Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber’s Notes:

Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
in the original text.
Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.
Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.

DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME]

THE
BOOK OF SHELLS;

CONTAINING
THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,
CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND
CRUSTACEA.

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,
APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.

THE SECOND EDITION.

LONDON:
JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.

M.DCCC.XXXVII.

TO THE READER.

In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which embraces the VERTEBRAL ANIMALS,—namely, the Mammalia, the Birds, the Reptiles, and the Fishes,—the arrangement of the BARON CUVIER was adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in two others that are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS, the method of M. LAMARCK will be adhered to. It is true, that, since the works of that naturalist were published, many deviations from certain parts of his system have taken place, some of which have received the sanction of the highest names; but still, _as a whole_, Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and the young naturalist can readily add to the information it contains, by reference to the works of more recent authors, in case he has sufficient inclination and industry to follow out the subject.

CONTENTS.

Page
Introductory Chapter 9

Class MOLLUSCA 14

Order HETEROPODA 15
The Glassy Carinaria 15

Order CEPHALOPODA 16
The Cuttle Fish 17
Argonaut 20
Pearly Nautilus 22

Order TRACHELIPODA 26
The Marble Cone 27
Porphyry Olive Shell 28
Money Cowrie 29
Diadem Whorl Shell 31
Common Columbella 31
Music Harp Shell 32
Wide-Mouthed Purpura 33
Spotted Scorpion Shell 37
Variegated Sea-Trumpet 39
Caniculated Pear-Shell 40
Babylonian Split-Mouth 40
Marble Turban-Shell 41
Imperial Top-Shell 41
Precious Scalaria 42
Iris Ear-Shell 43
Dusty Neritina 44
Viviparous Paludina 44
Lymnæa Stagnalis 45
Horn-shaped Planorbis 46
Red-mouthed Bulimus 46
Mummy Puppet Shell 47
Wood Snail 47

Order GASTEROPODA 51
The Red Slug 51
Woodlike Bulla 53
Nail-shaped Crepidula 54
Mediterranean Umbrella 54
Clouded Fissurella 54
Hungarian Bonnet Shell 55
Scaly Chiton 56

Class CONCHIFERA 57

Order UNIMUSCULOSA 64
The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell 64
Oyster 65
Great Comb Shell 68
Pearl Oyster 69
Hammer Oyster 77
Rough Pinna 77
Common Mussel 79
Giant Tridacna 81

Order BIMUSCULOSA 82
The Fresh-Water Mussel 83
Heart-shaped Isocardia 84
Wedge-shaped Donax 85
Sheath Solen 85
Date-shaped Pholas 87
Ship-Worm 89

Class CIRRHIPEDA 91

Order CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA 92
The Smooth Barnacle 92

Order CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA 94
The Acorn-Shell 94

Class ANNULATA 97

Order ANNULATA SEDENTARIA 98
The Magnificent Amphitrite 98

Order ANNULATA ANTENNATA 100
The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen 100
Blood-coloured Leodice 100
Spinous Sea-Mouse 102

Order ANNULATA APODA 102
The Common Earth-Worm 103
Medicinal Leech 106

Class CRUSTACEA 115

Order CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ 115
The Crab Tribe 117
Land Crab 124
Hermit Crab 127
Lobster 130
River Cray-Fish 131
Phosphorescent Shrimp 132
Opossum Shrimp 134

Order CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ 137
The Spotted Squill 137
Common Cloportus 138
Molucca Crab 142
Crab-like Limulus 144
Water Flea 144
Small Water Flea 147
Hairy Cypris 148

THE BOOK OF SHELLS.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

In reviewing the first DIVISION of the animal kingdom, namely, the vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have been delighted with the wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed upon each individual; but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of their possessors as these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure must be still greater in tracing the powers with which those creatures are endowed, which constitute what we have been accustomed to call the lower orders of animated nature.

When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation; but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose, and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed of every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the _Infusoria_, those microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach, and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach, they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of the Creator’s works.

The second DIVISION of the objects of natural history, namely, the INVERTEBRAL animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by themselves, on account of their being without an internal skeleton, consisting of a series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This distinction is explained in the introductory chapter to the Book of Animals. They have been separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven CLASSES, namely:—

1. MOLLUSCA, (_soft-bodied animals_,) in general covered
with a shell; as, for instance, a snail; or without a
shell, as a slug.

2. CONCHIFERA, (_shell-bearing animals_,) with a shell,
consisting of two valves, as an oyster or mussel.

3. CIRRHIPEDA, (_with feet like cirri, or hairs_.) The inhabitant
of the acorn-shell, found on the back of the larger kind of
shell-fish, &c., is an instance of this class.

