Chapter XXXII (1)

THE CAT’S PLACE IN NATURE: ITS ANCESTRY, CLASSIFICATION, STRUCTURE, AND
DISTRIBUTION.

At a very remote period in the history of animal life when the
struggle for existence was rife, the carnivorous and predaceous
animals (to which the existing cat belongs) occupied a position in the
scale of creation as important as the one they hold to-day. We find
locked up in the rocks of the tertiary and recent pleistocene
formations the bones and teeth of these ancient cats along with those
of the animals upon which they lived.

These ancestors of our cat had a tolerably wide geographical
distribution, and they apparently differed considerably in size, as do
the different members of the existing cat family. The crested cat (_F.
crestata_) was probably as large as a tiger—more recent remains having
a closer affinity to existing cats are found plentifully in caves and
in the deeper beds of rivers and lakes almost all over the British
Islands.

Probably the most remarkable of these extinct cat-like creatures is
the Machœrodus, the skulls of which (Fig. II.), with portions of its
skeleton, associated with the bones of other animals, have been found
in the cave deposits in Brazil, North and South America, India,
Persia, many parts of Europe, as well as in the British Islands—viz.
Kent’s Cavern, Creswell bone caves, and other places. The skull, which
is very typical and cat-like in form, is remarkable for the
extraordinary development of the upper canine teeth, which in some
species exceed seven inches in length. The Machœrodus was about the
size of a lion.

The ancestors of our cat were certainly more specialised in parts of
their organisation. The nearer we approach the recent forms a greater
uniformity in structure prevails, until we get in the existing
cat-like group (_Felis_) probably the most consolidated and uniform of
all the generic mammalia.

FIG. I.—BRAIN OF CAT.

A, Right hemisphere of cerebrum; B, Cerebellum; C, Medulla oblongata;
D, Olfactory bulb (nerve of smell); E, Convolution, or Gyrus; F,
Fissure.
]

FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS.

Under the generic title of _Felis_ are included over fifty-one
distinct species, of which the lion, tiger, leopard, puma, and our
common domesticated cat may be taken as representative. They inhabit
every region on the earth’s surface, except the extreme northern
latitudes, and vary in size from the tiger and lion to the little
red-spotted cat of India, which does not exceed fifteen or sixteen
inches in length. But it is, as already indicated, very uniform in
order as regards structural points. All have well-developed,
retractile claws, the only exception being the cheetah, whose claws
are only partially retractile; all have five toes on the fore feet,
and four on the hind feet; all the teeth are cusped, or pointed, and
specialised for flesh-eating, as well as for aggressive purposes. The
incisors in front of the upper and lower jaws are small, the four
canines well grown and long, with a cutting edge on the inner side;
the molars, or cheek teeth, have one to five cusps, points, or lobes.
All the members of the family are _digitigrade_ (_i.e._ use only the
extremity of the toes in walking); the tympanic bulla, or ear-bone, is
large and prominent; the general form of the skull is rounded and
broad across the orbits, or eye-sockets (the latter are, with two
exceptions, open or incomplete behind); the clavicle, or collar-bone,
is reduced to a short, curved, splint-like bone; in many species it is
absent.

The stomach is always simple, intestines relatively short, tongue
covered with minute spines. In many species the pupil of the eye
contracts in one direction only, thus giving it a _linear_ and upright
form. The majority of the species are nocturnal; the habits of the
genus are very diverse. The lion apparently prefers the drier, sandy
areas covered with short, scrubby vegetation; others prefer the dense
forests, and live much in the trees. Many species are found at
considerable altitudes, the snow leopard being found at 18,000 feet.
All the members of the group can swim, and several species (_i.e._ the
fishing cat of India and Southern China) are adepts at catching fish,
but immersion is invariably avoided.

The colours of the different members of the genus _Felis_ vary
considerably. It may be a uniform, tawny, pale brown, or a grey—as in
the lion, puma, eyra. The tiger is striped transversely; the ocelot
has bands or rows of more or less fused spots; the serval and several
other species have solid black spots; the leopard, clusters of spots,
forming a kind of star; the jaguar has the spots arranged in an open
ring. In the clouded leopard of Southern India the markings are
composed of irregular groups of lines and spots, merging into the
ground colour of the animal’s coat. A black variety of the common
leopard is occasionally found in a wild state. Albinos, or white
forms, are extremely rare in nature, though quite common in the
domesticated cat.

