Chapter XXIII: Act V: Footnote 656 (2)

Comparetti, _Kalewala_, 1892. pp. 3, 264 ff. The very name of the
Finnish song is probably borrowed; but its original and native
character is successfully defended by Comparetti, pp. 37, 272, against
the attempt of Ahlqvist to prove alliteration in Finnish verse a loan
from the Scandinavians.

Footnote 896:

Set forth in Tarde’s _Les Lois de l’Imitation_, Paris, 1890; but the
best recent summary of his views is _Les Lois Sociales_, Paris, 1898.
Special problems of the crowd as imitative, dangerous, weak, are
treated in his _Essais et Mélanges Sociologiques_, Lyon-Paris, 1895.
See also “Les deux Éléments de la Sociologie,” in _Études de
Psychologie Sociale_, Paris, 1898, an address delivered in 1894 before
the first international Congress of Sociology.

Footnote 897:

_Les Lois de l’Imitation_, p. 279. So p. 48,—“A l’origine un
anthropoïde a imaginé ... les rudiments d’un langage.”

Footnote 898:

_Of the Origin and Progress of Language_, I. 318 ff.

Footnote 899:

He concedes that a different relation exists when two are working
together at the same thing (_Lois Soc._, p. 129); although here are
“model and copy,” suggestion at least.

Footnote 900:

_Ibid._, p. 159.

Footnote 901:

He sees light ahead for a world now hung in Schopenhauer-black; the
infinitesimal shall cheer us. _Ibid._, pp. 87, 105, 110.

Footnote 902:

_Lois Sociales_, pp. 40 f. This passage will repay close attention.

Footnote 903:

_Critique Scientifique_, pp. 191 ff. Carstanjen made a fierce attack
on the milieu in art, and, by implication, in literature:
_Vierteljahrsschrift f. wissenschaftl. Philosophie_, XX. (1896), 1
ff., 143 ff. He explains the art of the renaissance by the artists of
that time, and not by their environment. For a fine defence of the
_milieu_, however, see the late M. Texte’s book on _Jean-Jacques
Rousseau et les Origines du Cosmopolitisme Littéraire_, pp. xvii. ff.

Footnote 904:

_Outlines of Sociology_, trans. F. W. Moore for the Amer. Acad. Pol.
and Soc. Sci., June, 1899, pp. 45, 88. See the translator’s abstract,
p. 7.

Footnote 905:

_Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Sociologie_, Leipzig, 1897, I.
183, 213 f.

Footnote 906:

_Principles of Sociology_, New York, 1896.

Footnote 907:

“Ueber Ziele und Wege der Völkerpsychologie,” in _Philosophische
Studien_, 1888, IV. 1 ff., particularly pp. 11 ff. and 17.

Footnote 908:

In his _Völkerpsychologie_ (Vol. I., Leipzig, 1900, has appeared), he
undertakes to study the making of these three products, which he calls
a _gemeinsames Erzeugniss_. See pp. 4, 6, 24 f. A sensible plea for
the _volksseele_, “which need not have any mystical connotation,” was
made by Gustav Freytag in the introduction to his _Bilder aus der
deutschen Vergangenheit_, I. 13 ff.

Footnote 909:

_Psychologie des Foules_; and in English translation, _The Crowd_.

Footnote 910:

“Das Wesen des Gesammtgeistes,” _Studien und Aufsätze_, pp. 504 ff.

Footnote 911:

Significant is the change from _Völkerpsychologie_ to _Volkskunde_.
The new journal is edited by Professor Weinhold, and began in 1891.

Footnote 912:

In Paul’s _Grundriss der Philologie_, II. i., 512 ff. See also Ten
Brink’s _Beowulf_, pp. 105 f.

Footnote 913:

_Débute._ See _Lois de l’Imit._, p. 233. He is arguing against
Spencer’s doctrine of the development of the arts, and implies the
same “high initial source” for music, architecture, and the rest.

Footnote 914:

“Enfin ce triple poésie découle de trois grandes sources, la Bible,
Homère, Shakspeare.”

Footnote 915:

_Lois Sociales_, p. 49.

Footnote 916:

The abstract question is foreign to the present purpose; but it may be
urged that one is wise to take neither the extreme position of Buckle,
Gumplowicz, and Bourdeau,—who said that if Napoleon had been shot at
Toulon, Hoche, or Kleber, or some one, would have done what Napoleon
did,—nor yet the equally extreme stand of Tarde and his school. Some
sensible remarks on the whole matter may be found in Bernheim’s
_Lehrbuch d. historischen Methode_, pp. 513 ff. of the second edition,
Leipzig, 1894.

Footnote 917:

See Lloyd Morgan, _Habit and Instinct_, Chap. II. Solitary chicks
hatched in an incubator can be heard chirping, all in the same way,
before they break the shell, and with no chance of imitation in the
case. Weismann, “Gedanken über Musik,” _Rundschau_, LXI. (1889), 63,
remarks that a young finch brought up alone will sing the song of its
kind, “but never so beautifully as when a good singer is put with him
as teacher.” The concession is enough.

Footnote 918:

Morgan, work quoted, p. 90. Even Mr. Witchell, for whom the song of
birds is traditional, grants that call-notes, alarm-notes, and all
such utterances are instinctive. See Morgan, p. 178, and Romanes,
_Mental Evolution in Animals_, pp. 222 f.

Footnote 919:

_Psychology of the Emotions_, p. 265. The part assigned to imitation
in seemingly spontaneous expression of emotion in a child, Baldwin,
_Mental Development in Child and Race_, pp. 260 ff., does not affect
this study of emotion in throngs.

Footnote 920:

_Die Spiele der Thiere_, Jena, 1896, p. 8. See, however, _Spiele der
Menschen_, pp. 4, 365 ff., 431, 446 ff., 511 f.

Footnote 921:

So Noiré explained the case in the section on the development of
language in his book, _Die Welt als Entwicklung des Geistes_, Leipzig,
1874. Like Donovan, too, he assumed that the first words were uttered
under pressure of communal excitement, elation, joy, social sense. He
assumes that social conditions quite overwhelmed the individual, who
hardly existed as such. See pp. 266 f.

Footnote 922:

Quoted, p. 328, by Morgan, from _Lectures on Human and Animal
Psychology_, p. 397.

Footnote 923:

See Wallaschek against this idea, above, p. 100.

Footnote 924:

Work quoted, p. 21.

Footnote 925:

Work quoted, p. 340. Play is thus tabulated:—

════════════════════╤════════════════════╤════════════════════
Selbstdarstellung. │Nachahmung. │Ausschmückung.
────────────────────┼────────────────────┼────────────────────
Persönliches. │Wahres. │Schönes.
────────────────────┼────────────────────┼────────────────────
Beim Thier: │ │
Bewerbungskünste. │Nachahmungskünste. │Baukünste.
────────────────────┼────────────────────┼────────────────────
Beim Menschen: │ │
Erregungstanz. │Nachahmungstanz. │Kunstgewerbe.
Musik. │Mimik. │(Gartenbaukunst.)
Lyrik. │Plastik. │Architectur.
│Malerei. │
│Epik. │
│Drama. │
════════════════════╧════════════════════╧════════════════════

Compare with this the table given in Mr. Baldwin Brown’s useful book
on _The Fine Arts_, p. 36.