4. ANNELIDA, (_with body formed of rings_;) of this class
the leech and the earth-worm are instances.

5. CRUSTACEA, (_covered with a hard case_,) crabs, lobsters, &c.

6. ARACHNIDÆ, _Spiders_.

7. INSECTA, _Insects_. A perfect insect has always six legs.

8. TUNICATA, (_enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence_.)

9. VERMES, _Worms_. With lengthened body without divisions;
for instance, worms found in the intestines.

10. RADIARIÆ, (_radiated animals_,) with the different parts
of which they are formed arranged like rays round one
common centre; as, for instance, the Star-fish.

11. POLYPI, (_many feet_.) The animal that forms the Coral
is a Polypus.

12. INFUSORIA, (_Infusory animals_.) These are found in
infusions of vegetable substances in water, and are,
in general, too small to be visible to the naked eye.

In the present little book we shall treat of the first five of these Classes.

The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling, in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.

The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study. In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the animals.

Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist. In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress, the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel, scallop, &c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro population in the West Indies.

The _Teredo navalis_, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers, ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.

The shell with which a Molluscous animal is covered, is absolutely necessary to protect its delicate body from injury; this shell is, in general, composed of much the same substances as bone; but the bone of a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency of the blood, and the particles of which it is composed are deposited by that fluid, and again taken up and restored to the circulation, a circumstance which does not take place in the substance of a shell. The shell is formed by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of the growth of the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells, point out their periodical increase.

It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between shells of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless properly defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The annexed diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent occurrence among the Mollusca. Fig. 1, represents a univalve shell; fig. 2, another shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the purpose of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for instance, the periwinkle, (_Turbo vulgaris_,) have what is called an operculum, (_a lid_,) which closes the opening, and protects the inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell itself.

CLASS MOLLUSCA.

In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.

The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion of these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit that element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.

The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following Orders:—

1. HETEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
not uniform in all species_.)

2. CEPHALOPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
attached to the head_.)

3. TRACHELIPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
attached to the neck, near the gills_.)

4. GASTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
attached to the stomach_.)

5. PTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
like wings_.)

_ORDER HETEROPODA._

The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals, intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods; they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a jelly-like substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty when floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are less known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great difficulty there is in preserving them.

THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)

This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches wide.

_ORDER CEPHALOPODA._

The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished with a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find among this class some of the most singular productions of the waters; they differ materially from each other, and have been separated into three groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia; secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous chambers, as the Nautilus.

THE CUTTLE FISH, (_Sepia officinalis_.)

The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard transparent substance.

The Cuttle Fish, figured in the engraving, is furnished in front with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy, or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.

The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and, although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes, capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal, _Sepia_. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour, and commonly known by the name of _Sea Grapes_. They are found attached to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.

The Cuttle Fish generally remains with its body in some hole in a rock, while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious, and it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to conquer.

The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though varying considerably in texture.

THE ARGONAUT, (_Argonauta argo_.)

The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,
The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.

* * * * *

He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep
The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.
He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,
That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.

The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and, at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the shell.

The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.

In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist, Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture, and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube, all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily; then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”

Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation. The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.

THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, (_Nautilus pompilius_.)

The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.

The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking in the Water at will. The body of this _Cephalopod_, it will be seen, only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own words, the capture of this interesting object.

Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.]

“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather, thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean, that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at some distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the floating object.”

“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus: it was captured and brought on board; but the shell was shattered from having been struck with the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was sinking when the boat approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it would have escaped. I extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly attached to each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has been stated by Dr. Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour, with deeper sports and variegations,” the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.

Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell, merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful prize.”

Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves. This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.”

_ORDER TRACHELIPODA._

The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (_Zoophagi_,) and those that exist on vegetable substances, (_Phytophagi_.) The animal feeders are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a _siphon_, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.

FAMILY CONVOLUTA, (_rolled up like a scroll_.)
FAMILY COLUMELLARIA, (_distinguished by a plaited columella_.)
FAMILY PURPURIFERA, (_yielding a purple colour_.)
FAMILY ALATA, (_winged_.)
FAMILY CANALIFERA (_having a canal at the base of the opening_.)

FAMILY _CONVOLUTA_.

The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of this class.

FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (ZOOPHAGI.)

THE MARBLE CONE, (_Conus marmoreus_.)

Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable manner the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his works.