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE CAT.

The natural food of all the cat tribe in a state of nature is
carnivorous, and the whole organisation of the group is specialised
and adapted for aggressive or, if need be, defensive purposes. The
body is compressed laterally, and has a considerable amount of
flexibility in it as a whole.

The bony framework or _skeleton_ is light, and, for the purpose of an
elementary description, is readily divisible into three parts—viz. (1)
the skull; (2) the axial skeleton, comprising the bones of the neck,
thorax, loins, and tail; (3) the appendicular skeleton or limbs. The
skull is short, rounded, and broad across the orbits or eye-sockets,
which are large in proportion to the skull. The posterior rim of the
orbit is, with three exceptions, out of the fifty-one species—viz. the
fishing cat (_F. voverrina_), the rusty spotted cat (_F. rubiginosa_),
and the flat-headed cat (_F. planiceps_)—incomplete or open. The
_teeth_ of the fully adult cat should be thirty in number—sixteen in
the upper jaw and fourteen in the lower. They are divided by the
comparative anatomist into three sets or groups—viz. incisors,
canines, premolars, and molars—their number and position being
concisely expressed by a dental formula thus:—1 ³⁄₃, C. ¹⁄₁, P.M. ⅔,
M. ¹⁄₁. The six incisors in the upper and lower jaw are small,
simple-pointed teeth, with a simple fang or root. Then we have a long
canine or flesh tooth CC.’, the most important functional tooth the
cat has, for with it and its fellow the living, struggling prey is
seized, retained, and killed.

FIG. II.—SKULL OF THE GREAT SABRE-TOOTHED CAT.

FROM THE CAVES OF BRAZIL. (_Machœrodus Neogœus._)
]

In the upper jaw, immediately after the canine, are three premolars
PM. These are the second or permanent series, and succeed the kitten’s
milk-teeth. The first one is very small, and has only a single cusp;
the second is larger, and has two cusps; the third is the largest, and
is sometimes called the “sectorial” tooth. It has three pointed cusps
and three fangs, or roots. Immediately behind it, and placed somewhat
transversely, is the single _true_ molar. It is a small tooth, of
obtuse form, and indefinitely cusped; it has no predecessor in the
kitten’s milk set.

FIG. III.—SUPERFICIAL FLEXOR TENDONS OF THE CAT’S LEFT FORE-FOOT

A, Perforatus, or _flexor sub-digitorum_; B, Perforans, or _flexor
profundus digitorum_.
]

FIG. IV.—BONES AND PRINCIPAL LIGAMENTS OF A CAT’S TOE, SHOWING
MECHANISM OF RETRACTILE CLAW.

A, Distal or terminal phalanx; B, Middle; C, Proximal; D, Perforatus
tendon; E, Perforans tendon; F, Elastic ligament.
]

FIG. V.—PADS OF CAT’S LEFT FORE-FOOT.

A, Plantar pad; B, Digital pad; C, Pisiform pad.
]

In the lower jaw, immediately after the canine tooth, there are only
two premolars (PM. PM’.) in the permanent set which have predecessors,
the last tooth (M.) being the only true molar, and having no
predecessor in the milk set. Occasionally, in the lower jaw there is a
small premolar corresponding to the first premolar of the upper jaw.
In the kitten from about six or seven weeks to about five months old,
there are only twenty-six teeth, the number and form being very
similar to the adult set. The two permanent molars in the upper and
lower jaw are absent.

The _Axial Skeleton_ (_see_ p. 354) consists of the bones forming the
neck, thorax, loins, and tail. The neck is relatively short, and
consists of seven bones—a number almost constant throughout the animal
kingdom, the giraffe, the hippopotamus, and the whale having the same
number. Succeeding these are the _dorsal_, or _thoracic_, vertebræ
(thirteen in number), each one supporting two ribs—one on each side.
Then follow the seven vertebræ composing the _lumbar_ region. They are
stout, thick bones, with long, transverse processes for the attachment
of certain muscles supporting the body cavity, etc. No ribs are
attached to these bones. Immediately behind are three smaller bones
forming the _sacrum_, to which the pelvis, or hip-bones, are
articulated. The terminal bones of the axial skeleton are the tail, or
caudal, and vary from nineteen to twenty-one.

