Chapter V: Part 5

To use a hand camera is the simplest matter imaginable, to properly employ it the most difficult--simple, because of the facility with which plates may be exposed, difficult, because to succeed, demands careful practice, and a thorough understanding of photographic manipulation. We must have _learnt to see_, and that quickly, must have gained coolness and self-restraint, and perhaps not the _least qualification necessary is that of being a good photographer_. Whether content to produce good straightforward representations of such scenes as come before you, or more ambitious attempts at pictorial work be made, they can both be done with the hand camera quite as well, nay indeed, given sufficient technical skill, and trained perception to see the beauty presented in line and mass, it is by no means clear this form of implement does not offer greater facilities for successful working, than the more complicated form used with a tripod.

The choice of subject is only bounded by the limits of exposure, speed of plate and actinic action of light available. The first has already been touched upon, when the lens, and shutter, were dealt with.

Plates have recently been so increased in speed, that it becomes necessary to somewhat modify advice, which a year or two ago, might have been perfectly correct, _viz._, to work with the fastest plate procurable. But there is this advantage now, as then, that if some convenient form of actinometer be used to test the light, we are able to judge at once, what speed of plate will be necessary to deal with each subject as it arises. There are several forms available, amongst which, the one introduced by Watkins, made so that it becomes a permanent part of the camera, answers remarkably well, especially as it cannot be left at home, without being noticed. In developing shutter-exposed plates, if full exposure has been obtained, then the ordinary modes of procedure suffice, so also when over-exposure occurs, but by far the greater proportion of failures one sees in this class of work, arise simply _from under-exposure_. There seems so much charm in driving a shutter at its highest speed, and at the same time using the lens stopped down, to secure sharp definition, the wonder is, not that failures flourish, but that any good work is done at all.

With regard to particular developers there is only this to be said. Whatever agent be employed, so arrange that before density is obtained, _all the detail you require_ is first brought out; this simply means, if pyro is being used, it is kept low, until the plate is ready to be treated for density, then a further addition of pyro and bromide will generally suffice to rapidly finish off the work.

When a batch of exposed plates is being dealt with, a most certain method of negative making, will be found in employing in one dish, either one or other of the following one-solution developers:--

NO. 1 FORMULA.
Amidol 20 grains
Sodium sulphite 1/2 oz.
Water 7 "

NO. 2 FORMULA.
Dissolve in water 20 oz.
Metol 75 grains

then add
Sodium sulphite 1-3/4 oz.
Carbonate of soda (crystals) 1-3/4 "
Bromide of potassium 6 grains

NO. 3 FORMULA.
Sodium sulphite 1-1/4 oz.
Carbonate of potassium 1/2 "
Eikonogen 1/4 "
Boiling water 12 "

Any of the above developers will be found to rapidly bring out all there is in the plate, and if over-exposure is feared, they may all with advantage be diluted, with an equal quantity of water, in order to slow down their action.

In another dish, it is advisable to have the following _re-developer_, to impart density to the plates, as they become ready for that operation, or to successfully deal with any, which are found to have been considerably over-exposed, and upon which, the first developer is acting too vigorously.

RE-DEVELOPER.
NO. 1.
Hydroquinone 1/4 ounce
Sodium sulphite 2 "
Potassium bromide 1/4 "
Boiling water 12 "

NO. 2.
Washing soda 2 ounces
Sodium sulphite 2 "
Water to make 12 "
For use mix equal quantities.

By employing two different developers in the manner suggested, it becomes a simple matter to produce good negatives, from plates having had all kinds of exposures, some under, some over, and it may be some which have had about the right exposure; in this way one of the most fruitful causes of failure in the production of hand-camera pictures, _error in exposure and development_, is minimized, if not altogether done away with.

There are sometimes occasions when out with a hand camera, when subjects present themselves, offering exceedingly good opportunities for securing pleasing little pictures, but which require one, or two seconds' exposure, to render them successfully. At such times it may generally be arranged to rest the camera on a stone, wall, or gate, or to hold it pressed against a tree, or some other rigid support. As an example, the illustration of a woodside with birch trees, facing page 136, may be pointed to. In this instance, when out cycling, the place and lighting on the tree trunks, struck us as pleasing, and worth trying to secure a record of, even though but a hand camera was being carried at the time.

Having dismounted, and found a point from where it might be attempted, and where conveniently grew a single tree, the lens was opened to (if recollection does not deceive) _f_/11. Then the camera jammed close to the tree trunk, and two seconds' exposure given, taking especial care that no movement took place.

The plate being in due time carefully developed, and as far as possible contrasts kept down, the result proved satisfactory enough.

It could more conveniently have been photographed, of course, if a camera and tripod had been available, but it is one of many such instances, where, when shutter exposures only had been prepared for, occasions arose, demanding longer exposures than were possible, unless, some such temporary support be pressed into use, as in this instance.