It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is much thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part; and this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the soft body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the animal the shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes internal, the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall; if, therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original thickness, its weight would become too great for its possessor. To guard against this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material, the creature possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance of what now becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is unnecessary for its present use, and of re-depositing the same on the outward wall of its mansion, where strength is most required[1].

The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but, above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.

The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit salt waters.

The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the columella. The Porphyry Olive is found in the South American Seas, on the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.

THE MONEY COWRIE, (_Cypræa moneta_.)

The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for rice.

Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea; these having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to Bengal, and from thence sent into this country. The value of these shells as a circulating medium depends naturally enough on their greater or less abundance.

In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued at a shilling.

The Cowrie shell is found of three different forms, according to its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly, when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden. The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large, so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while the deposition of the new matter is taking place.

Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one; from this it happens that the same individual can form successively many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both large and small.

When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand, at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot climates.

FAMILY _COLUMELLARIA_.

This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that is, without a notch.

THE DIADEM WHORL SHELL, (_Voluta diadema_.)

The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ, springing out obliquely behind the head.

THE COMMON COLUMBELLA, (_Columbella mercatoria_.)

The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.

FAMILY _PURPURIFERA_.

The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all the genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to these Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much in use before the discovery of cochineal.

THE MUSIC HARP SHELL, (_Harpa musica_.)

The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth, although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:—

The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it would be lost at the same time as the foot.

The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours, become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still considered rare.

The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.

THE WIDE-MOUTHED PURPURA, (_Purpura patula_.)

This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.

The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a method of applying it to cloth.

This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only for the garments of royalty.

Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing. Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was entirely lost.

In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye, nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour were entirely fabulous.

According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter out of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure state, and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from the smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ were caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken out and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of the matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels over a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the fleshy impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor was tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was defective, the boiling was renewed.

Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among these Pliny enumerates _Fucus marinus_, or Archil, and the _Anchusa tinctoria_, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.

In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.

In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead, was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr. Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities of a species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours, he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,—that is, if in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise, or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer, the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green, after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue, and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red, after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,) it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no more.”

“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned, that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour, which afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the colour, will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”

Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of the sun.

The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.

FAMILY _ALATA_.

This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.

THE SPOTTED SCORPION SHELL, (_Pterocera scorpio_.)

This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains a considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or slightly tinged with yellow.

FAMILY _CANALIFERA_.

The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening does not change its form through age.

THE VARIEGATED SEA-TRUMPET, (_Triton variegatum_.)

The _Triton variegatum_, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.

Already Triton, at his call, appears
Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,
And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.
The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,
And give the waves the signal to retire.
His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent
Grows by degrees into a large extent,
Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,
Runs the wide circuit of the world around.
The sun first heard it, in his early east,
And met the rattling echoes in the west;
The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,
Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.
DRYDEN.

THE CANICULATED PEAR-SHELL, (_Pyrula caniculata_.)

This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.

THE BABYLONIAN SPLIT-MOUTH,

(_Pleurotoma babylonia_.)

The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to support.

VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (PHYTOPHAGI.)

Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws; they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of breathing,—others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist out of that element.

THE MARBLE TURBAN-SHELL, (_Turbo marmoratus_.)

There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell. The Marble Turban, _Turbo marmoratus_, is the largest, being as much as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity. It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of mother-of-pearl.

The _Turbo littoreus_ (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle, with which our rocky coasts abound.

THE IMPERIAL TOP-SHELL, (_Trochus imperialis_.)

These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form to a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their spire is always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called _flat-mouthed snails_. The greater number of these shells, (and the species are very numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and many of them are also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there are as many as seventy species,—the larger and more elegant are only found in the seas of hot climates.

THE PRECIOUS SCALARIA, (_Scalaria pretiosa_.)

This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast, on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that as much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given for a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ are much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast of Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.

THE IRIS EAR-SHELL, (_Haliotis Iris_.)

The _Haliotides_, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food, the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of species very difficult and uncertain.

THE DUSTY NERITINA, (_Neritina pulligera_.)

This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,—namely, that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general natives of hot climates.

THE VIVIPAROUS PALUDINA, (_Paludina vivipara_.)

The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.

These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water; sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.

LYMNÆA STAGNALIS.

The _Lymnæa stagnalis_ is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very little power to direct its own course.

During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind, they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes, which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.

THE HORN-SHAPED PLANORBIS,

(_Planorbis corneus_.)

The _Planorbis_, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year, attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable, certainly not poisonous.

THE RED-MOUTHED BULIMUS, (_Bulimus hæmastomus_.)