The _Ribs_ (thirteen on each side) are extremely light, elastic, and
slender. Nine of these on each side join the sternum or breast-bone
directly, and are called true ribs; the remainder are free, and
terminate in cartilaginous points, which are adherent to the true rib
terminations, for support.

The _Sternum_, or breast-bone, consists of eight bones, from each
joint of which springs a rib-like costal cartilage, to which the true
ribs are articulated. The cat’s collar-bone or clavicle is very short
and rudimentary; it has a slight attachment to the acromion process of
the scapula, the other end terminating in the muscles of the chest. It
is often absent.

The _Appendicular Skeleton_ includes the fore and hind limbs. The fore
limb in the cat, as in the majority of mammals (_see_ plate, p. 355),
is a subtriangular flat bone, with a ridge on the outer side for the
attachment of certain muscles moving the leg.

In a small hollow on the posterior or lower border is articulated the
head of the _humerus_ (4), or arm-bone; its lower or distal end is
expanded, and receives the end of the _ulna_ (10), which with the
_radius_ (9) forms the bones of the forearm. The wrist or carpal bones
(8) include seven small bones, the upper row being attached to the
radius, the lower row to the five phalanges of the toes (7); to these
latter are articulated the bones of the digits, or fingers.

The terminal bones of the cat’s foot are encased by powerful hooked
claws (Fig. III.). When at rest, the claw is brought to the outer side
of the middle phalanx by the elastic ligament F, the flexor tendons
being relaxed. When the cat is on the point of seizing its prey, the
greater power of the flexor tendons stretches the weaker elastic
ligament, the claw is brought down, and so a powerful grip is
obtained. The under-surface of the cat’s fore and hind feet is
protected by certain hardened pads of subcutaneous and fibrous
tissue—viz. the plantar pad, giving chief support to the leg, and the
digital pads protecting the claws, etc. These pads are, of course, of
additional use in aiding the cat’s noiseless and stealthy progression.

FIG. VI._a._—CAT’S SKULL, VIEW FROM ABOVE.
]

FIG. VI._b._—CAT’S SKULL, SIDE VIEW, WITH LOWER JAW IN PLACE.
]

FIG. VI._c._—CAT’S SKULL FROM BELOW, WITHOUT LOWER JAW, SHOWING
PALATAL SURFACE.
]

The cat’s hind limb is articulated by a ball and socket joint to the
hip-bone or pelvis (20), which is again firmly united to the three
bones forming the sacrum D. The thigh-bone or femur (19) sustains the
whole body, and has many powerful muscles attached to it concerned in
the springing movements so characteristic of the animal; to its lower
end is articulated the principal bone of the lower leg, the tibia
(13). At the union of these two bones on the anterior side is the
knee-cap, or patella (12). On the outer aspect of the tibia is a
slender bone, the fibula (18), its outer end being attached to a
prominence on the tibia, the lower end to one of the large bones (the
astragalus) which form the tarsus of the foot.

The _Tarsal_ bones (14) consist of seven bones, the largest of which
is the os calcis (17), or heel-bone, to which powerful muscles are
attached. Succeeding the tarsal bones are the four bones forming the
metatarsal bones (the fifth or inner toe being absent, though often
present in the dog). To these are attached the phalanges of the toes,
with the claws, etc., similar to the fore-foot.

FIG. VII.—SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF A CAT.
]

1.— Maxillaris.

2.— Caninus, or Nasalis.

3.— Orbicularis.

4.— Temporalis.

5.— Mastoideus.

6.— Cephalo-humeral.

7.— Posterior and anterior portions of Trapezius.

8.— Infraspinatus.

9.— Latissimus dorsi.

10.— Great Oblique.

11.— Prominence of Hip-bone.

12.— Gluteus medius.

13.— Prominence of Thigh-bone, or Femur.

14.— Gluteus maximus.

15.— Muscles concerned in the movements of the Tail.

16.— Fascia lata covering deeper muscles.

17.— Biceps femoralis.

18.— Semi-tendinosus.

19.— Gastrocnemius.

20.— External Saphenous Vein.

21.— Point of Heel, or Os Calcis.

22.— Plantar or Flexor Tendons of Sole of Foot.

23.— Extensor Tendons of Toes.

24.— Internal or Inner Saphenous.

25.— Sartorius.