Footnote 926:

_Lyre to Muse_, pp. 127 f. Mr. Baldwin Brown, _The Fine Arts_, p. 23,
also regards art in general as an outgrowth of festal celebrations.

Footnote 927:

At the end of his _Lyre to Muse_, p. 209.

Footnote 928:

_Arbeit und Rhythmus_, pp. 17, 25, 82.

Footnote 929:

In Ribot’s _Psychology of the Emotions_, e.g., p. 332, ample justice
is done to spontaneous emotion and expression.

Footnote 930:

See Butcher’s translation, pp. 15 ff.

Footnote 931:

So Butcher explains, p. 252: “a wild religious excitement, a bacchic
ecstasy.”

Footnote 932:

_Kunstlehre des Aristoteles_, Jena, 1876, pp. 83 ff. Gerber, _Die
Sprache als Kunst_, I. 32, follows Aristotle in denying that
improvisations are ever poetry, which is enthusiasm plus deliberation
and selection.

Footnote 933:

_Vorlesungen_, I. 356 ff. Compare I. 340.

Footnote 934:

Waitz-Gerland, _Anthropologie_, I. (2d. ed.), 345.

Footnote 935:

_Vorlesungen_, II. 117, 119. He calls the Homeric epos an artistic
improvisation as compared with earlier spontaneous, instinctive
improvisation. See also II. 20.

Footnote 936:

_Ibid._, III. 141,—a mere note for his lecture.

Footnote 937:

_Die Geburt der Tragödie_, oder _Griechenthum und Pessimismus_, 3d.
ed. 1894; the immediate title, however, is _Die Geburt der Tragödie
aus dem Geiste der Musik_.

Footnote 938:

_Welt als Wille_, etc., I. 416. Nietzsche, pp. 22, 35 f.

Footnote 939:

Lyric and folksong, according to Nietzsche, p. 48, are outcome of
music. “Diesen Prozess einer Entladung der Musik in Bildern haben wir
uns auf eine jugendfrische, sprachlich schöpferische Volksmenge zu
übertragen, um zur Ahnung zu kommen, wie das strophische Volkslied
entsteht.”

Footnote 940:

The usual references for Bacchic or Dionysian orgies are Livy, IX. 4
ff., where minute particulars are given; Strabo, bk. X.; Athenæus, X.

Footnote 941:

In Nietzsche’s mystic phrase, the chorus “auf seiner primitiven Stufe
in der Urtragödie,” is “eine Selbstspiegelung des dionysischen
Menschen ... eine Vision der dionysischen Masse.”

Footnote 942:

See pp. 60 f. This artistic power is his definition of the poetic
process. Professor Giddings, on hints of Mr. Spencer, has drawn a
picture of solitary, primitive man arguing a spirit from the
phenomenon of his shadow and of the echo of his voice. It may be
pointed out that communal shouts and cries, echoed from the rocks,
would be more likely to rouse a belief in that horde of spirits with
which the primitive human horde thought itself surrounded. Early
religion was social, communal; individual meditation, a process of
individual thought, was utterly subordinate to communal thought. Even
now superstition is a lingering “they say.”

Footnote 943:

“Eine Gemeinde von unbewussten Schauspielern,” p. 61.

Footnote 944:

_Journal d’un Poète_, p. 38.

Footnote 945:

“Das charakteristische Merkmal der Volkspoesie,” _Zeitschr. f.
Völkerpsychol._, XIX. (1889), 115 ff.

Footnote 946:

_Zeitschr. f. Völkerpsychol._, XIX., p. 120.

Footnote 947:

See Schultze, _Der Fetischismus_, pp. 30 ff., with his authorities.

Footnote 948:

Two famous utterances voice this feeling. Swift loved his Peter, Paul,
John, and the rest; he hated the human race at large. This for the
outer circle. As for crowds, Schiller put the antithesis in a
distich:—

Jeder, sieht man ihn einzeln, ist leidlich klug und beständig;
Sind sie _in corpore_, gleich wird euch ein Dummkopf daraus.

Footnote 949:

“Foules et Sectes,” in _Essais et Mélanges Sociol._, p. 4.

Footnote 950:

_Principles of Sociology_, I. 459, 704 f. Tribe to nation, I. 584.
Rise of professions due to “specialization of a relatively homogeneous
mass,” III. 181. See II. 307 ff. In the _First Principles_, §§ 125,
127, he had defined the process as “change from an incoherent
homogeneity to a coherent heterogeneity,” and had applied the idea not
only to the primitive union of poetry, music, and dancing, but within
poetic limits to that undifferentiated song which held in germ the
epic, the lyric, the drama.

Footnote 951:

_Revue des deux Mondes_, 15 Feb., 1898, p. 880; “le passage de
l’homogène à l’heterogène,” that “idée mère, l’idée substantielle de
l’évolution or in Haeckel’s words, “gradual differentiation of matter
originally simple.”

Footnote 952:

_L’Évolution des Peuples_, pp. 37 f. See also pp. 43, 167.

Footnote 953:

_Primitive Folk_, p. 57.

Footnote 954:

So the reviews summarize the doctrine of A. H. Keane, _Man Past and
Present_, 1899.

Footnote 955:

_Critique Scientifique_, pp. 112, 115.

Footnote 956:

In the _Rassenkampf_ and especially in _Outlines of Sociology_, trans.
Moore, pp. 39, 124, 139 note; on p. 142 he names the factors which
made a horde homogeneous.

Footnote 957:

Dr. Richard Mucke, _Horde und Familie in ihrer urgeschichtlichen
Entwicklung_, Stuttgart, 1895.

Footnote 958:

Grosse, _Format der Familie_, pp. 30 ff. See p. 39. He takes as
“representatives of the oldest form of social life” those scattered
tribes which subsist entirely by hunting; we know nothing so
primitive, and while checked in culture, these tribes are probably not
degraded (32 f.). The statements in the text are based on careful
arrangement of the statistics, a very important point. See Mucke,
_Horde und Familie_, pp. 181 ff. Spencer describes the “small, simple
aggregates,” coöperating “with or without a regulating centre, for
certain public ends,” of which the “headless” kind must be regarded as
the primitive type; and gives a list of these not very different from
the list of Grosse. _Prin. Soc._, I. § 257.

Footnote 959:

Grosse refuses to extend this lack of individual power to promiscuity
in sexual relations. That precious theory was doubtless carried to an
absurd point; but the reaction may likewise go too far, and the case
of those Andamanese (p. 43) with their “absolute conjugal fidelity
even unto death,” uncannily suggests Sir Charles Grandison and even
Isaac Walton’s mullet.

Footnote 960:

_Anthropology_, p. 79.

Footnote 961:

_Anthropologie_, I. 74 ff., 349 ff.

Footnote 962:

Waitz, I. 446, answers objections to this view, and disposes of the
idea that civilization levels mankind.

Footnote 963:

See above, p. 372, note 942.

Footnote 964:

_Anfänge der Kunst_, p. 224.

Footnote 965:

_Ibid._, pp. 300 f.

Footnote 966:

_Ibid._, p, 236.

Footnote 967:

_Comparative Literature_, p. 72. See pp. 89 ff., 155 ff., 347 f., and
the whole chapter on “The Principle of Literary Growth.” He glorifies
sympathy as the poetic mainspring; but he fails to study the dualism
in terms of actual throng and actual artist. The spirit and plan of
the book, however, are worthy of the highest praise, whatever its
shortcomings in detail.