For successful work, see that the camera is simple, its parts, of the best your pocket can afford. Give the slowest exposures your subject will allow. Develop for softly modelled negatives first, getting what density is required afterwards. See that the camera is held perfectly steady, during exposure, and don't forget it is simply a camera, and lens, and will require _you behind it_, just the same as any other employed with a tripod, and in conclusion bear always in mind, _it is the simplest form of camera work and the most difficult_, making the utmost demands on your skill, if high-class results are to be the outcome of its use.

_W. Thomas._

_Lantern Slides._

A lantern Slide is a transparent positive on glass or other transparent support, usually 3-1/4 inches square, and is placed in the lantern in such a way that by suitable illumination and optical arrangements the image on the slide is made to intercept some of the light given off by the illuminant from a screen, which without the screen would be wholly and evenly illuminated by the light.

In viewing a paper print we are really observing the paper by reflected light, part of our view being intercepted by the image formed of pigment or reduced metal; the amount of light not being very great a very thin layer of pigment is required to produce the appearance of a sufficiently robust image. If the image alone or with its vehicle be stripped from a good print on paper this image viewed by transmitted light will be found to be extremely faint, far too faint to be of any use as a "transparency," and also too thin to be of any use as a lantern slide. On the other hand, what we know as a "transparency," such as is often used for window decoration, backed, perhaps, with ground glass, would be found much too dense or robust for use as a lantern slide. In density, then, a "slide," as it shall hereafter be called, comes between the image on a paper print and that on a "transparency." In "gradation," or gamut of tones, the slide ought to be superior to either the paper print with its almost absolute clearness over large areas, or the transparency with its dense shadows and its comparatively heavy lights. In fact, in a good slide we have every grade of deposit from perfect transparency to nearly complete opacity. But the extremes must be very sparingly present, and the transition from one tone to another must be gradual, all intermediate notes between highest and lowest should be represented.

Other qualities go to make the perfect slide; the metallic or other deposit forming the image must be in the utmost degree fine, no approach to "grain" must be perceptible even under the highest magnification. The colour, or "tone," must be not only pleasant but appropriate.

The loss of light in its journey from the illuminant to our eyes is enormous; the disc on the screen is simply a greatly magnified image of the light, and here is great loss; add to this the interception of some light by the opacity of the slide, and the fact that much more is lost in reflection from the screen, and absorption by the screen, and it is easy to realize that the image from the screen reaching our eyes is vastly less bright than that reaching the eye when, for instance, we examine a slide in the hand by transmitted light. And loss of light means increase of contrast, so that a slide which would seem about right in gradation in the hand would be altogether soot-and-chalk as a screen-image. So too if we have in the slide already shut out much light, by making the slide foggy, or over dense, it is easy to see that when the image reaches our eyes from the screen this vicious opacity will be immensely increased in its mischievous properties. The first style of slide gives screen-images sometimes called "midsummer snow-scenes"; the other slide is simply called "foggy." Both must be assiduously avoided.

It need hardly be said that the plates prepared by some processes are more likely to yield good slides, such as are described above, than plates prepared by other processes; no one process can claim to possess in itself superiority in all respects. Collodion, for instance, is less apt to give foggy slides, and it is easier to intensify than gelatine, but it is also more prone to give "hard" images. Collodion is at its finest in the form of collodio-bromide emulsion, which gives slides remarkable for fineness of grain, for clearness, and for richness of tones; but when we have to copy in the camera, the operation with collodion emulsion is protracted, unless we have bright daylight or a condensing arrangement, which with large negatives is often out of the question. On the whole it may be taken that gelatine-bromide emulsion is the process to be recommended, not only on account of its convenience and celerity, but in view of the many inherent points of excellence that it possesses. In any case, want of space will cause us to confine attention here to that process, and any one mastering the use of gelatine-bromide slide-plates will have nothing to fear from competition with other processes in all-round work. The writer has a leaning towards slide-plates as slow as he can procure them, because slowness almost always goes hand in hand with fineness of grain and freedom from fog.

There is one point of importance that should be noted in working with gelatine for this purpose. Distilled water should be used if possible for all solutions. Tap water--especially hard water--is apt to produce with the gelatine a certain amount of scum which, if present in any appreciable degree, cannot fail to affect the quality of the slides; but treatment with an acid alum bath as described later has a very salutary effect in removing any scum that may have formed during the "liquid" operations.

In the mechanics of making a slide from a negative we have only two methods to consider. If the slide-image is to be the same size as the negative, or a part of the negative, we print by _contact_, that is, we put the negative and the slide-plate face to face in contact, and we expose to light, the negative being next to the light; this corresponds with making a print on paper. But when we desire to make a slide including all the subject of a negative larger than a slide-plate, or, in fact, when we desire to alter the size of the image at all, we copy the negative "in the camera." The simplest method of doing this is to fix up the negative so that it is evenly lighted and make a photograph of it in a camera; but the adjustments necessary for such an operation would be found awkward, and so a "reducing camera" of some kind is generally used. Many such cameras are on the market, and consist of devices for holding the negative in a suitable position with regard to a small camera furnished with a lens and a dark slide holding a lantern plate. Either the negative-holder or the camera should have possible movement in all directions vertical to the optical axis of the whole, and in addition it is often desirable to have a certain amount of movement in other planes, in order to correct certain optical defects that are sometimes found in negatives. The writer has for many years used a small camera with its front stuck into the front of a large camera, one or other of these cameras has every necessary movement. The device is figured here.