26.— Rectus abdominis.

27.— Serratus magnus.

28.— Pectoralis major.

29.— Elbow, or Olecranon Process of Ulna.

30.— Flexor carpi ulnaris.

31.— Superficial Extensors of Toes.

32.— Annular or Wrist Ligament.

33.— Extensor communis digitorum.

34.— Flexor carpi radialis.

35.— Extensor carpi radialis.

36.— Triceps.

37.— Scapular deltoid.

38.— Acromion deltoid.

39.— Mastoideus.

40.— Sterno-hyoid.

41.— Parotid Gland.

42.— Masseter Muscle.

43.— External Maxillary Vein.

44.— Zigomaticus.

45.— Zigomaticus labialis.

A better idea of the superficial muscles of the cat is obtained from
an examination of the plate than by any technical description. It will
be seen that for its size the cat’s muscles are well developed; its
kin, the lion and tiger, are known for their prodigious strength in
bearing away young oxen, deer, antelopes, etc., upon which they live,
as well as for their leaping powers and agility and courage.

Although the cat’s muscles are identical with those of its more
powerful relatives, it lives too much in the lap of luxury for them to
attain to a proportionate development.

A well-known writer has estimated that there are 500 muscles concerned
in the movements of the cat’s body.

The cavity of the cat’s body is separated into two unequal
compartments by a muscular partition called the midriff or diaphragm.
In the anterior or foremost cavity are the two lungs, and the heart
and its blood-vessels; in the larger or most posterior compartment is
the stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys, etc. Without a considerable
number of diagrams it is difficult to convey in a popular manner some
peculiarities of these internal organs. The cat’s tongue (Fig. X.) is,
however, very characteristic of the order, and is easily observed. It
is supplied with the usual glands common to all mammals—viz. tonsils
(B), flattened soft papillæ (C), four circumvallate papillæ (D),
conical papillæ (E), and the more minute fungiform papillæ (F). The
peculiarity of the cat’s tongue is that the conical papillæ are
specialised into horny processes or hooks, as shown in E F, and are of
value not only in assisting to clear the flesh from bones, but are of
undoubted use in cleaning the animal’s fur. The cat also has the
parotid, sublingual, and other glands concerned in the preparation of
the food for primary digestion.

FIG. VIII.—SKELETON OF A CAT.

_A._ CERVICAL OR NECK BONES (7 in number). _B._ DORSAL OR THORACIC
BONES (13 in number, each bearing a rib). _C._ LUMBAR BONES (7 in
number). _D._ SACRAL BONES (3 in number). _E._ CAUDAL OR TAIL BONES
(19 to 21 in number).
]

1.— Cranium, or Skull.

2.— Scapula, or Shoulder-blade.

3.— Clavicle, or Collar-bone.

4.— Humerus.

5.— Sternum, or Breast-bone.

6.— Phalanges of the Toes.

7.— Metacarpal Bones.

8.— Carpal or Wrist-bones.

9.— Radius.

10.— Ulna.

11.— Costal cartilages, uniting ends of Ribs to Sternum.

12.— Patella, or Knee-cap.

13.— Tibia.

14.— Tarsal Bones.

15.— Metatarsal Bones.

16.— Phalanges of Hind Toes.

17.— Heel-bone, or “Calcis.”

18.— Fibula.

19.— Femur, or Thigh-bone.

20.— Pelvis, or Hip-bone.

The cat’s liver is mainly on its right side; it is divided into
several lobes, which give it a complicated appearance as compared with
the simpler livers of other animals. The gallbladder is present in the
usual position. The cat’s heart is somewhat small for the size of the
animal, and is not so pointed at its apex as in other animals; the
veins entering the heart, and the branching of the arteries leaving
it, are nearly identical with those of closely allied animals. The
time required for the complete circulation of the blood throughout the
body of the cat is fourteen to sixteen seconds. The pulse, each beat
of which corresponds to one contraction of the left ventricle of the
heart, may easily be felt on the inner side of the fore-paw, about an
inch above the prominence of the radius; it may also be felt at the
same place as the horse’s pulse—on the inner side of the lower jaw.
There are two other situations on the cat’s body where it may be felt,
but to find the exact point requires some intimate anatomical
knowledge. The temperature, or normal heat, of the body of the cat is
100° F.; it may, however, be slightly above or below this.

