fishers, who used to visit the north coast of Australia long before the white man arrived, brought this word along with them.

We find, also, that the consonantal expression, “_ng_,” combined with a vowel sound, is common among other primitive languages. Professor Garner, too, has found it included in the inarticulate “speech” of apes in the form of a note indicating satisfaction, which can be represented by “_ngkw-a_.” The speculative mind naturally wonders whether this simian cry of satisfaction is perhaps fundamentally of similar, though independent, phonetic origin to the northern Australian word for water, the essential of life, which we noted above is “_ngawa_.”

The di-syllabic muttering of a European child-in-arms, moreover, which the happy parents flatter themselves sounds like “pa-pa” or “ma-ma,” is equally characteristic of the aboriginal babe, but the parents in the latter case interpret the note to be “_nga-nga_.” And, indeed, the Arunndta mother responds by handing the infant the fluid it needs, while she caressingly soothes it with the simple little word “_Nga_,” which in our own language would be equivalent to the sentence, “Here you are!”

INDEX

Roman numerals refer to Preface.

A

_abris_, 322

_Acacia salicina_, 157

acacia seed, 150, 151

Adelaide tribes, xii, 100, 102, 180, 195, 204, 206, 208, 212, 214,
360, 366

administration, tribal, 225 _et seq._

adzes, 366, 367

_Affenspalte_, 38

“_alangua_” (native pear), Knaninja, 353

albinism, 48

“_Algerrigiowumma_,” sky-shying act, 238, 239

Alligator River, 197, 249

allotment of infants, 221, 222

“_Altjerra_,” 279, 295, 341, 342

“_Altjerrajara_,” Supreme Number, 271, 296

“_Altjerringa_,” 279, 296, 342

“_Aluggurra_” women, 343

Aluridja tribe, xii, 4, 47, 48, 50, 65, 78, 82, 83, 92, 95, 111, 114,
121, 147, 149, 150, 151, 153, 155, 170, 176, 178, 184, 192,
200, 205, 213, 226, 231, 236, 239, 240, 243, 255, 259, 264,
267, 269, 271, 272, 282, 295, 296, 349, 356, 361, 362, 387,
396, 398, 400, 402

amputation of finger joints, 253, 254

ancestor worship, 257

animation, in art, 320, 336, 337, 338

animal tracks, drawn in sand, 70-73

anthill burial, 206;
of bone, 214

_Anthistiria_ (kangaroo grass), 276, 387

anthropomorphous designs, 353-358

“_Antjuarra_,” tooth-rapping ceremony, 235

anvil-stone, 369

approaching a stranger, 2, 3;
a camp, 105

appreciation, expression of, 399

archer fish, ochre drawing of, 328

armistice, 188

Arnhem Land, 50, 196, 197

Arrabonna Tribe, 4, 200, 237, 269, 362

“_Arrarra_,” a circumcision ceremony, 239 _et seq._

“_arrera_,” kangaroo, Knaninja, 352

“_Arrolmolba_” (phallus), 291

art of the aboriginal, xi, xii, 297-358

artificial colouring of body, hunting, 142;
in warfare, 184;
of emissaries at initiation, 254;
for cosmetic and ceremonial purposes, 324-326

artificial warmth applied to infant, 66

Arunndta Tribe, xi, xii, 4, 6, 48, 50, 63, 65, 70, 76, 77, 78, 82,
83, 86, 92, 95, 103, 106, 114, 121, 125, 142, 147, 149, 150,
151, 152, 153, 155, 166, 170, 172, 175, 176, 178, 184, 192,
200, 205, 214, 218, 220, 226, 231, 237, 238, 263, 264, 271,
272, 274, 275, 282, 287, 291, 292, 295, 296, 308, 311, 321,
328, 330, 337, 338, 341, 343, 347, 349, 350, 352, 361, 362,
363, 386, 387, 390, 391, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405

“_Atoakwatje_,” water-men, 264, 265

aspirate sounds, 403

attachment of parents to children, 65, 66

“_aumba_” (_Brachysema_), 153

Australoid, 58, 59;
migrations, 56, 57, 58

awl, stone, 365

Ayers Ranges, 75

B

bailers, 95

baldness, 50

ball-games, 77, 78

bandicoot, corrobboree of, 383

“_banki_,” prepuse, 243

bark, canoes, 160-164;
drawings, 323;
shield, 86, 87;
water-carriers, 92, 93

barramundi vertebræ used as spear heads, 198

barter, with ochre, 113;
with women, 222

bathing, 99

Bathurst Islanders, 76, 77, 93, 95, 96, 115, 159, 161, 163, 168, 207,
238, 309, 310, 319, 323, 373, 379, 380

beard, 50, 51, 117;
of female, 46

bees’ honey, 145

bell-bird, 386

belly, 20, 21

Berringin Tribe, 4, 11, 129, 130, 201, 374

beverages, 153

biological consanguinity between Australia and other continents, 55

bird-like attitude, 107

birds’ eggs, 125, 126

birth of aboriginal, 61-68

biting the initiate’s head, 244, 245

bleeding, stanching of, after circumcision, 243

blindness, following club hit, 37

blonde, aboriginal, 48, 49, 50

blood, drinking of, 154;
stilling the flow of, 186;
thrown at opponent during a duel, 166;
revenge, 187

Bloodwood apple, 152

Bloomfield River, 48

blue eye in aboriginal, 25

Blue Mountains, 57

boabab, carved tree, 309;
carved nuts, 311, 312, 313, 331;
nuts used as rattles, 374;
trees serving as reservoirs, 97, 98

“_Bobi_,” tjuringa, 270

body decoration, at completion of mourning, 214, 215;
cosmetic, artistic and ceremonial, 324, 325, 326.
See also artificial colouring of body