Footnote 968:

Catullus, lxiv.

Footnote 969:

_Werke_, VI. 26.

Footnote 970:

_Esthétique de la Tradition_, pp. 69 ff.

Footnote 971:

Spencer, _Sociology_, I. 56 ff., 70 f., II. 271, note; Grosse, _Formen
der Familie_, p. 57, with quotation from Petroff’s book on Alaska;
Schultze, _Fetischismus_, pp. 51 f.

Footnote 972:

_The Theory of Law and Civil Society_, London, 1888, pp. 106 f. See
above, p. 26.

Footnote 973:

Professor Baldwin, _Social and Ethical Interpretations_, p. 214, puts
the beginning of the social period just after man’s release from the
animal. See too his appendix. Ribot, work quoted, p. 281, says the
gregarious life—of animals in hordes, that is—“is founded on the
attraction of like for like, irrespective of sex.” See this whole
chapter on “The Social and Moral Feelings.”

Footnote 974:

See, however, the case of New Zealanders who work in large numbers and
in perfect accord by singing their song _totowaka_. Wallaschek, _Prim.
Mus._, p. 43.

Footnote 975:

Even Mr. Spencer points out that this is no bar to communal consent,
_Sociology_, I. 59; for the variability implies “smaller departure
from primitive reflex action ... lack of the re-representative
emotions which hold the simpler ones in check.” Bastian, too, has
shown that in the formation of society out of individuals, the social
element as such, the social whole, must precede the element of social
individuality or of the individuality within the mass. This is what
one gathers from Bastian’s books in general; in one case, _Die Welt in
ihren Spiegelungen unter dem Wandel des Völkergedankens_, p. 413, he
applies this idea to the priority of social property as compared with
individual property.

Footnote 976:

Perhaps there is some connection between the fervour and merit of
French war-songs like the Marseillaise, the _Ça ira_, and the fact
that French literature as a whole is averse from undue stress upon the
individual and does not suffer, whatever its other defects, from “too
much ego in its cosmos.” Texte points out that Jean-Jacques, Germanic
by nature, noticed this trait in the French. “Le _je_ ... est presque
aussi scrupuleusement banni de la scène française que des écrits de
Port-Royal, _et les passions humaines_ ... _n’y parlent jamais que par
on_.” How contemptuously M. Brunetière, who has no superior in the
appreciation of French literature as a whole, speaks of that new
personal note, set in fashion by Rousseau, “most eloquent of lackeys!”
See “La Littérature Personnelle,” in B.’s _Questions de Critique_, pp.
211 ff., and his review of Hennequin’s book in the same collection,
pp. 305 ff.

Footnote 977:

Boas, _Report Bur. Ethnol._, 1884-1885, pp. 564, 600 ff.

Footnote 978:

_Anf. d. Kunst_, p. 132.

Footnote 979:

On this baffling theme there is good reasoning in a neglected book by
Noiré, _Die Welt als Entwicklung des Geistes_, pp. 240 f. He notes the
mnemonic force of earliest words, which were few and used under strong
emotional excitement; language was a kind of “thinking aloud.”

Footnote 980:

Stated in different terms by W. von Humboldt, _Werke_, VI. 198.

Footnote 981:

Wallaschek, _Prim. Mus._, pp. 70 f.

Footnote 982:

I. von Döllinger, _Beiträge zur Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters_,
Munich, 1890, II. 623 f., from an old Ms., “de hystrionibus et
officiis inutilibus.” Priests are instructed what professions bar the
granting of absolution,—an interesting passage. “Cum igitur meretrices
ad confessionem venerint, vel hystriones, non est eis danda
poenitentia, nisi ex toto talia relinquant officia,” etc.

Footnote 983:

See Dana’s account of an improvising islander working in California,
_Two Years before the Mast_, Chap. XIX.

Footnote 984:

Wallaschek, quoting Portman, p. 278.

Footnote 985:

J. Darmesteter, _Chants Populaires des Afghans_, Paris, 1888-1890, p.
clxxxvi. The Afghans have got to a Browning level in poetry, if we may
believe Captain Rafferty, _Selections from the Poetry of the Afghans_,
London, 1862. “Shaida’s poetry ...” he says, “is deep and difficult.”

Footnote 986:

Ahlwardt, _über Poesie und Poetik der Araber_, Gotha, 1856, p. 7.

Footnote 987:

F. Michel, _Le Pays Basque_, Paris, 1857, pp. 214 f. The same is true
of the Poles. See Talvj (here spelled Talvi) _Historical View of the
Languages and Literatures of the Slavic Nations_, New York, 1850, Part
IV., pp. 315 ff. Speaking of the Polish ballads, Mrs. Robinson says,
“Their dances were formerly always accompanied by singing. _But these
songs are always extemporized._ Among the country gentry ... the
custom of extemporizing songs ... continued even down to the beginning
of our own century.”

Footnote 988:

“Etwas über William Shakspeare,” _Werke_, VII. 57 f.

Footnote 989:

He refers to the Homeric hymn to Hermes, vv. 54-56: “The god sang to
the playing what came into his mind, quickly, readily, just as at
festal banquets youths tease one another with verses sung in turn.”

Footnote 990:

Quoted by Chappell, II. 623.

Footnote 991:

See the _Greville Memoirs_, III. 122, 202.

Footnote 992:

Spence, _Anecdotes_ (for Italy), pp. 116 ff., 120 note.

Footnote 993:

_Travels in Africa_, reprinted in Pinkerton, XVI. 844.

Footnote 994:

Improvisation of labour songs by women, solitary or in bands, is very
common. See Bücher, _Arbeit u. Rhythmus_, passim, especially, p. 78,
and above, p. 269.

Footnote 995:

Improvisations at dance, funeral, wedding, and the like, among these
Africans, are summed up by Spencer in his unfinished _Descriptive
Sociology_, pp. 24 f.

Footnote 996:

See above, p. 20.

Footnote 997:

_Compendium_, 4th ed., p. 641. Cf. Spencer, _Princ. Social._, II. 151,
American ed.

Footnote 998:

_Mental Evolution in Man_, p. 358, American ed.

Footnote 999:

_Færøiske Quæder om Sigurd_, etc., Randers, 1822. P. E. Müller wrote
the preface and made the extracts from Lyngbye’s journal; so that the
evidence is at first hand and by an exact observer. The remoteness of
the place is equivalent to centuries in point of time. See, too, V. U.
Hammershaimb, _Færøsk Anthologi_, Copenhagen, I. xli ff.

Footnote 1000:

See the author’s _Old English Ballads_, p. xxxiv.

Footnote 1001:

_Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, 2d ed., IV. 164 f.

Footnote 1002:

Described at length by Möbius in the “Ergänzungsband” for Zacher’s
_Zeitschrift f. d. deutsche Philologie_, 1874, p. 54. For the _débat_,
_tenso_, _sirventes_, _jeu-parti_, _conflictos_, and all the rest on
romance ground, see Jeanroy, pp. 48 f., and Greif, _Zst. f. vgl.
Lit._, N. F., I. 289.