Whatever arrangement is used the end of the apparatus bearing the negative is directed towards a good and even light; and it is well to place about two inches in front of the negative towards the light a piece of finely ground glass for ordinary negatives; this glass is with advantage omitted with extra dense negatives.

It goes without saying that the exposure, whether we are working by contact or in the camera is of the utmost importance; but it is not possible in an article such as this to give even an approximate idea of the exposure suitable under any concatenation of conditions. The best clue to exposure is to be found in development, and in results. It is necessary to know what happens after normal exposure with a given developer, and then if any variation is noticed to alter the exposure. If a plate develops more rapidly than the normal, it may fairly be deduced that the exposure has been too long; but if we are dealing with a specially contrasted negative it is better so. On the other hand, when we are dealing with a thin negative, especially if the scale of gradation is short, we require an exposure less than what would under normal conditions lead to complete development in the normal time. And again some plates require to be developed to a greater point of apparent density than others; this is a matter of experience. Briefly put, there is no royal road to good slide-making, experience is necessary.

In actually making the exposures certain points must be kept in mind. If we are copying in the camera with daylight as illuminant it is very important to use the light from the north; if we use other light we shall be much put out on most occasions by awkward variations of the brightness. A very large number of operations are rendered nugatory by carelessness in this matter. Even the most experienced worker will find it impossible to expose plates with anything like accuracy when he has to deal with direct sunshine at one time, thin white clouds at another, and dark clouds at a third. And in making exposures by contact the beginner must be fairly accurate in judging the time of exposure and the distance from the radiant. A good plan is to tie to the gas jet a piece of cord having knots at convenient intervals, such as at 9, 12, 18 and 24 inches, and in making an exposure to use these knots as guides to the distance; moreover, the law of "squares of distance" must be remembered; the intensity of light varies inversely as the square of distance from radiant to receiver, provided, of course, no optical arrangement is introduced to modify the path of the rays. Consequently, for example, if ten seconds is found to be a proper exposure at nine inches from the light, the corresponding exposure at eighteen inches will not be twenty, but forty seconds (9^2=81. 18^2=324). And as it is sometimes awkward to hold the frame and attend to a watch at the same time, a metronome, ticking seconds, will be found convenient, or a clock with a second hand may be placed where it can be seen during the exposure. A landscape slide without clouds, if the horizon is in the picture, is usually considered a failure, and has been dubbed "bald-headed." Really good workers often put clouds into slides by "combination printing," which in some cases is comparatively easy, in others very difficult. If we are working by reduction from a good-sized negative, with a fairly even horizon, the difficulty is not great. The landscape part of the negative is first exposed, the sky being masked if necessary, and a cloud negative is then substituted for the landscape negative, a part of the former being masked to correspond with the landscape on the latter, and a second exposure is made on the same slide-plate. Admittedly in all cases this requires "some doing," in many cases it is extremely difficult. An easier, if less "sportsmanlike," method is to make the cloud slide on a separate slide-plate, and to use the latter as a "cover-glass" for the slide. The cloud may cover the whole of the second slide, and that part of it not required may be wiped out by means of a reducing solution, used with a brush, such as the ferricyanide and hypo one described later. This method will be found useful even in contact slide making, but it also requires not only good taste in the selection of the cloud, but some deftness in manipulation; but the neat-handed beginner need not fear to make the attempt.

DEVELOPMENT.

It has already been stated that judgment of exposure is a matter of experience, and that results are the best criterion; here follow some more explicit statements on the same matter.

Whatever plate or developer is used, and whatever the time occupied in complete development:

_1st._--If by the time the high-lights are sufficiently
strong the shadows are too dense or blocked, the plate has
been under-exposed.

_2nd._--If by the time the high-lights are sufficiently
strong the shadows have not attained sufficient density, or
are veiled, the plate has been over-exposed.

_3rd._--If at the same moment the high-lights show
sufficiently and the shadows are transparent but
sufficiently plucky, the plate has been properly exposed.

_4th._--With a normal negative the normal exposure is the
proper exposure; but (_a_) a negative abnormally strong in
contrasts will require an abnormally long exposure; and
(_b_) a thin negative, or one with a very short scale of
gradation from densest to clearest, will require an
abnormally short exposure, with probably some
after-treatment in the direction of "intensification."

Ambitious slide-makers generally aim at warm-toned slides for pictorial effect, and rightly. But slides intended for scientific purposes are generally better when cold in tone, the definition is usually better. But whatever the aim, a good tone of one kind is preferable to a poor one of another kind, and the beginner should first make sure of getting a really good cold tone, which is comparatively easy, and then try his "'prentice hand" on warm tones.