“_Böllier_” ceremony, initiation, 250

bone, carving of, 313;
“pointing” the, 174-178, 209

bone-pointed spear-thrower, 201

bones of dead man collected, 214;
radius selected for “pointing bone,” 215

“boning” to death, 174-178, 209

boomerang, practice, 86;
used as a musical instrument, 374, 383;
used in duels, 168;
used in warfare, 187, 188

“boomerang-legs,” 15

boomerang-spear duel, drawing of, 330, 338

boras, 377

boys, apportioned to old men, 65, 66;
taught use of weapons, 85, 86

_Brachysema Chambersii_, 153

brain of aboriginal, 37, 38

breast, 18-20;
artificial lactation of, 20;
development of, 19;
enchantment of, 19;
touched with charred mulga, 65

Bremer, Sir Gordon, 144

Buccaneer Archipelago, 50, 51

buffalo, drawing of, 325, 337;
hunt, 144, 145, and _Frontispiece_

bull-roarer, used at circumcision, 241, 242;
at mika operation, 246;
at tooth-rapping ceremony, 232, 233

burial and mourning customs, 203-215

burial ground, signpost erected at, 207

burial in anthill, 208

C

_Calamus_ used as paint brush, 319, 320

Caledon Bay, 115

calvarium, Tennants Creek, 53;
used as a drinking vessel, 214

Cambridge Gulf Tribes, x, 51, 62, 65, 74, 93, 99, 101, 226, 238, 282,
288, 375, 377, 405

camel, ochre drawing of, 329

Campbell, John, 344

camp, clearing a site for, 100;
life, 100-119;
occupations while in, 112, 113;
selection of, 91

_camptocnemia_, 15

cannibalism, 21, 189

canoes, 160-164;
dug-outs, 164;
housing of, 162;
with outriggers, 164;
with sail, 164

capacity of skull, 37

Cape York, 93, 104

caravan travelling, 1

caries, 31

Carpentaria Gulf, 50, 93, 128, 129, 151, 160, 161, 162, 164, 189,
201, 266, 287, 375

carpentry taught boys, 85

carrying, dogs, 67;
infants, methods of, 66, 67

carved bone, 313;
grave posts, 207, 309-310;
pearl shell, 313;
trees, 308, 309;
weapons, 310

carvings in rock, 299-308

_Cassia_, branch used as an emblem of peace, 2;
used for headgear, 280

_casus belli_, 183

caterpillar, 122;
totemic designs of, 350, 352

Caucasian, 58, 59;
derived from Australoid, 59

cave drawings, 314, 315, 322 _et seq._;
of Glenelg River, 333, 343-345;
inspiration given by natural feature, 331, 332

celestial “walk-about,” 296

ceremonial dance, drawing of, 332, 338

ceremony of welcome, 379

character of aboriginal, 227

characteristics of race, 5-17

charcoal drawing, method of, 323;
of ceremonial dance, 338, 332;
of crows, 319, 335, 336;
of buffalo hunter, 325, 337;
of kangaroo hunter, 326, 337

cheek bone, 30

chief of tribe, 226

chignon, 47

child decorations, 84, 85

childhood, 69-90

children, entertainment of, 69, 70, 71;
position of at ceremonials, 84, 85;
playing with sand and mud, 73-75;
running after wind-driven seeds, 76;
taught to sing and dance, 70;
taught to draw and imitate tracks, 71, 72, 73;
tobogganing, 75

chin, 29

Christianity, 257

cicadae and crickets, musical powers envied, 384

cicatrices, 236-238, 250

circle-within-circle designs, 351, 353

circumcision, 239-244;
drastic treatment of shirkers, 243

clubbing the initiate, 242

clubs, 168, 169, 170;
in warfare, 188

club-rule, 222-223

“coal sack,” 332

cockatoo, kept as pet, 89

colour, artificially applied to body when hunting, 142;
of aboriginal’s skin, 40-45;
affected by climate, 45, 49, 59

composition, in aboriginal art, 338

conception, ideas about, 284, 285

conventional designs, 346 _et seq._

conventional representation of human figure, 353-358

conversation, actions aiding, 395;
by song, 385

conversationalist, the aboriginal as, 371, 395

Coo-ee, 2. See also “_käu_,” 142

cooking, methods of, 108

cooleman, 92

Coopers Creek, 50, 83, 92, 102, 114 (Barcoo), 121, 127, 150, 155,
169, 170, 190 (Barcoo), 200, 237, 362, 376

cores, stone, 364

corrobboree, 377

cosmetics, 115

_Cossus_ moth (witchedy), 122, 204

cotton tree (_Bombatt malabaricum_), 249

council of old men, 225, 226

Crocker Island, 131, 191

Crocodile, carvings of, 331;
ceremony of, 377;
eggs of, 126;
floating log to simulate, 159;
hunting the, 134

cradle, food-carrier taking the place of, 65

“cratch-cradle,” 84

crawfish, 128

cremation, not practised, 204

crossed boomerangs, the symbol of strife, 347, 351

crows, ceremony of, 378, 379;
drawing of, 319, 335, 336

“cutting” the shadow, 175

Cunningham, Professor D. J., 24

_Cyperus rotundus_ (“_yelka_”), 148

_Cyrena_, acting as a pigment dish, 319;
used as a scraper, 162

D

“_dabba_,” stone knife, 367

daggers, 172

Daly River spear types, 196, 197, 198

“_damatba_” throwing weapon, 170

“_dangorra_,” the great emu in the sky, 315, 333, 349

Darwin, Charles, 33

dead person’s name not mentioned, 211, 212

death, tracing the cause of a, 208, 209

dental rudiments, 33

de Rougemont, 133

desert surroundings, 1

dialects, variety of, 387, 388

“_didjeridoo_” drone pipe, 375, 376, 379, 380

Dieri Tribe, xiv, 4, 76, 82, 83, 92, 111, 121, 150, 155, 170, 172,
190, 205, 206, 218, 237, 242, 271, 282, 289, 290, 361, 362,
376, 386, 396, 400

diminutive expressions, 396, 400

“_dindula_,” hair ornament, 47

dingo, the wild dog of Australia, 119;
hunting the, 141;
mythical dingo or “_knullia_” people, 342