Footnote 1003:

For Portugal, see Dr. C. F. Bellermann, _Portug. Volkslieder u.
Romanzen_, Leipzig, 1874, p. viii.

Footnote 1004:

On ease of improvisation among the Finns proper, see Comparetti,
_Kalewala_, p. 17.

Footnote 1005:

Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, pp. 166 f.

Footnote 1006:

Coussemaker, p. 271.

Footnote 1007:

Wallace is thinking of music and song in the nobler sense when he
denies them to primitive races; and Wallaschek’s answer is conclusive,
for it is based on evidence that all goes one way, _Primitive Music_,
pp. 277 f. Another absurd reaction against romantic ideas is to deny
lyric propensity to primitive folk and substitute an acute sense of
“business.” So Norden, work quoted, I. 156, says the prayer of early
man was anything but a “lyrical outpouring”; it was “a contract with
deity, give and take.” But emotional fear and emotional thanks precede
any such shrewd rationalism as this, if psychology is to be regarded,
let alone ethnological evidence.

Footnote 1008:

Schmid, 2d ed., p. 366.

Footnote 1009:

_Romanisches und Keltisches_, pp. 363 f. The four-line stanza, he
says, is easy to compose, and one _pennill_ suggests another; so that
each is half tradition, half improvisation, belonging “to everybody
and nobody.” This description approaches very closely the hypothetical
description given by Ten Brink in his sketch of Old English poetry for
Paul’s _Grundriss_, of the making of ballads in a more primitive day.

Footnote 1010:

Mr. Gregory Smith’s facile explanation, _The Transition Period_, pp.
182 f.

Footnote 1011:

Ep. II. i. 145 f. See Zell, _Ferienschriften_, II. 122 ff. Soldiers
sang in pairs, or in two sections, these alternate mocking verses.

Footnote 1012:

Douglas Hyde, _Love Songs of Connacht_, 1895, pp. 88 ff. The prose
translation has less artificial suggestion than the translation in
verses.

Footnote 1013:

Athenæus and Diodorus are quoted as authorities for the Sicilian
origin of such combats in verse; but Jeanroy disposes of this theory
by an effective use of the argument from comparative literature. See
his _Origines_, pp. 260 ff.

Footnote 1014:

On the meaning and relations of _strambotto_, _stornello_, _rispetto_,
_ritornello_, and the other terms, see Count Nigra’s _Canti Popolari
del Piemonte_, Torino, 1888, pp. xi ff. He corrects Schuchardt’s use
of _ritornell_ for _stornello_. This latter is really an amœbean form
of verse, has but one stanza, and this of three lines; the
_strambotto_ is one stanza, too, but has four, six, ten, or even more
lines. Still, the four-line stanza, as comparison shows, is clearly
the primitive form. Southern Italy is, of course, far richer in these
songs than Piedmont, the home of lyrical narrative or ballad.

Footnote 1015:

Found, too, in India; but here not in the really communal stage. See
Gustav Meyer, _Essays und Studien_, pp. 293 f.

Footnote 1016:

_Bayerisches Wörterbuch_, III. 499, explaining them as
_Schnitterhüpflein_, songs of the reapers.

Footnote 1017:

With references to the literature of these songs, work quoted, pp. 332
ff.

Footnote 1018:

On the form cf. O. Brenner, “Zum Versbau der Schnaderhüpfl,” in
_Festschrift zur 50 jähr. Doktorjubelfeier Karl Weinholds_,
Strassburg, 1896, who gives fresh references for the various subjects
of discussion. He emphasizes the fact that these _schnaderhüpfl_ are
always sung.

Footnote 1019:

Dr. H. Dunger, _Rundâs und Reimsprüche aus dem Vogtlande_, Plauen,
1876. A _rundâ_ is originally “a little song sung while drinking,” but
is made to include the _schnaderhüpfl_; and in the author’s opinion
all these forms go back to songs of reapers during harvest. That,
however, is of no great moment here.

Footnote 1020:

“Ueber Poesie der Alpenländer,” in a reprint from a magazine whose
title does not appear.

Footnote 1021:

Firmenich, _Germaniens Völkerstimmen_, II. 716. I have made these
translations solely to reproduce, if possible, the spirit of the
original, and have tried to keep the false “literary” note at arm’s
length.

Footnote 1022:

_Ibid._, II. 715, 777.

Footnote 1023:

G. Meyer, p. 357, prints a number of such variations on the standing
first verse:—

It is dark in the woods
Because of the crows,—
That my girl will be false,
That every one knows.

It is dark in the woods
Because of the firs,—

and so on.

Footnote 1024:

Firmenich, II. 779.

Footnote 1025:

Firmenich, II. 661.

Footnote 1026:

Of the dance,—the _vorsinger_.

Footnote 1027:

Variants of this are found in many places.

Footnote 1028:

Firmenich, III. 39.

Footnote 1029:

_Ibid._, II. 716.

Footnote 1030:

_Ibid._, II. 737.

Footnote 1031:

“Go from my window,” pp. 140 ff., with variations (as “Come up to my
window”) and parodies.

Footnote 1032:

Firmenich, II. 715.

Footnote 1033:

_Od._, III. X.

Footnote 1034:

It is well to note here that development is one thing and imitation is
another. The authorities agree that a _schnaderhüpfl_ cannot be
imitated. See Gustav Meyer, p. 351.

Footnote 1035:

Firmenich, II. 717.

Footnote 1036:

Firmenich, III. 396.

Footnote 1037:

_Ibid._, II. 280. This is widespread. See Meyer, p. 356.

Footnote 1038:

Meyer, p. 341. The rimes are identical in the original. Meyer gives
seven versions.

Footnote 1039:

Child, III. 236.

Footnote 1040:

On this opening touch from nature in the ballads, exemplified in
English by the beautiful beginning of _Robin Hood and the Monk_, much
has been written; but this use of the same device in a _schnaderhüpfl_
is very significant, and has aroused little comment. See Meyer, pp.
377 ff.

Footnote 1041:

Child, I. 399 ff.

Footnote 1042:

_Essays_, pp. 365 ff.

Footnote 1043:

On p. 358.

Footnote 1044:

When the Greek youth leaves his home, Fauriel says, his family sing
songs of farewell, traditional and improvised, to which he often
improvises a reply. Improvisation, too, and presumably once in the
village throng, lies at the foundation of the German prentice songs of
leave-taking, the eternal note of _scheiden, das thut grämen_, with
culmination in that exquisite poem, probably not improvised,
_Innsprück, ich muss dich lassen_. The ennobling process is
interesting, and is of a piece with the process assumed by A. W.
Schlegel for the ennobling of Greek epic out of rude improvisation.

Footnote 1045:

Uhland, _Volkslieder_, I. 78. In spite of the two melodies, I have put
the refrain at the beginning, and slightly changed, as in Uhland’s B.,
at the end. The actual song is for the dance. See Böhme, _Altd.
Liederb._, p. 268. Only two stanzas are given,—one for the happy girl
and one for the lovelorn, one the _vortanz_, the other the _nachtanz_.

Footnote 1046:

See above, p. 208.

Footnote 1047:

Firmenich, II. 742.

Footnote 1048:

The translation fails to bring out the simplicity of these two
stanzas; they run thus:—

Der Weg ös mer z’wait,
Und der Wold ös mer z’dick,
Bhüat di Gott, main liabs Schotzel,
I wünsch dir viel Glück.