Warm tones are obtained by using greatly super-normal exposures and greatly restrained developers; and the danger probably lies in the fact that the long exposures are apt to lead to fog, and the great restraint to over-density in the shadows, the latter especially when the exposure has not been quite long enough for the developer used; herein probably lies the whole secret of warm slide-making. If we aim at really warm tones and use developers suited to such design, we must on no account stint the exposure.

COLD TONE DEVELOPING SOLUTIONS.

The classical solution for cold tone slides is a solution of ferrous oxalate in potassic oxalate. Of all developers it is most free from fogging propensities. It is made from so-called "saturated solutions" of proto-sulphate of iron and potassium oxalate. Thus, into a bottle put a quantity of iron proto-sulphate, and pour on about three times its weight of water containing a dram of sulphuric acid to each pint. Shake well, and keep always at about 60° Fahr.; some of the iron must always be visible in the bottle, if not, more is to be added. The crystals of iron salt must be green and not rusty in colour. This is the "iron solution."

The "oxalate solution" is made by dissolving potassium oxalate in about three times its weight of water. This also must be kept at 60° Fahr., shaken occasionally, and oxalate added if none is visible in the bottle.

To make the ferrous oxalate solution we _pour_ one part of the iron solution _into_ six parts of the oxalate, and it is advisable to add to each ounce of developer at least half a grain of potassium bromide; 5 minims of a 10% solution, made by dissolving one ounce of the bromide in about 9 ounces of water, and then making up to 10 ounces--all chemical.

In about four minutes or less this ought to fully develop a properly exposed plate. If the development is much shorter the slide is apt to have an unpleasant greenish tone, a result that may also follow the use of an inordinate amount of bromide in the developer. The developing solution may be made in quantity greater than is required for one plate, and may be used several times if a little of the surplus and fresh solution is added when the quantity in use becomes slow in action.

For really fine cold black tones the following formula by MESSRS. ELLIOTT & SON will be found admirable:--

A
Metol 40 grains.
Soda sulphite 1 ounce.
Water 8 ounces.

B
Potassium carbonate 120 grains.
Ammonium bromide 24 "
Potassium bromide 48 "
Water 8 ounces.

The developing solution consists of equal parts of A and B.

If either of the above developers is to be used, the exposure is to be kept down as compared with the exposure to be followed by developers intended for very warm tones.

The two developers which follow next, require about the same exposure as the two already formulated. "Ortol" is a reducing agent quite lately introduced by Mr. Hauff, of Feuerbach in Germany, and Mr. Hauff's agents in this country are Messrs. Fuerst Bros., of London. "Ortol" gives the finest tones of the warm black type that we have as yet come across, it is singularly free from fogging propensity, and the tones do not easily degenerate into the greens so apt to occur after severe over-exposure with other "black" developers. We suggest a simple formula:--

A
Water 20 ounces.
Metabisulphite of potassium 75 grains.
Ortol 150 grains.

B
Water 20 ounces.
Soda carbonate 3-1/2 ounces.
Soda sulphite 2-1/2 ounces.

To make the developer, take one part of A, one of B, and one of water, and to each ounce of the mixture add one and a half or two grains of potassium bromide. The development of a properly exposed slide will take two or three minutes, and the result will probably be highly appreciated.

The above is worthy to stand alone as representing developers for warm black tones, but the following works well. (Messrs. Elliott & Son.)

A
Hydroquinone 80 grains.
Soda sulphite 1 ounce.
Potassium bromide 15 grains.
Water 10 ounces.

B
Caustic soda 80 grains.
Water 10 ozs.

The developing solution consists of equal parts of A and B, and the plate may be fully developed in about two to three minutes.

It has already been stated that in order to obtain really warm red or reddish tones by development, it is necessary to give very long exposure, and to use a developer very much restrained. It is further found that carbonate of ammonia has a considerable effect in reddening the developed image, and so we now come to procedure based on these lines. Carbonate of ammonia is found in commerce in the shape of "chunks" more or less square. If one of these is pared with a knife--unless the sample is quite fresh--the outside will be found to be a soft amorphous powder, the inside a clear, very hard crystal; the clear crystal is in development an "accelerator," though a very weak one, the outside substance is a restrainer. Probably both the inside--sesquicarbonate--and the outside--bicarbonate--are useful, and the best plan is to make a ten per cent. solution of the substance as obtained from a good chemist--not druggist. Of this solution one grain of the salt is represented by ten minims. If now we take an ounce of A, and one of B of the last formula, and if we add to the ounce of A 3 grains of ammonium bromide, and to the ounce of B 3 grains of ammonium carbonate, and if we have given a proper exposure and develop with equal parts of the A and B modified as above, we shall get a slide of rich chocolate colour; and if we double the proportions of carbonate and bromide, and expose still longer, we shall get a slide still ruddier in tone, even to red. But there is always danger of fog, and of clogged shadows, and this must be reckoned with. There is a more certain and less dangerous way of getting handsome tones, which shall be described presently.

Gelatine slides are always fixed in hyposulphite of soda, about one part by weight to six parts of water; after this they must be well washed, say five minutes under a good rose tap, or in many changes of water in a dish for an hour, and every slide should be treated with a saturated solution of potash alum, of which each pint should contain a dram of hydrochloric acid.