_Diprotodon_, 52, 54;
associated with other bones, 119;
carving of spoor, 307

disc throwing, 76

discipline, 85

diseases, the cause of rapid decline of aborigines, xiv

dog, the constant companion of aboriginal, 118, 119

_dolichocephaly_, 35

dolls, 79, 80

down-decoration of ground, 282, 326

Dravidians, 58

drawings, in sand, 70-73;
of “totem,” 339-343

dress, mode of, 113, 114, 115

drinking, methods of, 98, 99

drone pipe, 375, 376, 379, 380

drought, trying conditions of, 117

Dubois, Professor, 55

_Duboisia Hopwoodi_, 155

Duckworth, Professor, W. L. H., 33

duels, 165-174;
boomerang, 168;
chivalry displayed in, 174;
club, 168-170;
damatba, 170;
heavy spear, 172, 173;
kutturu, 165-168;
reed spears, 171;
stone dagger, 172;
shield used in, 173

dugong, hunting the, 134-137;
sung to during initiation, 19

dugout canoes, 164

Durham Downs, 237

E

ear, 29, 30

echidna designs, 336, 346, 347

eggs, of birds, 125, 126;
of reptiles, 126

“_Elaija_,” a sacred ancestor, 283

“_elbola_,” bark headgear, 280

“_elenba_,” wooden hair pins, 47

elopement, 223

emu, in the sky, 315, 332, 333, 334, 349;
carved in boabab, 309, 330;
carving on boomerang, 317;
ceremony, 274-280, 377, 378;
game, 81, 82;
gum leaves imitating the rustle of, 374;
hunting the, 129-140;
neck in the sky (“_Yirrerri_”), 334

enemy, corrobboree portraying the slaying of, 383, 384

“_engulba_,” pitjuri, 155

_ensellure_, 7

epipteric bone, 36

“_Erinnja_,” an evil spirit, 294

“_erriakutta_” (yelka) ceremonial drawing, 282, 327

erythrism, 48

escort of natives, 2

Etheridge, R., x

ethmoid, 25

“_Etominja_,” sacred ground design, 282, 326

_Eucalyptus corymbosa_ (Bloodwood), 98, 152;
_dumosa_ (water mallee), 98;
_miniata_ (woolly butt), 161;
_rostrata_ (red gum), 147;
_tetradonta_ (stringy bark), 161

_Eugenia_, leaf poultice applied to breast, 20

evil spirit, 291, 292, 294, 299, 314, 385

exchange of wives, 224

exclamations, 398, 399

_external angular process_, 25

extremities, length of, 10

eye, 23, 25

F

Face, 22-30

fat of emu and goanna, 115

fatty tissue scant in aboriginal, 5, 6

fatty tumours, 6

feather wig, 50

femur, 14, 15

feet, evolution and use of, 10 _et seq._;
“hand-like” form of Berringin tribesman, 11

fibula, 16

fight, corrobboree of, 382

figure contrast between aboriginal and European, 5 _et seq._

fire-fly, artificial, 376

fire ceremony (“_Ngardaddi_”), 261, 263

fire, 108;
shovels, 109, 110;
saw, 111, 202;
sores, 110;
stick, 110, 112;
whisk, 110, 111;
the precursor of civilization, 258, 260;
legend concerning origin on earth, 259, 260

fireless cooking, 80

fire walking, 236

firewood, gathered by women, 107

fish, barriers, 129;
designs, 350;
hooks, 132;
nets, 129, 130, 131;
nooses, 129;
ochre drawings of, 328;
spears, 131, 132

fishing, in parties, 127, 128, 129;
line, 132;
methods, 127, 128;
races, 128

flatfoot, 12

Flinders, Matthew, 117

Flinders Ranges, burial customs in the, 206;
ochre mine, 316;
rock carvings, 299, 303-308

flying fox design, 345, 350

foetal elements (“_rattappa_”), 287

food-carrier, used as cradle, 64, 65, 66

food restrictions, 250, 251

foot of Tasmanian, 14

footmarks in caves, 322

fourth molar, 32, 33

forehead, 23, 35

Fowler’s Bay, 64, 76, 295, 383

Fraipont’s method, 28, 29

frog, corrobboree of, 379

frog dance of children, 70

frog designs, 335, 346

frontal bone, 35, 36

frontal suture, 34

Frontispiece, 145

funeral chant, 211

G

gagging the initiate, 242, 246

Garner, Professor, 405

_Genyornis_, carving of track, 308

geological antiquity, 49, 52, 53, 54

gesture language, 388-394

“_gibba_,” chewed bone, 176

“_Gibberi_,” circumcision, 242

Gibraltar skull, 23, 32

Ginmu Tribe, 4, 253

girls accompany women instructors, 85

Glenelg River, xi, 159, 288, 312, 333, 344

goanna, 127

Gondwana, 55, 56

Good Spirit, 294, 295

goose hunting, 138, 139

“_gorri_,” a game played on the Humbert River, 76, 77

gouge, bone, 314

grasshopper, 387

grass tree, cover when emu hunting, 140;
flower stalks used for making spear shafts, 195