I wünsch dir viel Glück
Und es sull dir guat gian,
Für die Zeit, ols d’mi g’liabt host,
Bedonk i mi schian.

Footnote 1049:

_Essays_, p. 370; and see also Kögel, _Gesch. d. d. Lit._, I. 7, who
thinks that Scandinavian _ljóð_ (plural) meant once a series of these
strophes composed by dancers and so coming to be a _lied_. E. H.
Meyer, _Volkskunde_, p. 317, notes the independent quatrains combined
into an _almlied_.

Footnote 1050:

Also G. Meyer, _Essays_, pp. 370, 375.

Footnote 1051:

_Ibid._, pp. 377 ff.

Footnote 1052:

_Norske Folkeviser_, Christiania, 1853. See especially pp. 365 ff.,
423 ff.

Footnote 1053:

_Ibid._, p. 366.

Footnote 1054:

Lundell, Paul’s _Grundriss_, II. i. 730, says that even now any adult
in Iceland can make verses.

Footnote 1055:

Landstad, pp. 370 ff.

Footnote 1056:

_Ibid._, p. 376.

Footnote 1057:

The _vocero_ is far less individual than this quatrain or stave just
considered, because the former is an outburst rather of public grief
than of private emotion.

Footnote 1058:

See above, p. 269.

Footnote 1059:

Definitions are notoriously unsatisfactory in poetics. Contrast
Schleiermacher’s formula for lyric as poetry plus music, _Aesthetik_,
p. 628, with the laborious definition in R. M. Werner’s _Lyrik und
Lyriker_, Hamburg and Leipzig, 1890, p. 10, based mainly on the
subjective element. Confusion of form and conditions, which makes
lyric poetry one with music (see Döring, _Kunstlehre d. Aristoteles_,
p. 88), with inner meaning and purpose, has caused most of the
trouble. In one sense the old choral was the very foundation of lyric.
The congregational psalm of the Hebrews is lyric, and so is the
solitary cry of the modern poet.

Footnote 1060:

_Uralt_, says Usener, _Altgr. Versbau_, p. 45. See above, p. 95.

Footnote 1061:

As Matthew Arnold reminds us:—

Sophocles, long ago,
Heard it on the Ægean.

For the prevailing tone of lyric is sad, and Euterpe treats her poet
as Genevieve treated Coleridge:—

She loves me best whene’er I sing
The songs that make her grieve.

Footnote 1062:

The claim of Usener may be noted (“Der Stoff des griechischen Epos,”
_Sitzungsber. d. Kais. Acad. d. Wiss. zu Wien_, Bd. 137, pp. 18 ff.),
where he puts the ceremonies at the hearthstone, primitive
ancestor-worship, as the real beginning of epic song. The offering to
an ancestor must have been made “with music, prayer, and song.” Hence
the epos. It is true that a lyric of this sort is older than any
epic,—the epic which Hegel pushed forward as earliest form of poetry,
just as the renaissance had put it above the drama in dignity,—and may
well have helped the later epic process. But the evidence of ethnology
shows that rude songs at the tribal dance, which refer to tribal
doings, must be far older than any ceremonies of the primitive
_hausvater_ at his family altar.

Footnote 1063:

A. W. Schlegel said that the Homeric poems were improvised; but he
distinguished between rude communal improvisation and that of
incipient art. _Vorlesungen_, II. 119 f., 243.

Footnote 1064:

Livy, VII. 2, gives an account of this change.

Footnote 1065:

See Maurice Drack, _Le Théâtre de la Foire, la Comédie Italienne, et
l’Opéra-comique_, Paris, 1889. Vol. I. has a sketch of the
movement—from 1678 on—indicated in the title. It began with the _pièce
à couplets_, and passed gradually into modern comic opera. The great
popular fair of St. Lawrence, at Paris, was the scene of part of this
development.

Footnote 1066:

Garnett, _Italian Literature_, p. 306, traces this comedy back through
Tuscan and Neapolitan peasants to the “Greek rustics who smeared their
faces with wine-lees at the Dionysiac festivals, and from whose
improvised songs and gestures Greek comedy was developed.”

Footnote 1067:

Burckhardt, _Cultur der Ren._, II. 40, thinks that such well-known
characters as Pantalone, the Doctor, Arlecchino, may be in some
fashion connected with masked figures in the old Roman plays.

Footnote 1068:

Ticknor, _Spanish Literature_, I. 232 f.

Footnote 1069:

Second Part, Chap. XX.

Footnote 1070:

Malone’s _Shakspere_, 1821, III. 131.

Footnote 1071:

_Tarlton’s Jests_ ... ed. J. O. Halliwell, London, 1844, pp. xviii f.
(Shakspere Society). “As Antipater Sidonius,” says the comparative
Meres, “was famous for extemporall verse in Greeke ... so was our
Tarleton.”

Footnote 1072:

See Bolte, _Die Singspiele der englischen Komödianten und ihrer
Nachfolger_, Hamburg u. Leipzig, 1893, pp. 50 ff. He prints parallel
copies of “Singing Simpkin” and the German “Pickelhering in der
Kiste.”

Footnote 1073:

“Passages were often left for the extempore declamation of the actors.
Sometimes the whole conduct of the piece depended on their powers of
improvisation.” Symonds, _Shakspere’s Predecessors_, p. 66.

Footnote 1074:

_Vorlesungen über Aesthetik_, pp. 84 f.

Footnote 1075:

Ed. Grosart, V. 200.

Footnote 1076:

Hazlitt-Dodsley, V. 149, 151.

Footnote 1077:

As, for example, Schwab takes it: _Das Schauspiel im Schauspiel_, Wien
u. Leipzig, 1896, p. 32.

Footnote 1078:

Bruchmann, _Poetik_, p. 17.

Footnote 1079:

The material has been set forth above in the section on the communal
dance; for early dramatic dances of fight, hunting, and the like, see
especially pp. 336 ff., and the passage on _lâc_, p. 340.

Footnote 1080:

On gesture as common and universally understood expression, see
Darwin, _Descent of Man_, 2d ed., I. 276 f. “Men of all races” have a
“mutual comprehension of gesture-language”; they all have “the same
expression on their features,” and “the same inarticulate cries when
excited by the same emotions.” See also Tylor, _Early History of
Mankind_, chapters on Gesture-Language; and _American Antiquarian_,
II. 219, G. Mallery on Indian Sign Language. This universal validity
of gesture is highly significant for the beginnings of poetry, for the
rude cries which precede language are probably of the same order as
the gestures. See Chap. II., Wundt’s _Völkerpsychologie_.

Footnote 1081:

Bastian, “Masken und Maskereien,” _Zst. f. Völkerpsych._, XIV. 347.

Footnote 1082:

See Grosse on the two “roots” of the drama, _Anf. d. Kunst_, pp. 254
f. On the mimicry of different tribes in the communal dance, see
Bruchmann, _Poetik_, pp. 208 ff.; Wallaschek, _Prim. Music_, Chap.
VIII.

Footnote 1083:

The conspicuous performer,—the “entertainer” or soloist,—grows less
and less prominent as one gets upon lower levels of culture. The
earliest distinction of this sort was probably achieved by the priest,
conjurer, medicine-man, shaman, or whatever his special function.