The brain of the cat, following the general structure of the higher
mammals, is divided into very similar areas or divisions. The larger
or more anterior portion is called the cerebrum (Fig. I., A), and is
divided into right and left hemispheres. Its surface is divided into
convolutions or gyri (E) by certain shallow fissures, which have
received specific names. Very intimately attached to the under-surface
of this part of the brain are the olfactory lobes (D), in which are
situated certain nerves concerned in the sense of smell. The hinder
and smaller part of the brain is called the cerebellum (B), and is
much darker in colour than the cerebrum. Its surface is made up of
numerous small foldings of its substance, which, on section, look like
the branches of a small tree; these branches finally fuse and
terminate on the under-side of the base of the brain.

Intimately associated in a most complex manner with the cerebrum and
cerebellum is the medulla oblongata (C), an enlarged part of the
spinal cord. The brain of the cat, it may be remarked, is not nearly
so highly organised as that of the dog.

FIG. best-marked.—THE CAT’S EYE.
]

AT DAY-TIME. │ AT NIGHT-TIME. │
A.—Contracted linear │A.—Expanded and nearly │
pupil. │ circular pupil. │
B.—Iris. │B.—Iris. │
│ │C.—Cat’s eye, showing
C.—Nictitating membrane│C.—Nictitating │ the third eyelid or
(Plica semilunaris). │ membrane. │ nictitating membrane
│ │ fully extended.
D.—Opening of the │D.—Opening of Harderian│
Harderian Gland Duct.│ Duct. │

In all the higher mammals the eye can accommodate itself to the
varying influence of light. This is mainly done by means of the
central black part or pupil (Fig. IX., A). The pupil is merely a hole
in the iris, or coloured part of the eyeball (B), and it is by its
contraction or expansion that the exact amount of light necessary is
admitted to act upon the sensitive retina at the back of the eye. The
form of the pupil varies considerably in different animals. In the
cat’s eye during bright sunshine it is reduced to a thin vertical
line; at dusk it expands to a nearly circular form. This vertical
reduction is by no means common to the entire cat family. In very many
species the pupil retains a rounded form even when contracted to its
minimum.

On the inner angle of the cat’s eye there is a curious
semi-transparent fold of skin, called by naturalists the plica
semilunaris, or nictitating membrane. In reptiles and birds this is a
very important factor in the preservation of the eye from external
injuries, and it acts also as a regulator of the admission of light.
It is well developed in nocturnal reptiles and birds, and as the cat’s
ancestors were doubtless more nocturnal than they are now, it probably
was in active use. It is, however, useless now, the cat having no
control over it. It is one of many interesting vestigial structures
the cat carries about with it of its former ancestry from a
lower-organised animal.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE CAT FAMILY.

Long-continued and systematic study of the habits of living animals
has led to the division of the surface of the world into specific
areas, called Zoogeographical regions, of which there are six—viz. (1)
Palæarctic region; (2) Ethiopian or African region; (3) Oriental or
Indian region; (4) Australian region; (5) Nearctic or North American
region; and (6) Neotropical or South American region. The cats of the
Old World and of the New World are, with the exception of the
debatable northern lynx, specifically distinct. No native cats exist
in Australia.

FIG. X.—SURFACE OF THE CAT’S TONGUE.

A.—Epiglottis or upper cartilage of windpipe.
B.—Tonsil.
C.—Flattened or soft papillæ.
D.—Circumvallate papillæ.
E.—Horny conical papillæ.
E. 1.—The same enlarged.
F.—Fungiform papillæ.
]

The Palæarctic region comprises the whole of Europe, part of North
Africa, and extends eastward to Kamtchatka, and includes the islands
of Japan. There are about twenty-one known species of the cat family
inhabiting this extensive area, the best-known being the tiger, which
is found in Mongolia; the common leopard, widely distributed in
Southern Siberia; the snow leopard, wild cats, the lynx, and many
others. The Ethiopian or African region includes the whole of the
continent of Africa up to the tropic of Cancer, and the greater part
of Arabia and Madagascar. About nine species are known to inhabit this
region. The best-known are the lion, leopard, serval, Egyptian cat,
caracal lynx, and cheetah. The Oriental or Indian region includes a
strip of southern Persia, the whole of India, China, and the Malay
peninsula, Borneo, and other islands of the East Indian Archipelago.
There are about sixteen species inhabiting this region. The best-known
examples of the cat family here are the lion (inhabiting the southern
portions of Persia), tiger, leopard, cheetah, clouded leopard, and a
great variety of the smaller species.