grave posts, 207

Great Australian Bight, 66, 141, 169, 192, 199

great emu ceremony, 274 _et seq._

Grey, Sir George, xi, 219, 272, 340, 343, 344

Gribble, E. R., 17

Groote Island, 101, 164, 197

ground drawings, 282, 326, 327

grubs, 122-125

gruesome rite, 247, 290

“_gummanda_,” cicatrices, 238

H

habitations, 101-105

half-castes, 59, 60

hailstone (“_Imbodna_”), mythical stone, 264

hair, 46, 47;
belts, 116;
cutting of, 117;
pins (wooden), 47

_Hakea_ bark, charcoal used for blackening hair, 285

hammers, stone, 360

hand-ball, 77

hand-like feet, 10-12

hand-prints in caves, 321, 322

hand-mills, 319, 361

hardening the child, 236

hatchets, stone, 362, 363

hawk traps, 137, 138

head-biting during initiation, 244, 245

head-dress, of emu ceremony, 277;
of “_tjilba purra_” (phallic) ceremony, 287

head-rests, 105

height of aboriginal, 16, 17

_Helix perinflata_, 121

Hickson, Sydney, 49

hide and seek, 78, 79

Higgin, A. J., 157

hollow trees used as shelters, 102

honey, wild bees’, 145;
drink, 153, 154

honey-ant, 146, 147

Howitt, Dr. A. W., 295

human chain-pattern, 353, 354, 355

human form, pictographic representation of, 353-358

Humbert River, 76, 320, 324, 336, 337, 352, 353, 403

Humboldt, Alexander von, 20

humerus, 16

hunt, objects of the, 121

hunting, 120-147;
buffalo, 144, 145;
crocodile, 134;
dingo, 141;
dugong, 134-137;
emu, 129-140;
geese, 138, 139;
hawks, 137, 138;
kangaroo, 141-144;
opossum, 140, 141;
turtle, 132, 133;
whistling duck, 139;
wallaby, 141;
wombat, 141

hunting instinct, 120, 121

hunting with fire, 126

huts, 102-105

Huxley, Thomas, 24

_hypertrichosis_, 46

I

“_ilbarinam_,” tjuringa, xi

“_ilja-imbadja_,” hand marks in caves, 321

“_ilgarukna_,” venesection, 275

“_illiya tjuringa_,” emu ceremony, 274 _et seq._

“_ilpalinja_,” sun worship, 265-267

“_Iltdana_,” evil spirit, 292

Ilyauarra Tribe, 4, 205

“_Imbodna_,” a mythical hailstone, 264

“_Imboromba_,” a spirit father’s mate, 287

imitation, of the plovers’ call, 70, 265, 379, 386;
of the dingo’s howl, 70;
of the jungle fowl’s call, 380;
of the crow’s call, 378;
of the crocodile, 377;
of the emu, 279, 378

“_Indorida_,” the mate of Rukkutta, 291

infant betrothal, 221

infant, treatment of, 64-68;
rubbing milk and charcoal over body of, 65;
singeing hair of, with fire stick, 65

“_ingada_,” a chief, 226

Ingada Ladjia Knaninja, leader of yam ceremony, 281

“_ingwitega_,” munyeroo, 150

_inion_, 36

initiation, 230-256;
amputation of finger-joints, 253, 254;
of the female, 252, 253;
origin of, 251, 252;
without mutilation, 249

instinct for locating water, 96

interment, 205-207

_internal angular process_, 25

interrogatives, 403

intitjuma, ceremonies, 274

intoxicating drink, 153, 154

introduction to a tribe, 1-3

iris, 25

“_irr_,” 171;
expression of disgust, 118

“_irriakutta_,” yelka, 149

J

“_jarrulge_,” mulga apple, 152

Jewish features, 26

“_jingardti_,” a chief, 226

Joyce, Capt. T. A., x

judge of character, 228

“_judja_,” a chief, 226

jungle fowl, corrobboree of, 380, 381

_jus primae noctis_, 256

justice, idea of, 227

K

“_kadabba_,” phallus, 283, 284

Kai Kai, an old medicine man, 180

“_kaidi_,” tjuringa, 270

kaili (boomerang), used as musical instrument, 383;
miniature, for practice, 82

Kaitidji (Kaitish) Tribe, 4, 92, 364

Kakera, marriage group, 220

Kakatu Tribe, 4, 267

“_kaleya pubanye_,” the sitting emu (coal sack), 332

“_kaloa_,” raft, 160;
toy models of, 82

“_kalumba_,” nardoo, 150

“_kalunuinti_,” phallus, 288

“_kanbanna_,” paddles, 159

kangaroo, charcoal drawings of, 321, 326, 336, 337;
conventional representation of, 350;
corrobboree of, 381;
hunt, 141-144;
ochre drawings of, 327, 328;
origin of “_arre_,” its name, 387;
tjuringa design of, 349, 352

“_kapa_” or “_kadje_,” water lily, 151

“_kapi wiyinna_,” magic water stick, 264

“_karru_,” milky way, 349

“_karwinnunga_,” shield, 173

“_käu_,” _vide_ Coo-ee, 142

“_käu-käu_,” chewed bone, 176

“_kaula_,” native pear, 152

Keith, Sir Arthur, x

kidney fat and marrow of dead warriors eaten, 189

Killalpaninna, 290;
“_killa wulpanna_,” 290, 291

King Sound natives, 50, 82, 88, 132, 151, 159, 283, 309, 311, 330,
358, 363, 396

kitchen-middens, 121, 122

Klaatsch, Professor Hermann, x, 25, 28, 29, 42, 50

“_Knaninja_,” xi, 265, 271, 274, 280, 281, 282, 285, 327, 341, 352,
353

“_Knaninja Arrerreka_,” mythical sun creature, 265;
ceremonies of, 274

knives, stone, 364

“_knudda_” (fat) of witchedy, 342

“_Knurriga Tjilba Purra_” (phallus), 286;
head of the Kukadja, 285

kobong, xi, 219, 226, 232, 269, 271, 272, 340

_Kochia_ bush, used for making vegetable-down, 276

Kolaia Tribe, 4, 65

“_kolldürr_,” stone spear-head, 370

Kukadja, 285, 286, 292, 293

Kukata Tribe, 4, 32, 81, 82, 87, 184, 200, 205, 236, 241, 242, 248,
255, 288, 296, 318, 361, 362