Footnote 1084:

As Wallaschek recedes from his proposition, the examples have more and
more mention of words and song together with the action; for example,
pp. 217 ff.

Footnote 1085:

This must always be taken into account. As Wallaschek says of an
Australian “corrobberee,” however primitive it may seem, “it is a
well-prepared and elaborated dance, which it takes both time and
practice to excel in.”

Footnote 1086:

Wallaschek, pp. 223 f.

Footnote 1087:

From gesture back to facial expression and other signs now unknown
because speech has taken their place, is an inviting path, but not to
be trodden now. From the _Kansas City Star_, date unfortunately lost,
may be quoted an interview with Hagenbeck, the lion-tamer. “We can’t
see,” he said, “the expression of a lion’s face, except of rage, but
his companions can.... Did you ever see one animal fail to understand
another? I never saw such an instance.... I am inclined to think that
what we call mind-reading is mere survival here and there of the lost
sixth sense, which was probably common to primitive man, and which
animals possess to this day.” Mr. Hagenbeck could furnish an
interesting supplement to Darwin’s book _On the Expression of
Emotions_.

Footnote 1088:

Work quoted, p. 28, speaking of Australian song and dance. See also p.
201.

Footnote 1089:

Sign-language of later date, as studied by Mallery among the American
Indians, cannot be regarded as primitive in this genetic sense. It
comes to be a highly developed art and calls for considerable skill in
the making as well as acuteness in interpretation.

Footnote 1090:

As in dances of the Greeks, now felt to be a lost art. On this matter
of gesture and signs, see an excellent book by Sittl, _Die Gebärden
der Griechen und Römer_, Leipzig, 1890; his accounts of the attempt
“die Völker durch die Zeichensprache zu verbrüdern,” with reference to
Leibnitz and others; of orgiastic ecstasies; and, of course, the study
of Greek gesture in art and poetry, are all instructive. For primitive
relations, Darwin’s book _On the Expressions of Emotions_, etc., 1872,
is still main authority. Gestures, like sounds, are either instinctive
or called out by the will; and any study of progress in the dramatic
art must concern itself with these fundamental elements of acting.

Footnote 1091:

It would be useless to attempt a bibliography of this subject. A. W.
Schlegel’s historical account of the drama and its relations to epic
and lyric is still useful. See especially _Vorles._, I. 124; II. 317,
321, 325. Eugen Wolff’s return to the priority of epic,—_Prolegomena_,
etc., p. 10; “Vorstudien zur Poetik,” _Zst. f. vgl. Litt._, VI.
425,—fails to satisfy the student of ethnological evidence; like most
writers from the æsthetic point of view, Wolff neglects to study the
poetry of the throng, the choral, the dance. Barring this same fault,
there is considerable truth in the view of Burdach (letter to Scherer,
in the latter’s _Poetik_, pp. 296 f.), that epic and drama are wrongly
taken as extreme antithesis in poetry, whereas lyric and drama are
really “die beiden Urphänomene.” Little profit for the historical
student of poetry is to be found in essays like Veit Valentin’s
“Poetische Gattungen,” in _Zst. f. vgl. Litt._, N. F., V. 35 ff.

Footnote 1092:

See Blankenburg’s excellent article on the ballet in his _Zusätze_, I.
154 ff. La Motte, in his ballet of _Europe Galante_, 1697, made the
ballet an object in itself and in its own action; here “entspringt
Tanz und Gesang aus der eigenen Gemüthsstimmung der handelnden
Personen.” This is communal revival.

Footnote 1093:

That is, ὄψις.

Footnote 1094:

“Daudet me dit ... ‘Je crois décidément avoir trouvé la formule; le
livre c’est pour l’individu, le théâtre c’est pour la foule.’”
_Journal des Goncourt_, VIII. (30 Jan., 1890), 129.

Footnote 1095:

_Vorlesungen_, Stuttgart, 1884, I. 329 ff., 342, 344 ff.

Footnote 1096:

_Ibid._, III. 110.

Footnote 1097:

See the present author’s article on “Mythology” in the new edition of
Johnson’s _Cyclopædia_.

Footnote 1098:

A dozen years ago or more, a professor lecturing on this subject in a
German university, after giving all the myths about a certain goddess,
spoke somewhat as follows: “Gentlemen, this goddess is either a star
or the early summer grass, I am not certain which. I am studying the
matter carefully, and hope soon to reach a positive conclusion.”

Footnote 1099:

Compare Lucretius, dealing now lovingly with the Venus of myth—_alma
Venus_, the beloved of Rome’s own god—and now, a few lines below,
scornfully, passionately, with the cruel rites of the worship of Diana
and the sacrifice of Iphigenia at her shrine: “_illa_ Religio,” he
says, with a touch almost of blasphemy.

Footnote 1100:

See the chapters on animism and mythology in Tylor’s _Primitive
Culture_. A. W. Schlegel was on this trail, but let himself be
befogged by Schelling’s philosophy. See the _Vorlesungen_, I. 329,
337.

Footnote 1101:

See his _Germanische Mythen_.

Footnote 1102:

_Mythologische Forschungen_ (_Quellen u. Forschungen_, No. 51,
Strassburg, 1884), Vorrede, p. xxv; the lesson came from Tylor’s book
which Müllenhoff had set Mannhardt reading. This letter was written in
1876. See also Müllenhoff’s own definition of mythology in his
_Deutsche Alterthumskunde_, V. 1, 157.

Footnote 1103:

_Cultur d. Ren. in Ital._, I. 288.

Footnote 1104:

_Zeitschrift f. Gymnasialwesen_, Berlin, Nov., 1861, p. 837.

Footnote 1105:

Mr. Tylor lets animism of this sort have too free a play among quite
primitive men.

Footnote 1106:

Too much stress is laid by some writers on primitive studies of death,
and of dreams about the dead, as productive of myth. Modern peasants,
like savages, often show a heavy and stupid indifference in the
presence of death; and its problem, though it doubtless suggested a
cult of spirits, was far less insistent with early man than the
problem of life. Before he thus worked out a world of dead spirits, he
knew by instinctive, really unconscious inference, a world of living
spirits, not of his own breed, but vaster, subtler, in those
operations of nature which struck into his actual life, interfered
with it, or conspicuously helped it.

Footnote 1107:

“_It_ hurts me; _it_ makes me cry,” says the child, pointing to the
seat of affliction; this “it” corresponds with savage and primitive
animism. It is not personification, as one is often told. Human beings
do not crawl into other human beings and hurt them; not he or she, but
“it” hurts. One remembers the remark of J. Grimm, that the neuter
gender means not lack of sex, but the undeveloped, initial stage.
_Deutsche Grammatik_, III. 315.

Footnote 1108:

Posnett, _Comparative Literature_, pp. 162 ff. The idea, however, is
by no means as new as Posnett thinks it to be.

Footnote 1109:

See above, p. 380.

Footnote 1110:

Vignoli, in his _Myth and Science_, notes that a dog growls or bites
at a stick thrust toward him, a kind of animism; although as Spencer
said,—with quite unwarrantable inference in the denial of nature-myths
among primitive men,—a dog takes no notice of ordinary natural doings,
swaying boughs, sunrise, and all the rest.