The Nearctic or North American region includes Greenland and the whole
of the continent of North America down to Mexico City and Vera Cruz.
There are only seven indigenous species of the cat family, the
best-known being the puma, which also extends into the neotropical
region, the northern and the bay lynx.

The Neotropical or South American region extends from Vera Cruz in
Central America, through the whole of South America to Patagonia.
About thirteen well-marked species of the cat family inhabit this
region. The better-known species are the puma, jaguar, ocelot, margay,
pampas cat, and the curious eeyra.

ROBERT HOLDING.

THE DISEASES OF CATS, AND THEIR TREATMENT.

_By HENRY GRAY, M.R.C.V.S._

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINE.

GIVING MEDICINE.
]

In the treatment of the diseases of the cat, the correct method of
administering whatever medicaments are deemed necessary is a most
important consideration. To the uninitiated and timid the task is
generally a difficult one, and may, in some cases, appear almost
impossible; but with a little practice, aided by courage and
determination, the difficulties can nearly always be overcome. The
administration of medicine, however, is seldom so easy in the case of
the cat as in that of the dog.

Some cats are so gentle that the mouth can easily be opened by means
of the index finger and thumb of the left hand acting as a wedge
between the jaws. The palm of the hand rests on the top of the head,
while the finger and thumb gently but firmly press the cheeks at the
angle of the jaws inwards, until they intervene between the finger and
thumb of the operator and the posterior teeth of the patient.

The jaws being thus kept open, and the head at the same time raised,
the right hand of the operator drops the pill or powder at the back of
the mouth between the tongue and palate. This having been
accomplished, the right hand is passed under the lower jaw, so as to
keep the head raised until the animal swallows, while the left hand is
withdrawn from its previous position and the jaws allowed to close,
thus facilitating the act of swallowing.

For the administration of liquid medicine it is not necessary to open
the mouth. The operator grasps the head with his left hand, and taking
the spoon in his right he slowly and carefully drops the liquid
between the teeth, or into the space between the cheek and teeth, at
the angle of the mouth. For the cat, a coffee-spoon is preferable to a
tea-spoon, and care must be taken that too much is not poured into the
mouth at once. The dose should be administered drop by drop, and time
allowed for swallowing.

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH.

=Vomiting=, though a symptom common to many diseases, may be quite
natural in some instances, such as over feeding or during the weaning
period, when the mother cat eats a lot of animal food and then brings
it home and vomits it up for her young kittens to feed upon.

The act consists of ejecting the contents of the stomach up through
the gullet and then out of the mouth.

The causes of vomition are various: Worms travelling from the bowel
into the stomach, emetics, expectorants, poisons, foreign bodies (as
hair, cork, pins, etc.); bad or altered food, blood poisoning,
distemper, gastritis, tumours, tuberculosis, jaundice, diseases of the
kidneys, etc., may produce it.

It may also occur from parasites in the ear, foreign bodies in the
mouth, and as a symptom of brain disease, such as meningitis.

_Treatment._—This depends upon the cause, which should be removed if
possible. When due to foreign bodies or altered food, an emetic
(especially the hypodermic injection of ¹⁄₄₀ to ¹⁄₂₀ grain of
apomorphine hydrochloride) would most likely remove the source of
trouble. If the foreign body cannot be removed by simple means, an
operation may be deemed necessary. If due to inflammation of the
stomach, bismuth and aërated soda-water are of great value. Ice and
cocaine or chloretone are occasionally useful when these have failed.
Sometimes it is necessary to wash the stomach out with mild
antiseptics. If of nervous origin, a hypodermic injection of ¹⁄₁₂ to ⅛
grain of morphine, or five-minim doses of tincture of opium or bromide
of potassium, given by the mouth, may prove successful. When resulting
from tumours or tuberculosis, humanity dictates that the lethal
chamber should be called into requisition and the animal put out of
its misery. Easily assimilable and non-irritating food only should be
given for a few days. Aërated soda-water forms the best drinking
fluid.