“_kukerra_,” playing stick, 82, 83

Kumara marriage group, 220

Kunapippi, a mythical witch, 271

Kurdaitja, an evil creature, 71, 72

“_kurreke tata_,” the plover, 70, 265, 386

“_kutturu_,” fighting stick, practice, 87;
duels, 165-168;
embodied in head-gear, 280

Kuyanni Tribe, 4, 362

“_Kwatje_,” water, ceremonies, 274

“_Kwatje purra_,” magic water stick, 264

L

lachrymal bone, 25

lactation, artificial, 20

“_ladjia_,” or yam tjuringa, 280 _et seq._, 337;
design of, 347

Lake Eyre, 50

lances, 193

“_langa langa_,” a shell knife used for “cutting the shadow,” 175

“_langu_,” native pear, 152

language, xii, 386-405

lanugo, 46, 49

La Perouse, 107

Larrekiya Tribe, 4, 62, 77, 111, 130, 131, 139, 142, 163, 164, 170,
196, 201, 202, 205, 207, 208, 210, 230, 249, 252, 332, 374,
379, 384

legs, 14

Lemuria, 55, 56

lerp manna, 147

leucoderma, 43

licentiousness, 224, 254

“_lionila_,” a club, 170

_lipomas_, 6

lips, 31

living skeletons, 21

lizards, 126;
designs of, 334, 335

_lobulus_, piercing of, 30

log rafts, 158-160

“_lorngai_,” feather wig, 50

lumbo-sacral curve, 9

“_lurra_,” a lipoma, 6

M

MacDonnell Ranges, 50, 92, 127, 146, 153, 155, 218, 226, 285, 291,
341, 362, 364, 405

Maiyarra’s conception, 61;
accouchement, 63

Malay bêche-de-mer fishers, 57

manna, 147

_mastoid process_, 30

“_marimba_,” wallaby bone used for loosening a tooth, 236

marine molluscs, 121, 122

marital relationships between man and woman, 222, 223

marriage systems, 218, 219, 220, 221;
allotment of infant, 221, 222

“_marriwirri_,” wooden sword, 170

_Marsdenia Leichhardti_, native pear, 152

_Marsilea quadrifolia_, nardoo, 150

_mastoid process_, 29

maternity, peculiar belief concerning, 62

medicine man, 179-182, 264, 265, 273, 294;
attends council meeting, 225, 226;
treating a patient, 181, 182

meeting an Australian tribe, 3

_Melophorus inflatus_, honey ant, 146

Melville Islanders, 77, 93, 144, 159, 161, 163, 192, 207, 238, 249,
309, 310, 323, 373, 380

“_memba_,” a feather wig, 50

_mental foramen_, 29

Menuaitja, marriage group, 220

“_merliadda_,” fire walking, 236

migrations of early man, 56

“_mika_,” a bark food carrier, 92

mika operation, 245-249

milk squirted at strangers, 228

milk and charcoal rubbed over newly-born child, 65

Milky Way, 332, 349, 350

Milk-bush, 387

mimicry, powers of, 371

“_mingul_,” pitjuri, 155

Minning Tribe, 4, 170, 218, 220, 260, 270, 334

“_miri_,” hand mill-stone, 361

modesty, sense of, 107

“_moiranje_,” a pubic tassel, 114

molars, 32

Mollinya ceremony, 250

Mongarrapungja, head of the Kukadja, 292, 293

Mongoloid migration, 56, 59

moon legends, 267-269

moon man, 267, 268

monkeys, appreciation of, by aborigines, 89, 90

mopoke, 386

“_moru_” (_Tephrosia_), a fish poison, 139

mothers charged with callousness, 65

mourning, customs of, 208-215;
second period of, 214

mourning ceremony, comic imitation of, 380

mouth, 31-33

mud-balling, 75

mud slides, 73, 74

mulga apple, 152

Mulluk Mulluk Tribe, 4, 25, 112, 197, 206, 365, 404

mummies, 208

munyeroo, 149, 150

Muramura, the Supreme Number, 271

Murchison district, type of spear-thrower of, 200

Musgrave Ranges, 48, 97, 102, 108, 109, 127, 143, 146, 151, 155, 329,
332, 360

music and dance, 371-385

music sticks, 374, 375, 379, 380

mussel (_Unio_), 121;
knife used for “cutting the shadow,” 175

mutilations, after return of circumcision candidate, 243;
after mika operation, 248;
amputation of finger joints, 253, 254;
at mourning ceremonies, 209, 210, 211, 213;
head biting, 245;
of female, 255, 256;
upon receipt of sad news, 210