Footnote 1111:

Max Müller’s “disease of language” as source of myth is absurd; the
myth does not wait for the misunderstanding of a metaphor, but begins
with the metaphor and lives with its life,—both being, of course,
unconscious at the start.

Footnote 1112:

A child who saw a flash of lightning once said, “God is winking at
me”; and the phrase was seized upon as a fine illustration of
primitive myth-making. But the child had been presented, by the whole
process of human culture and thought, with at least two-thirds of this
“myth,”—the idea of God, of a distinct, supreme personality, and the
reference to God of whatever goes on in the sky.

Footnote 1113:

See E. H. Meyer, _Indogerm. Mythen_, Berlin, 1883, I. 87.

Footnote 1114:

In the reaction from ideas of a golden age one must not go too far,
and “call names” which now mean vice, degeneration, rottenness. It is
possible that even earliest myth touched here and there a chord of
poetry as we now know poetry, and appealed to that constant element
which belongs to our humanity and not to our history.

Footnote 1115:

Or, of course, a tradition; so Prometheus and the origin of fire may
account for the stealing of fire from some neighbouring tribe. See
Gruppe, _Griechische Culte and Mythen_, p. 206.

Footnote 1116:

See above, p. 236.

Footnote 1117:

Comparetti, _Kalewala_, pp. 154 f., in his excellent remarks on
popular myth and popular poetry, has left his analysis incomplete by
leaving throng-poetry quite out of the account.

Footnote 1118:

Grimm’s chapter on gender in the third volume of his _Grammar_ remains
the masterpiece of investigation in this subject; but his theory has
been attacked by Brugmann. See, too, President Wheeler, “Origin of
Grammatical Gender,” _Journal Germanic Philology_, II. 528 ff. Grimm
defines gender, III. 346, “eine in der phantasie der menschlichen
Sprache entsprungene ausdehnung des natürlichen auf alle und jede
gegenstände.”

Footnote 1119:

_Ibid._, III. 354.

Footnote 1120:

Grimm says the Englishman calls “she” whatever is dear to him—the
sailor his ship, the miller his mill; III. 546.

Footnote 1121:

_Reflexions Critiques_, ed. 1770, I. 298. “La Poësie du style fait la
plus grande différence qui soit entre les vers et la prose.... Les
images et les figures doivent être encore plus fréquentes dans la
plupart des genres de la Poësie, que dans les discours oratoires....
C’est donc la Poësie du style qui fait le Poëte, plutôt que la rime et
la césure.... Cette Partie de la Poësie la plus importante.” See also
p. 312, in § xxxv.

Footnote 1122:

_Essay on Poetry with Reference to Aristotle’s Poetics_, ed. Cook, p.
11.

Footnote 1123:

Some representative definitions of this sort are collected and quoted
by Dr. Gertrude Buck in an interesting paper, _The Metaphor: a Study
on the Psychology of Rhetoric_, being No. 5 of the “Contributions to
Rhetorical Theory,” edited by Professor Scott, Ann Arbor,—no date, but
about 1899,—p. 40.

Footnote 1124:

_Poetik_, p. 87 f. See also p. 83. On p. 262 he opens, however, a
dangerous door for the interests of this theory.

Footnote 1125:

_Altgermanische Poesie_, p. 20.

Footnote 1126:

Modern writers on æsthetics make the same error: so Biese, “Das
Metaphorische in der dichterischen Phantasie,” _Zst. f. vgl. Lit._, N.
F. II. 320, makes the primitive process from simile to metaphor.

Footnote 1127:

On pp. 90 ff.

Footnote 1128:

St. Evremond thinks them distracting; in any case he will banish such
things from drama. _Œuvres Meslées_, London, Tonson, 1709, III. 72 f.,
in an essay, “Sur les poëmes des Anciens.”

Footnote 1129:

See above, p. 190.

Footnote 1130:

It is the case with later reaches of poetry. Chaucer, for example,
offers very few figures or metaphors as compared with later poets; “no
other author in our tongue,” says Professor Lounsbury, _Stud._, III.
441, “has clung so persistently to the language of common life.”

Footnote 1131:

_The Anglo-Saxon Metaphor_, Halle, 1881. The theory of the metaphor
there advanced was due to the study of poetical material alone, and
had no help from psychology. The latter, however, is quite favourable
to the theory of poetic evolution as stated in the text. See the
quotations from Taine and others in the essay of Dr. Buck. The false
conclusions of Heinzel in regard to simile and metaphor are of little
moment compared with the general value of the essay which contains
them: _Ueber den Stil der altgermanischen Poesie_, Strassburg, Q. F.,
1875, a stimulating piece of work.

Footnote 1132:

_Modern Language Notes_, I. 83.

Footnote 1133:

Logically Gerber is right, _Die Sprache als Kunst_, I. 256, in putting
interjections at one end of the linguistic process and metaphor at the
other; but chronologically, historically, genetically, the assumption
fails to hold.

Footnote 1134:

The subject is too wide for further treatment, and can be regarded
here only in its relations to the beginnings of poetry. See, however,
for the early stages of a metaphor, J. Grimm’s essay on “Die Fünf
Sinne,” _Kleinere Schriften_, VII. 193 ff.; and F. Bechtel, _Ueber die
Bezeichnungen der sinnlichen Wahrnehmungen in den indogerm Sprachen_,
Weimar, 1879, where he shows how the idea of “bright” underlies so
many of our words,—“glad,” for instance, which even in Anglo-Saxon
meant “gleaming.” See, too, in this book the confusion, or
flexibility, of words for the “bright” and the “loud,” seeing and
hearing; also J. Grimm, “Die Wörter des Leuchtens und Brennens,” _Kl.
Schr._, VIII. 263 ff.

Footnote 1135:

Allegory, now a huge projection of metaphor from the style into the
subject-matter, is a consistent series of personifications not unlike
the later stages of myth; in fact, late myth is allegory.

Footnote 1136:

On the tendency of rhythm and music to suggest images and stir the
powers of language, see the wild but interesting words of Nietzsche,
_Geburt d. Tragödie_, p. 48.

Footnote 1137:

See above, p. 211.

Footnote 1138:

Joshua Poole, _English Parnassus_, London, 1677, like Italians just
before him, and like Vinesauf and others of earlier time, has an array
of kennings whence the poet may pick and choose. Abel, for example
(pp. 221 ff.), you may call “death’s first fruit,” or “death’s
handsel.” Then there are “forms of invocating Muses” (p. 630),
followed, alas, by “forms of concluding letters”—in prose.

Footnote 1139:

“The language of the age,” wrote Gray to West, April, 1742, “is never
the language of poetry.”

Footnote 1140:

Kennings often read like riddles: so in Finnish, “contents of
Wainamoinen’s milk-bowl,”—the sunshine. See, moreover, Scherer,
_Geschichte d. deutsch. Lit._, pp. 7, 15; and R. M. Meyer, _Altgerm.
Poesie_, p. 160.

Footnote 1141:

In this sketch of differentiation in poetic style only outlines are
essayed. The subject is uncommonly attractive, and a book on the
history of metaphor would be welcomed by all students of style.
Nothing has been said here of symbolic metaphor from animals and the
like. See Brinkmann’s study of “Thierbilder in der Sprache,” _Die
Metaphern_, Bd. I. Bonn, 1878. His researches in German, English,
French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Greek, should be extended to half
civilized and savage conditions, and should take a historical and
genetic range. Of course, the æsthetic side of this whole subject is
treated in Gerber’s well known book, quoted several times on preceding
pages, _Die Sprache als Kunst_.