Very many, if not most, slides are all the better for just a touch of a "reducer" such as follows:--The ordinary "hypo." solution is weakened with about four times its measure of water, and the plate is soaked for a minute in this. A few drops of a ten per cent. solution of potassium ferricyanide are put into the measure, and the hypo. mixed with it, and the whole allowed to work on the plate for a short time, carefully watched. Of course a weak slide must not be thus treated, but it is often a good plan to develop slides to such a point that they will permit of this treatment.

On the other hand it is often advisable to keep a slide thin in development, for instance, when the negative wants pluck, and intensification is indicated; or when we wish a good warm tone after a "black" developer such as our metol formula: a good average treatment is as follows:--

Take half an ounce each of ammonium chloride and mercury bichloride and dissolve in 16 ounces of water, soak the slide in this till it is bleached. Wash well and treat with weak liquid ammonia, or a solution of soda sulphite, or of metabisulphite of potash, or fresh lime water. This will strengthen the slide and give it in most cases a fine rich colour. It is important to let these solutions act thoroughly, and not to stop the action half-way. The writer considers this the best and safest way to obtain warm tones, the reader may find out for himself which of these solutions produces the tones he chiefly affects.

Crystal varnish is _not_ wasted even on a gelatine slide.

In conclusion, it must be realized that the screen-image is a greatly enlarged edition of the slide-image; any small defect on the slide is a huge one on the screen. Consequently the slide-maker must sedulously cultivate cleanliness and manipulative care.

_Andrew Pringle._

_How to make Enlargements._

Enlargements may be made by daylight, or by artificial light, and there are two methods of producing them, namely, by enlarging direct from the negative on to a sheet of bromide paper; or by first making a small transparency, and from that producing an enlarged negative upon a slow dry plate. The first is the method usually adopted by amateurs, probably because the necessary operations are fewer, and perhaps more simple. The second plan, however, possesses the advantage that the prints may be made by any process, be it carbon, platinum, or silver, and thus a great variety of effect obtained.

The first point however that the reader must decide is whether he will work by artificial light or by daylight. Each may be said to possess certain advantages, and with many the question resolves itself into one of personal convenience. Artificial light is, or should be, fairly constant in intensity, and if adopted there will probably be less waste of material through miscalculation of exposure. But if the source of light employed be other than a mixed jet, or the arc-light, if in fact it be of low intensity, negatives of a somewhat delicate type will be required in order to produce enlargements of the highest excellence. If the negatives are dense and strong, illuminants of low intensity, like oil or gas, do not possess sufficient penetration to duly register the denser portions of the negative, and the enlargements so made are apt to be deficient in half-tone, and hard. With well-graded negatives of suitable quality, however, most excellent enlargements may be produced by artificial light. When artificial light is used work may be carried on at any time of day or night, in winter or summer. Those who adopt the daylight plan will, of course, be subjected to greater restrictions, at any rate, during the winter months, but amateurs who take a real interest in the work will do well to adopt the writer's plan, and provide themselves with apparatus for each method of working.

ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT.

There are two ways of enlarging by daylight. The first involves the exclusion of all actinic light from a room except that which passes through the negative. The alternative method of working is to employ an ordinary enlarging camera, such as are made by Middlemiss, or Lancaster. It is desirable, but not necessary, if the first plan be adopted, to secure the exclusive use of a room. One with a northerly aspect should be chosen, for if sunlight falls upon the window shadows will at some period of the day fall upon the negative, and produce unevenly lighted enlargements. An upper room will be most suitable, and, if the light be a northern one, and there are no trees or buildings to obstruct the view, a reflector may be dispensed with. If external objects intervene, however, one must be employed. It should be fixed outside the window-sill, at an angle of 45°, and should be capable of adjustment. Let it be _the full width of the window_, and _securely fixed_ for obvious reasons. A plate-glass mirror is effective, but expensive. A large drawing board painted dead white also answers well, but should not be left outside exposed to the weather.