N

Nangali, a mythical water-man, 264

“_nangarri_,” the medicine man, 179, 180, 181, 182, 264, 265, 273,
294;
treating a patient, 181, 182

nardoo, 150

Narrinyerri Tribe, 4, 95, 169, 200, 214, 296

naso-labial folds, 27

native pear (_Marsdenia_) design, 351, 353

native well, 96

Nature worship, 257

“_naualla_,” cicatrices, 238

navigation, 158-164

Neanderthal skeleton, 15, 23, 24, 25

Needlebush (_Hakea lorea_), 98, 111

negative chin, 29

negative words, 398

Negroid, 15, 28, 29, 34, 56, 59

newly-born infant, treatment of, 64, 65

“_ngadanji_,” tjuringa of phallic significance, xi

Ngadeja marriage group, 220

Ngameni Tribe, xiv, 4, 82, 155, 205, 237, 361, 362

Ngardaddi, a mythical fire thief, 261, 262

“_ngongu nerbai_,” a stone spear-head, 370

“_nimmerima_,” an emu-spear, 139

nomenclature, defining the individual, 216-218;
connected with marriage system, 218, 219

Northern Territory tribes, 76, 108, 112, 115, 116, 126, 128, 129,
130, 131, 132, 138, 142, 151, 174, 190, 195, 196, 197, 200,
201, 202, 208, 209, 211, 237, 253, 286, 313, 320, 323, 336,
349, 365, 367, 373, 374, 379, 405

Northern Kimberleys tribes, 77, 82, 86, 92, 95, 97, 109, 116, 125,
131, 139, 151, 173, 195, 200, 206, 208, 214, 232, 244, 249,
256, 284, 288, 311, 313, 330, 340, 343, 360, 367

nose, 26-28;
boring of septum, 230, 231

nuclei, stone, 364

Nullarbor Plains tribes, 169, 251

numerals, 396, 397

Nyege, Supreme Spirit, 295

_Nymphaea stellata_, blue water lily, 151

O

Obesity, 6

occipital bone, 39

ochre drawings, at ceremonials, 325, 326;
on bark, 323;
on the body, 324, 325, 326;
on weapons, 323, 324

ochre, smeared over corpse, 208;
over emissaries at initiation, 254;
over infant, 65;
over initiate in tooth-rapping ceremony, 234;
over initiate in circumcision ceremony, 241;
over sacred stone, 291;
preparation of for barter, 113, 318;
preparation as a pigment, 318, 319

ointments, 115

“_oladda_,” bark food-carrier, 65

“omelette” of emu egg, 125, 126

Ooldea, 48

operating knife, 242, 364, 365

opossums, carried on the head, 88;
hunting of, 140, 141;
suckled by gin, 91

_orbita_, 25, 26

orders of the day, 91

“_oridja_,” truffle, 151

origin of aboriginal, 52

orthognathism, 29

_os inca_, 35

outriggers, 164

oven-stones, 360, 361

P

paddles, 163

Pandanus cider, 153, 154

Panunga marriage group, 220

“_parapara_,” nardoo, 150

parietal bone, 35

“_parli_,” the north-western form of wanningi, 356

Parnkalla Tribe, 4, 199

patting the chest, a form of salutation, 3

“_päuya_,” native pear, 152

pearl shell coverings, 115, 313, 355

_peroneus_ muscle, 12

perspective, generally absent in drawings, 334, 338, 339

pets kept in camp, 88

“_peturr_,” pitjuri, 155

phallic worship, x, xi, 282-292

phallus, 249, 283-292;
water producing, 264

philosophical instincts, 116, 117

Pidunga Tribe, 4, 317

pigmentation of skin, 41-43, 59

pitch, changing of, while rendering a song, 376, 377

pitchi, bark food-carrier, 92

_Pithecanthropus_, 15, 55

pitjuri, 113, 139, 155, 156, 157

piturine, 157

placenta, 64

platform burial, 207, 208

_platycnemia_, 15

platypus design, 304, 306

playing “father and mother,” 79

playing stick, 82

Pleistocene gravels, 53

plover, the “rainmaker,” 70, 265;
imitating call of stone plover, 379;
origin of its name, 386

plurality, expression of, 400

“pointing” the bone, 174-178

Ponga Ponga Tribe, 4, 88, 112, 184, 197, 198, 365

Port George IV, 65, 94, 238, 283, 310

Port Hedland carvings, 299-303, 329

Port Jackson carvings, 299, 300

portulaca, 147

positive chin, 29

“pot-belly,” 21

pounders, stone, 360

pregnancy, artificial interference with, 64

“_prelja_,” manna, 147

premolars, 33

prepuse, resection of, 242

“primitive snout,” 27

_prognathism_, 28

pronouns, 401-403

prostitutes, 223

pubic coverings, 114, 115, 243, 249, 313

“_puli_,” stone used in tooth-rapping ceremony, 236

Pultara marriage group, 220

“_purra_,” phallus, 287

Purula marriage group, 220

“_putta ildurra_,” stone dagger, 172

_Psylla_, 147

Q

Queensland, 50, 53, 80, 84, 94, 102, 104, 124, 131, 137, 155, 163,
190, 208, 299, 308, 316, 362

R

_radius_ selected for “bone,” 215

rafts, 158-160

rainmakers, 264, 265

“rattappa,” foetal elements, 287, 291

rattles, boab nuts, sea shells, and gum leaves, 374

red-hot coal placed on forearm, 87, 88

reed spear, 171, 194

religious ideas, 257-296

repetition of action, verbally expressed, 397, 398

_retouche_, 370

_rhinal fissure_, 39

rhythm, 372, 377, 383

River Murray Tribes, 66, 100, 102, 108, 114, 121, 160, 169, 192, 195,
200, 208, 213, 310, 313, 365, 367, 373

rivers, extinct in Australia, 59

rock carvings, 299-308

rock shelter, 322

Roebuck Bay, 170

Roper River Tribe, 153, 197, 249, 270, 287

Roth, Dr. Walter, 48, 80, 84

_Rukkutta_, a tribal ancestor, 291

S

sacral bone, 9

sacred ceremonies, 273 _et seq._;
ceremonial object (“_tjilbakuta_”), 276, 278, 280;
emu tjuringa, 274 _et seq._;
“_kwatje_” tjuringa, 274