=Gastritis=, or inflammation of the stomach, is sometimes called
gastric fever, and when of a mild type, gastric catarrh. Its causes
are variable. It may be due to altered or decomposed food, distemper,
microbes of various kinds, large doses of emetics or aperients,
mineral poisons, chills, absorption of dressing applied to the skin,
or licking the same off. It is also caused by worms, especially the
broad-necked tapeworm (_Tænia crassicollis_), travelling into the
stomach and setting up irritation. Again, diseases of the uterus,
liver, kidneys, and other organs give rise to gastritis. It frequently
rages as an epizöotic, causing considerable mortality in some
catteries, especially after cat shows.

_Symptoms._—The disease is ushered in by sudden vomiting of the food,
followed by the repeated rejection of ropy mucus, and then, if the
case is severe, this is succeeded by a thin, clear, greenish-yellow or
bloody fluid; saliva flows from the mouth, the thirst is great,
especially for cold water, which is generally expelled almost as soon
as taken; there is a distressed appearance, restlessness, or a
frequent shifting of the posture. As a rule, the animal prefers to lie
on its belly full length, with its limbs resting on cold objects.

Pressure on the region of the stomach causes moaning and sometimes
vomiting. After the lapse of some time, when a fatal termination is
advancing, the eyes appear sunken, the pupils become dilated, the
expression is sad, the animal becomes cold and indifferent to his
surroundings, the mouth gives off an offensive odour, and the coat is
dull, open, and lustreless. The animal dies either in a comatose state
or from sudden failure of the heart during a fit of vomiting.

_Treatment._—If recognised early, an emetic is sometimes very useful
in cutting short the complaint. No food or ordinary water should be
allowed until twenty-four to forty-eight hours have elapsed since the
last vomiting; but a teaspoonful of Brand’s essence of beef jelly and
two to four teaspoonfuls of aërated water should be given every four
hours. Bismuth subnitrate or carbonate in five-grain doses may be
shaken on the tongue an hour before these two latter are administered.

If this means of treatment should prove ineffectual after twenty-four
hours, one may conclude that the disease is of a severe type, and in
this case one to five minims of the liquid extract of opium in a
little mucilage, or chloretone, ½ to 2½ grains, should be given every
three hours. Feeding by means of rectal suppositories, or injection of
an ounce of milk containing a little common salt, may be attempted.
Finally, if this fail, washing out the stomach with borax or boracic
acid, or chinosol and warm water, and a hypodermic injection of
bullock’s or sheep’s serum might be tried. In gastric inflammation due
to infection the hypodermic injection of quinine hydrochloride or
trichloride of iodine will sometimes answer when everything else has
failed. Cocaine and orthoform have no advantage over opiates,
especially the denarcotised preparations, in soothing the stomach. Ice
in small pieces pushed down the throat sometimes answers in assuaging
the thirst when the soda-water does not. In the chronic form, doses of
⅛ to ½ grain of calomel or mercury with chalk given with bismuth three
times a day are beneficial in many instances.

=Enteritis=, or inflammation of the intestines or bowels, frequently
co-exists with gastritis, and then the disease takes on the term of
_gastro-enteritis_. The causes, like those of gastritis, are various.
It may be due to infection, bad food, drugs, foreign bodies, chills,
distemper, intussusception or irritating enemas, etc. There also seems
to be a special contagious type of this disease which frequently
causes great mortality in catteries, especially with kittens.
Generally the small intestine forms the seat of the disease, which may
in rare cases, however, extend the whole length of the bowel, which is
sometimes lined with a croupy or diphtheritic membrane.

The _symptoms_ are restlessness, great pain, frequent crying or
moaning, offensive and profuse and frequent diarrhœa, the dejections
varying in colour and consistence and frequently containing blood, and
sometimes vomiting, especially when the stomach is implicated; thirst
is intense, food is refused, the animal is cold, haggard, and
depressed; its fur is dull, open, and lustreless, and becomes soiled,
giving off an abominable odour. When the abdomen is manipulated, the
animal cries or moans from the pain caused. If the pupils are dilated
and the expression has an anxious appearance, and emaciation is rapid,
a fatal termination may be anticipated.