Provision for excluding the light from the room is best secured by making a wooden frame large enough to fit closely against the window frame. Upon this a piece of stout calico should be tightly strained and secured with tacks. It should then be sized, and when dry will be as tight as a drum; it must then be covered with two thicknesses of stout brown paper pasted on. The frame is shown complete in Fig. 1. Now at AA. BB. screw two strips of wood, the distance apart must be regulated by the size of the negatives to be enlarged. The ordinary camera is intended to be used as the enlarging camera, and the distance from C. to C. should be just equal to the size of the back portion of the camera. On the lower rail BB screw a piece of 9 in. board to form a shelf or support D. for the enlarging camera. Make a frame E. of 1/2 in. wood 1 in. deep, the same size as the back of the camera, and screw to the shelf and top rail AA. Now carefully cut away the brown paper and calico from the inside of this frame, at the part marked H. and paste strips of brown paper round it so as to prevent any light passing except through the opening H. A strip of felt should be tacked all round the large frame to prevent any light from creeping in between it and the window frame. A couple of turn buttons will keep it in position. A _firm_ table should be placed against the window close up to the wall to form a support for the enlarging easel. Now a little care must be taken in fitting up this portion of the apparatus, and it is better to have something more exact than the propped-up drawing board or printing frame, which is sometimes recommended. Get a carpenter to run out two V shaped rails as shown in Fig. 2 at CC. They should be about the length of the table, and screwed down upon it. Procure a cheap drawing board about 15 x 12, and to the under side affix two pieces of wood with V shaped grooves corresponding in angle to the rails. This forms the base of the easel AA. Make a frame 22 x 20, or rather larger than the biggest enlargement that it is desired to produce. It should be constructed of 1/2 in. wood, and be 2 in. deep. It is shown in Fig. 2 at 1 DDDD. Now make, or get made, a set of carriers EE, the largest of which should just fit into the frame. Narrow fillets of wood screwed each side will afford a rise and fall adjustment, and a thumb screw at G will fix the carrier in any desired position. To obtain the cross-movement screw the frame DDDD to a piece of inch board 5 in. wide HH. Place this exactly in the centre of the base board, and screw fillets II of 1 in. wood to each side. This will afford a cross motion, and a thumb screw at J will fix the carrier frame when the necessary adjustment has been made.

In setting up an enlarging apparatus, whether it be for day or artificial light, it is absolutely essential to preserve the parallelism of its various parts, otherwise it will be impossible to produce sharp or evenly defined enlargements, and for this reason I have described somewhat fully the construction of a suitable easel. I may add that it will serve equally well for either daylight or artificial illumination, and I strongly advise the reader to construct, or have constructed, an easel on the lines I have laid down. With it either direct enlargements on paper can be produced, or plates may be used and enlarged negatives made. The easiest way of holding the paper during exposure is to procure two sheets of clear glass, patent plate is most suitable, sandwich the bromide paper between them, and secure with two strong bands of elastic. The complete apparatus in position for working is shown at Fig. 3.

The second method of enlarging by daylight is by employing an ordinary enlarging camera. The same conditions as to lighting, etc., should be sought for, and the most convenient way of working will be to tilt the camera at such an angle as that the negative receives unobstructed illumination from the sky. A reflector in this case will not be necessary, but a piece of very finely ground glass should be placed about an inch in front of the negative in order to soften and diffuse the light. This method of working is shown in Fig. 4.

ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT.

Before describing the actual process of making an enlargement it will be well to deal with the alternative method of working, namely, by artificial light, as the manipulations of the sensitive material used are the same in either case. Practically the most satisfactory way of working by the latter method is to use an enlarging lantern properly fitted with a condenser. The general principles of such an apparatus are identical with those which obtain in an ordinary optical lantern. Methods which dispense with the use of a condenser are more or less unsatisfactory, and should be avoided. In the space at the disposal of the writer it is not possible to give directions for the construction of an enlarging lantern, but those who may desire to make their own, will find full instructions and working drawings in "[6]Practical Enlarging."

[6] A Iliffe & Son.

Enlarging lanterns of excellent quality are obtainable commercially, but for the guidance of the uninitiated it may be useful to refer a little in detail to one or two important points with regard to their construction. The condenser will first claim attention. The ordinary pattern consists of two plano-convex lenses mounted as shown in section at Fig. 5. This answers fairly well with the smaller sizes, but when the diameter of the condenser is large, a good deal of light may be lost. The interposition of a small meniscus or plano-convex lens, in the manner first suggested by the late J. Traill Taylor, and shown in Fig. 6, will be found a great improvement. Its proper position will be at the point where the divergent cone of rays proceeding from it just covers the large condenser. In our own practice we always place a diffusing screen of very finely-ground glass in front of the condenser at EE The diameter of the condenser is governed by the size of the negatives to be enlarged, it must be of sufficient size to include the longer sides of the plate within its circumference without cutting the corners. If it is much larger than this, an unnecessary loss of light will occur, because only that which passes through the negative can be utilized.

THE ILLUMINANT.

The smaller and more intense the light, the nearer we approach to the ideal projection illuminant, and the better will be the definition of our enlargements. The arc light most nearly fulfils the desired conditions, and if it be available it should certainly be employed. Next in point of utility comes the limelight, preferably in the form of the mixed jet, and those who understand its manipulation are recommended to adopt it, but the majority of amateurs will probably find it more convenient to use either incandescent gaslight or an oil-lamp. Parallel wick-lamps should be avoided on account of the unequal illumination they produce, and if oil must be used a good circular wick burner will be found more suitable. Where house-gas is available the incandescent gaslight is however much to be preferred. The light is perhaps not so powerful as that given by a really good parallel wick-lamp, but it is far more actinic and penetrating. The writer has used this light with great satisfaction, and therefore has no hesitation in recommending it. Some workers have been troubled by the appearance of an image of the mantle on the screen, but this can usually be got rid of by a suitable adjustment of the lenses and the light, and in any case by the interposition of a piece of ground glass between condenser and negative.