sacred ground of tjuringa, 272, 273

sacred ground drawing, “_Etominja_,” 282

sacred pole, “_Djundagalla_,” 248, 249;
stored in hut, 266

sagittal suture, 35

_Salsola kali_, 76

salutations, 105, 106, 404

_Sarcostemma_, 387

saw fish, 131

scars (tribal), 236-238

_scaphocephaly_, 34, 35

Schweinfurth, Prof. G., 306

_Scleroderma_, 152

scrapers, stone, 363-367;
slate, 366

sepulchral caves, 214

sex worship, 257, 282, 289-292

shell-fish, 122

shelters, 101-105

Sherait Tribe, 130, 365

shield, 173, 188

ship-of-war, corrobboree of, 382, 383

shoulder-blade, 16

sibilant sounds, 402

sign language, 388-394

singing, ensemble, 384;
the words of a conversation, 385

sitting, methods of, 106

skeins of fur-string used during dance, 373

skeleton of aboriginal, 5-16, 21-37

skeleton, imitation of, in body decoration, 325

skin, colour of, 40-45

skin drums, 373, 374

skin water bags, 94, 95

skins used by southern tribes, 100, 114

skipping, 83

skull, 34 _et seq._;
capacity of, 37

sky-shying act, 238, 239

sleep, order during, 101;
position during, 105

Smith, Dr. Ramsay, 15, 16, 34

Smith, Dr. S. A., 53, 54

smoking ceremony, 253

snails, 121

snakes, 126;
mythical, 269

songs, 377-385;
imitating natural call-notes, 377 _et seq._

Spartan principles, 87

spears, 190-198;
carefully stored, 112, 113;
heavy, 172, 173;
poisoned, 198;
reed, 171, 194, 195;
stone-bladed, 367;
stone-headed, 196;
types figured, 191;
uses of, 190

spear-head, stone, 367-370;
method of making, 368-370

spear-throwers, 199-202

spine, curvature of, 7;
effect of upright attitude upon, 8;
effect of tree-climbing upon, 13;
proportional lengths of vertebræ and cartilaginous discs, 8;
smallness of vertebræ, 9

_Spinifex_, 76

spokeshave, stone, 365

_squamous_ portion of temporal bone, 36

still-born children, 205

Stirling, Dr. E. C., 15

Stokes, Lort, 105

stone age in Australia, 58, 59, 359

stone-covered huts, 103

stone implements, 359-370

Strehlow, Rev. Carl, x

subincision, 245-249;
sensual excitement at, 248

_sulcus lunatus_, 38

Sunday Islanders, 65, 66, 78, 82, 84, 89, 93, 117, 176, 295, 331,
355, 368, 397, 398, 401, 403, 404

sun-men, 267

sun worship, 265-267

superlative expressions, 399

Supreme Spirit, xi, 400

T

“_takul_,” mulga apple, 152

Talgai skull, 33, 53

Talleri, the eternal home of all spirits, 296

“_taralje_,” a spear-thrower, 200

Tasmania, separated from the mainland, 119

Tasmanians, 14, 15, 16, 28, 31, 34, 35, 37, 49

“_tchewa_,” flat stone of hand-mill, 361

“_tdela_,” head-dress, 280

_Tecoma Australis_, 195, 196

teeth, 31

temperament, 229

Tennants Creek, calvarium, 53;
the home of Kukadja men, 285

_Tephrosia_, a poison plant, 139

terminal syllables, 398, 399

the day’s march, 91-99

_Therapon_, drawing of, 328

thigh bone, 14, 15

third trochanter, 15

thorns, removal of in camp, 117, 118

throwing competition, 78

thunder, 387

_tibialis posticus_ muscle, 16

time, beating of, 372, 373;
fixing of, 395;
representation of, 351

“tip-cat,” 78

“_tjilbakuta_,” a sacred ceremonial object, 276, 278, 280

“_tjilba-purra_,” a phallus, embodied in head-gear, 287;
Altjerra-Knaninja drawing, 327

Tjingali Tribe, 4, 308

“_tjulu_,” a stone operating knife, 242

tjuringa, 217, 311;
Altjerra-Kutta, 291;
acting as a talisman, 273;
carried by initiation emissaries, 242;
carved stone, 309;
caterpillar, 350, 352, 353;
ceremonies, 274 _et seq._;
in the sky, 334;
inspirited by a deity, 270;
kangaroo, 349, 352;
mythical origin of Kunapippi, 271;
native pear, 351, 353;
of sun ceremony, 265, 266;
produced at female initiation ceremony, 255;
stored in sacred caves, 272, 343;
witchedy grub, 348;
yam pattern, 337

Tjurrega marriage group, 220

“_tjutanga_,” tooth-rapping rod, 236

“_toki_,” a waterlily, 151

tomahawks, stone, 362, 363

Tomkinson Ranges, 48, 67, 114, 143, 227

tooth-ache, 32

tooth pick, 32

tooth-pointed spear-thrower, 201

tooth-rapping ceremonies, 231-236;
“_antjuarra_,” 235, 236;
gum forced back with finger nail, 235;
knocking the tooth out, 235

tops, 83

“totem,” xi, 219, 226, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 279, 280, 282, 285,
339, 340, 341, 351, 353