Footnote 1142:

It is noteworthy that Aristotle excludes improvisation from poetry;
and in modern times Gerber (_Die Sprache als Kunst_) finds this rude
kind of verse so opposed to his definition of poetry (“die Kunst des
Gedankens,” _ibid._, I. 50; “enthusiasm plus deliberation,” I. 77),
that he too rules it out, and says it belongs simply to “the art of
language.” It is not well to drag such a ball-and-chain by way of
definition when one is dealing with primitive poetry.

Footnote 1143:

See above, p. 215. There is a lively if exaggerated account of the
rhapsode in Blackwell’s _Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer_,
pp. 104 ff. Limits already transgressed forbid the author to add any
material on the minstrel in his relations to the making of poetry. See
a brief account, with a few references, in _Old English Ballads_, pp.
310 ff. Further, see Piper, _Spielmannsdichtung_ (Vol. 2 of the
_Deutsche National-Litteratur_); Scherer, _Gesch. d. deutsch. Dichtung
im 11 u. 12 Jhrh._ (_Quellen. u. Forschungen_, XII.); Wilmanns,
_Walther v. d. Vogelweide_, especially pp. 39 ff.; the general account
in Axel Olrik’s _Middelalderens Vandrende Spillemaend_ (_Opuscula
Philologica_), Copenhagen, 1887; Freymond, _Jongleurs und Menestrels_,
Halle, 1883 (for the Romance side of the question); and portions of
many other works, such as Jusserand, _Théatre en Angleterre_, p. 23,
note; F. Vogt, _Salman und Morolf_, pp. cxxiii f.; notes here and
there on Widsith and Déor, the earliest types of English minstrel; and
so on.

Footnote 1144:

There were pedants before paper, however, in the days of great
mnemonic feats. See Max Müller, in the _Nineteenth Century_, November,
1899, pp. 798 ff.

Footnote 1145:

This evolution of the solitary and deliberate poet has been outlined
in Chap. IV.

Footnote 1146:

Burckhardt, _Ren._, I. 172. See also p. 250.

Footnote 1147:

_Della Storia e della Ragione d’ogni Poesia_, Vol. I., Bologna, 1739,
pp. 155 ff.

Footnote 1148:

“Tutta volta bisogna ancor confessare, che questo fu il primo genere
di Poesia, che fosse al Mondo.” There is a long account of
improvisation in Crescimbeni, _L’Istoria della Volgar Poesia_, Venice,
1731 (written in 1697), pp. 219 ff. An old and very interesting
_gradus ad Parnassum_ is Ruscelli, _Del Modo di Comporre in Versi
nella Lingua Italiana_, Venice, 1582 (a new edition), “nel quale va
compreso un pieno ordinatissimo Rimario,” and there are directions for
using the voice both for prose and for verse. The seventh chapter is
on the “stanze d’ottava Rima,” and treats of improvisation, mentioning
even an infant phenomenon in this art (“essendo ancor fanciullo ...
non arrivava ai sedici anni”), who made verses off-hand on any subject
which was given to him.

Footnote 1149:

From two books, one Italian, _Saggi di Poesie parte dette all’
improvviso e parte scritte dal Cavaliere Perfetti patrizio Sanese ed
insigne Poeta estemporaneo coronato di laurea in Campidoglio_ ... dal
Dottor Domenico Cianfogni, 2 vols., Florence, 1748 (Vol. II. has the
account of the crowning); and a Latin pamphlet of 56 pp., _Josephi
Mariani Parthenii S. J. de Vita et Studiis Bernadini Perfetti Senensis
Poetae Laureati_, Rome, 1771. They are interesting in many ways.

Footnote 1150:

Latin, xix.

Footnote 1151:

The pious father tells elsewhere of mitigating contrivances: “Frigida
inter canendum uti solebat, ad fauces nimirum recreandas et ad nimium
fervorem, quo incendebatur, restringuendum!”

Footnote 1152:

Along with Perfetti’s moribund art of individual improvisation dies as
well the improvised flyting, even in its more complicated and artistic
phases. Through sundry references made above (pp. 208, note, 325, 416
f.) in regard to the interlaced stanzas of ballad and song. I have
come into a bit of unintentional and quite explicable confusion. These
_serranas_ were called artificial, and yet were cited in the proof of
communal origins. Artistic and even artificial these _serranas_
undoubtedly become; and yet so does the refrain. They are very common;
as Professor Lang points out in his _Liederbuch des Königs Denis von
Portugal_, Halle, 1894, pp. xlvii, lxiii, they make “die Norm des
altportugiesischen Kunstgedichtes,” and are found alike in songs of
love and in the various kinds of flyting. Here, in the public
song-duel, one crosses into communal territory; and the _serranas_ go
back to that rivalry of variation based upon a refrain or a repeated
traditional verse.

Footnote 1153:

See above, p. 349.

Footnote 1154:

I regret that all references to Bücher’s _Arbeit und Rhythmus_ have
been made from the first edition, and not from the second, which came
to my hands after the foregoing chapters were printed. In bulk the
book has more than doubled, increase lying mainly in new songs and
refrains of labour, particularly of _Bittarbeit_ and _Frohnarbeit_.
Neither this new edition, however, nor the new edition of Bücher’s
_Entstehung der Volkswirthschaft_ (see my note above, p. 107) changes
materially his theory as quoted in defence of communal poetry. Not so
much the priority of play is conceded as the early lack of a definite
boundary between play and work. Again, references have been made above
to Yrjö Hirn’s book, _Förstudier till en Konstfilosofi_; this
material, and much more of the sort, are now to be found in the same
author’s _Origins of Art_, London and New York, 1900. Possibly some
modification, due to the chapter on “Erotic Art,” should be made in
the statements of ethnologists with regard to the lack of this motive
in savage poetry.

Footnote 1155:

The science of poetry has had its share of wild theories meant to
establish “laws” of progress. See Tarde, _Les Lois Sociales_, pp. 24
ff. But the play of collective and individual forces is too evident,
too reasonable, to be classed with Vico’s _Ricorsi_ and with Plato’s
or Bacon’s cycles.

Footnote 1156:

In Chapters III and VII.

Footnote 1157:

See the brilliant description of this epoch in the opening chapter of
Pellissier’s _Mouvement Littéraire au XIXᵉ Siècle_, 5th ed., Paris,
1898.

Footnote 1158:

Notably Bücher, _Entstehung der Volkswirthschaft_,² Tübingen, 1898,
“Der Urzustand.”

Footnote 1159:

See Professor Keasbey, _International Monthly_, April, 1900: “The
Institution of Society.”

Footnote 1160:

_Arbeit u. Rhythmus_, 2nd ed., p. 340.

Footnote 1161:

In dances, of course, as well. To references scattered through the
preceding pages, add Mommsen on the Camenae, _Hist. Rome_, trans.
Dickson, 2d ed. London, 1864, I. 240.

Footnote 1162:

See above, p. 155.

Footnote 1163:

You see me, Lord Bassanio, where I stand ...

—_Merch. Ven._ III. 2.

Footnote 1164:

See above, pp. 140, 155.

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