THE CHOICE OF THE LENS.

It is commonly stated that the lens with which the original negative was taken will serve equally well to enlarge it, and in the abstract the statement is perhaps not inaccurate. But assuming that a lens of a focus equal to about 1-1/4 times the base of the plate has been used, it will be found that better results, both in regard to definition and equality of illumination, will be obtained by substituting a lens of rather longer focus, for example a half-plate lens for enlarging from quarter-plate negatives. This, although applying to both methods of working is particularly desirable when enlarging by artificial light, for an objective of small diameter and short focus cannot possibly pick up or receive the whole of the cone of rays proceeding from the condenser. A reference to Figs. 7 and 8 will explain why this is so. In Fig. 7 we see what happens when a lens of too short a focus is used, but when one of longer focus is substituted, the whole of the cone of rays passes through and is utilized (Fig. 8). In selecting a lens one should be chosen which has a sufficiently large diameter to permit the apex of the cone of rays from the condenser to pass through. This point will, of course, vary with the degree of amplification, and in order to obtain the best results optically, the distance of the light from the condenser must be carefully adjusted in every case, and a clear, evenly lighted disc obtained before inserting the negative to be enlarged.

With regard to the type of lens, one of the rapid rectilinear form will answer well. A portrait lens is often used on account of the brilliancy of image, but although it answers well for enlarging portraits, the roundness of its field makes it less suitable for landscapes unless it is considerably stopped down. If the very finest results as regards definition are required, then one of the now numerous flat-field lenses should be used. The writer can from practical experience speak well of the Ross-Goerz and the Cooke lens. The latter is perhaps preferable for working with artificial light on account of the larger diameter of the back lens. Wide-angle lenses, on account of their small aperture and short focus, are not suitable for use with a condenser, both for the reasons given, and on account of the difficulty in focussing owing to the small amount of light transmitted. When daylight is used, however, there is less objection to their employment.

Before leaving this part of the subject it should be noted that in regard to preserving the parallelism of its parts the same care in erecting and fitting up the enlarging lantern must be observed, as was insisted upon in the description of the apparatus for daylight. It will be found convenient, therefore, to mount the lantern on a base similar to that upon which the easel rests, so that both may move on the same rails. The easel described for daylight enlarging will serve equally well for working by artificial light. The complete apparatus is shown at Fig. 9, which is a reproduction from a photograph of the apparatus constructed and used by the writer.

THE NEGATIVE.

In general practice one may find it necessary at times to enlarge from negatives of very dissimilar types, but there is no reason, when the negatives are to be produced with the special object of subsequently making enlargements from them, why care should not be taken to make them of a suitable character. Thin delicate negatives should be enlarged by artificial light; dense, strong ones by daylight. If the negatives are very strong it will be difficult to produce soft and well-graded enlargements with a weak illuminant, the light not being sufficiently intense to properly penetrate the high-lights. A soft and clear negative, with good gradation, fully exposed, and neither exhibiting patches of clear glass shadow devoid of detail, nor of hard impenetrable high-light, will be found most suitable. Fog should be avoided, as also should the yellow stain produced by pyro when improperly used. Not that the pyro developer is unsuitable, for if sufficient sulphite is used, and the quantity of pyro kept down, negatives of very beautiful quality for enlarging purposes may be produced. Great care should be taken to avoid bubbles, stains, scratches, or any kind of mechanical defects, as such when enlarged become painfully obtrusive, and spoil the effect of the best work. It will be found a good plan to bind the edge of the negative before enlarging it with a strip of lantern slide binding, so as to cover the clear glass rebate mark. If this be omitted the margins of the enlargement may become fogged by the lateral spreading action of the light. No hand-work should be attempted on the original negative, for any such treatment will become painfully apparent in the enlargement. If retouching be deemed necessary, it should in the case of a direct enlargement be executed upon the print itself, or upon the enlarged negative or preferably upon the enlarged transparency, when that method of reproduction has been adopted.

DIRECT ENLARGEMENTS.

The following concise instructions for enlarging upon bromide paper will apply equally to the daylight or artificial light methods of working. In the first case the negative is placed in the dark slide of the camera, both shutters being drawn fully out. The camera is then put upon the shelf close up against the opening in the shutter, as shown in Fig. 3, any light creeping in between shutter and camera being blocked out with the focussing cloth. If the enlarging lantern is used the negative will be placed in the carrier, just in the same way as a lantern slide, with the film side towards the enlarging lens. Now the first difficulty that will be experienced will be to get the enlarged image of the required size. It will be well to content ourselves at the outset with a moderate degree of enlargement, say from 1/4 plate to 12 × 10, and when proficiency is acquired, larger sizes can be attempted. At first we shall probably not succeed in getting any image at all. In adjusting the various parts of the apparatus we shall find the work easier if we remember that the nearer we place the lens to the negative the further will it be necessary to move the easel from the lens, and the greater will be the enlargement. A useful table of enlargements will be found in the "British Journal Almanac," showing the distance of lens from negative, and negative from paper, for almost any required degree of amplification.