“totem,” ancestors, 274;
ceremonies, 274;
food and hunting restrictions, 273

“totemic” designs, 339-343, 346, 351, 352, 353

_Toxotes_, drawing of, 328

toys, 79 _et seq._

toy, boomerang, 82;
dart, 82;
raft, 82;
spears, 81, 194;
weapons, 80, 81

tracks, drawn in sand, 71-73;
representations of, 347-349

tree-climbing, 12-14, 123, 124;
competitions in, 75, 76

tree-felling by fire, 124, 141

Triassic period, 56

tribal organizations, 216-224

tribal husbands, 224

tribal law, 226

_Trigonia_ in Australia, 58, 59

truffle (_Scleroderma_), 151, 152

trumpets, bamboo, 375, 376, 379

_tubera frontalia_, 35

Tukura, a great Spirit, 295, 296, 356

Tukurata, the Supreme Number, 271

Tukutita, the Supreme Number, 271

“_turapitti_,” artificial fire-flies, 376

_Turbo undulata_, 122

turtle, eggs, 126;
hunting, 132, 133, 160

turtle designs, 335, 346

Tutrarre, a mythical dog, 267

twins, 63, 64

U

Ullbönnalenna water hole, 97

“_ullyinga_,” witchedy hook, 125

Ulparidja group, 48

umbilical cord, treatment of, 64

_Unio_, 121

_Unio pictorum_, 319

upright attitude, see spine, 7 _et seq._

_urethrotomia_, 245-249

“_utnguringita_” or witchedy grub drawings, 341-343

u-within-u designs, 351, 352, 353

V

Veddahs, 25, 58

vegetable diet, 148-152

vegetable down, 275, 276

venesection, 275

verbs, conjugations of, 400, 401

vermin-proof platform larders, 105

Victoria River tribes, 62, 75, 76, 77, 103, 105, 128, 146, 211, 243,
253, 266, 285, 292, 319, 321, 323, 325, 326, 332, 336, 367,
373, 375

Victorian basalts, human bones beneath, 54

vocal productions, 376 _et seq._

W

waddies, 168 _et seq._

“_wadua_,” white vegetable-down, 276

“_wagal-wagal_,” a tjuringa, 270

walking, 12;
in single file, 118

wallaby, hunting of, 141

“_waketo_,” munyeroo, 150

“_wanjerra_,” red vegetable down, 276

“_wanna_,” yam sticks, 148

wanningi, 240, 244, 356, 357

Waraka, a spirit father, 287

war council, 184

warfare, 183-189

“_warrakinna_,” pitjuri, 155

Warramunga Tribe, 4, 92

Warrupu, a Minning ancestor, 260

Warrida-jinna (eagle hawk’s claw), Southern Cross, 349

Warrnambool footprints, 54

water, in Currajong, Bloodwood and Needlebush, 98;
supplies guarded against pollution, 97;
transported by women, 91, 92

water carriers, 92-95

water ceremonies, 274

water legend, 263, 264

water mallee, _Eucalyptus dumosa_, 98

water men, “_atoa kwatje_,” 264, 265

water lily tubers, 151

water supplies, 96, 97

weaning of children, 66

Wellington caves, 54

Wenoinn, a Minning ancestor, 260

white ants added to acacia flour, 150, 151

“white blackfellow,” 42

Wickham River, 248

“_widida_,” native truffle, 151

widow, 212-214;
claimed by deceased husband’s brother, 213;
cutting off of hair, 213;
re-opening scalp wound, 213;
skull caps of gypsum, 213

“_wilpa_,” a wallaby, 141

“_winudtharra_,” honey ant, 147

Winyeru, initiation ceremony, 242, 248

“_wirrauwa_,” a bark bucket, 94

Wirrewarra, the eternal home of all Spirits, 296

witchedy grub, 122, 123, 124, 125;
sacred drawings of, 341-343;
“totemic” designs, 351-352

witchedy hook, 124, 125

Wogait Tribe, 4, 62, 83, 109, 116, 130, 131, 139, 170, 196, 197, 198,
201, 208, 243, 244, 332, 365, 374, 379

woman, corrobboree of, 383

wombat hunt, 141

women, the recognized carriers, 112

Womma, the Milky Way, 350

wommera, spear-thrower, 180, 199-202

Wongapitcha Tribe, 3, 4, 47, 48, 67, 92, 95, 111, 114, 121, 122, 147,
151, 152, 153, 155, 184, 200, 205, 218, 235, 236, 242, 255,
259, 349, 361, 396, 398

Wongkanguru Tribe, 4, 83, 121, 155, 361, 362

Woods, Rev. Tenison, 43

Wordaman Tribe, 4, 201, 248

words derived from natural phenomena, 386, 387;
imitating natural sounds, 386

Worma Kadiabba, a mythical snake’s head, 269

Wormian bones, 35

Worora Tribe, 4, 94, 116, 176, 238, 310, 321, 343, 361, 369

“_Wubbi, wubbi, wubbi, wau!_”, the voice of the bull-roarer, 241, 242

Wulna Tribe, 196

X

_Xanthorrhœa_, grass tree, used in emu hunting, 140;
flower stalk used for spear shaft, 195

Y

yam ceremony, 280

yams, 151

yam stick, 148

yam tjuringa, 280 _et seq._, 337, 347

Yantowannta Tribe, xiv, 4, 50, 82, 83, 92, 114, 121, 155, 169, 205,
207, 213, 237

Yarrakinna, ochre mine near Parachilna, 316

“_yarralyi_,” beetles supposed to possess ecbolic principles, 64

Yauroworka Tribe, xiv, 4, 103

“_yeapatja_,” or caterpillar tjuringa, 352, 353

yelka, 148, 149;
ceremonial drawing of, 327

“_yerumba_,” a honey ant, 147

_Yirrerri_, neck of emu in the sky, 334

Yunta rock carvings, 306-308

Z

_Zamia_, cicatrices in imitation of, 238;
in Australia, 58

_zygomatic_ arch, 30

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