Now it will be found much easier to focus the enlarged image by looking at it through a piece of finely ground glass, than by receiving it on a piece of card or paper, and the adoption of the easel plan of focussing previously described will enable this to be done. The ground surface of the glass (which must be of the same thickness as the piece behind which the paper is to be exposed) should be away from the lens and towards the person focussing, when it is placed in the carrier of the easel, it being retained in position with the spring S., Fig. 2. Focussing must be carefully performed, and is effected by sliding the easel to and fro upon the runners, and which should have been previously rubbed with blacklead.

Bromide paper is made in several varieties, such as smooth, rough, snow-enamel, cream crayon, etc., and is put up either in tubes, or packed flat. The latter is decidedly the more convenient, it being somewhat difficult to take the curl out of paper that has been rolled. The choice of paper is a matter of taste; for landscape work the rough paper or the cream crayon will perhaps be found most suitable. For finer work, and some classes of portraiture the enamel will prove effective. Rough paper is better for strong broad effects, smooth for more delicate work and the rendering of fine detail. The coated side may be distinguished by its tendency to curl inwards. The easiest way of exposing it is to procure two pieces of patent plate glass of the same thickness as the focussing glass, sandwich the sheet of paper between the two, and secure with strong elastic bands. This will hold it quite flat during exposure, and will not disturb the actinism of the lens or impair the definition of the enlargement.

DEVELOPMENT.

This part of the work of producing an enlargement will only be lightly dealt with, as the subject is fully treated elsewhere in this volume. The writer prefers the ferrous-oxalate developer for bromide enlargements to any of the more recently introduced developers, but as it requires more skill and judgment to employ it with complete success, beginners may find it better to use amidol or metol, either of which when properly used gives excellent results. Hydrokinone we do not recommend for this purpose owing to its tendency to give rusty blacks in the event of over-exposure, or undue hardness if it has been too short. With amidol a pure delicate black is easily obtainable, and it is moreover a very simple developer to use. Our own plan is to employ a weak solution and give a full exposure, and by these means we find no difficulty in obtaining good gradation and pure blacks. The dish used for development must not be used for other developers or stains will probably occur. Although a quick appearance of the image is usually a characteristic of amidol, no trouble will be experienced when the developer is used in the way we advise, for the picture will be found to develop slowly and regularly, and gradually grow in strength. Quick development by this method would be an indication of over-exposure. A correctly exposed enlargement should take about ten minutes to develop. One stock solution only is necessary. It will keep indefinitely.

Sulphite of soda 1 ounce.
Citric acid 20 grains.
Distilled water 40 ounces.
Potassium bromide 15 grains.

To each ounce of the above add, just before using, three grains of dry amidol. The exposure must be accurately timed. It is, however, impossible to give useful information on this head, unless such varying factors as the rapidity of the paper, the intensity of the light, the aperture of the lens, and the degree of enlargement are known. The best plan is to cut one of the sheets of bromide paper into twelve strips, and on these make several test exposures, carefully noting the duration of each. It is better (at any rate for a beginner) not to vary the constituents or strength of the developer, but to increase or diminish the exposure until a good result in colour and tonality is obtained. By entering full details relating to the production of a successful enlargement in a notebook, great exactitude in working will be obtained, and there need be little or no waste of material when additional enlargements have to be made from the same negatives at a future time.

A glass dish, though expensive, is very suitable for developing, for being flat-bottomed a minimum of solution can be used, and moreover if the dish should be dirty, the fact is at once apparent. The exposed paper should be soaked in water for a few minutes until uniformly wetted, and any air-bells removed with a camel-hair brush. The water is then poured off, and the developer applied in an even wave, so that the whole of the paper is covered uniformly and quickly. The image will appear slowly, and gradually gain in detail. When all the detail has appeared it may still appear lacking in vigour and contrast, but this will come if sufficient time be allowed. _Development should not be stopped until the print is of the full strength required_, but it is not advisable to allow it to become much darker than it is desired to appear when finished, because there is very little loss of strength in the fixing bath.

If the image flashes out immediately upon the application of the developer, the paper has been over-exposed. A strong dose (one or two drams) of ten per cent. bromide added to the developer may help to save it, but the enlargement will probably look poor and flat and of bad colour when finished. If the picture appears very slowly, and refuses to gain in strength, under-exposure is the cause, and two or three drams of a ten per cent. solution of sulphite of soda may improve matters, but as a rule the most satisfactory plan will be to make another exposure. With regard to the strength of the developer, that given is very suitable for negatives of normal density, but some papers may require a little more amidol, the appearance of the finished enlargements will guide the reader in regulating the quantity to suit the particular paper with which he may be working. The enlargement should be washed in plenty of running water from the tap to arrest development, and then fixed in:--

Hyposulphite of soda 4 ounces.
Water 20 "

A quarter of an hour should be allowed for fixation, but it is better to use two baths, giving ten minutes in each. After washing in running water for a couple of hours they may be hung up by one corner to dry, or pinned down to a blotting board.