The _treatment_ varies according to the cause. If the case is seen in
the early stage a tea- to a dessert-spoonful of castor-oil containing
1 to 2½ minims of liquid extract of opium may be given at once, to
clear out any irritating material from the bowels and also to allay
pain and irritation; or morphine in ¹⁄₁₅ to ¹⁄₁₂ grain doses may be
injected under the skin every four hours. Bismuth salicylate, in
five-grain doses, should be dropped on the tongue about the same time.
Starch enemas containing liquid extract of opium may also be
administered. Boiled milk containing bicarbonate of soda should be
given in small and repeated quantities.

Turpentine stupes frequently applied to the abdomen are recommended,
but, where this is objected to, the floor of the abdomen may be
painted with tincture of capsicum, or tincture of iodine, until
soreness is produced, the hair being first clipped off.

In those cases of epizöotic nature, isolation is called for. The food
and surroundings should be changed, and the catteries and utensils
thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. In the chronic form a powder
composed of bismuth salicylate 2 to 5 grains, and β-naphthol 1 to 2½
grains, should be shaken on the tongue three times a day. Milk and
rice form the best diet.

=Diarrhœa=, like vomiting, is not a disease of itself, but an
expression of many different affections. It may be salutary or
otherwise. It may be due to aperients, irritating or indigestible
food, microbes, diseases of the bowels, kidneys, and liver. It
frequently results from distemper or gastro-enteritis, tuberculosis,
intestinal catarrh, and from licking applications put on the skin in
the treatment of skin affections. Sour milk, tainted milk or fish, and
chills will also induce it. In kittens improper food, especially
during hot weather, is a common cause.

The _symptoms_ are a looseness of the dejections from the bowels,
which are passed several times a day. The stools vary in colour
according to the food taken by the animal, or according to the
severity of the cause; they are generally of a very offensive odour,
and may contain blood.

_Treatment._—If the cause of the diarrhœa is due to irritating food, a
dose of castor-oil will be beneficial. When due to catarrh of the
bowels, the carbonate, subnitrate, or salicylate of bismuth, in
five-grain doses, two or three times a day, is the most appropriate
treatment. If it is associated with distemper or typhus, the bismuth
salts mentioned above, or tannablin or tannigen, in 2½- to 5-grain
doses, are suitable. For chronic diarrhœa, 2½ to 5 grains of
salicylate of bismuth, with 1 to 5 grains of β-naphthol, given three
times a day on the food, is generally followed by recovery.

Failing this, a mixture composed of dilute sulphuric acid,
concentrated infusion of cloves, and concentrated infusion of
hæmatoxylin should be tried.

When the diarrhœa is due to irritation of the so-called large or
posterior bowel, injections containing starch, laudanum, and tannic
acid should be used.

As long as the diarrhœa lasts, no meat or meat infusions should be
given, but milk, rice-pudding, bread and milk, and such-like food are
suitable.

=Constipation= is an impaction of fæces in the hind bowel, and is
generally due to weakness of this portion of gut, or results from a
cleanly animal having no place to evacuate its fæces in. Sometimes it
is due to a ball of fur, and occasionally foreign bodies, such as
cat’s-meat skewers, being swallowed along with the meat by a greedy
animal. When due to paralysis of the bowel, which is occasionally seen
in young cats, the abdomen becomes distended by the fæces in the
bowel. It also occurs as a symptom of spinal paralysis. The
non-passage of fæces seen in cats when not well and not taking solid
food must not be confounded with constipation.

The _symptoms_, as a rule, are the non-passage of fæces for some time,
distension of the abdomen, and impaction of the bowel with fæces which
can be felt by manipulating the abdomen.

_Treatment._—A dose of castor-oil and an enema of soapy water or
glycerine will generally put matters right. If these means do not
succeed, massage or kneading of the bowels, by grasping the abdomen
with the hand and alternately compressing and relaxing the grasp, will
assist to stimulate the intestines to force on their contents. Of
course, this only applies when impaction is due to soft material and
not hard foreign bodies, which, in this latter case, should be removed
by the fingers or forceps. If any irritation of the mucous membrane,
evidenced by frequent straining as if to pass fæces, remains after the
bowels have been relieved, an enema of warm salad oil, containing a
few drops of liquid extract of opium, will allay it, and prevent
straining. In case of the bowel remaining weakened or paralysed so as
to bring about a recurrence of the constipation, pills containing ¹⁄₁₆
grain of the alcoholic extract of nux vomica should be administered
morning, noon, and night _after_ food.

WORMS, OR INTERNAL ANIMAL PARASITES.

Cats, like all other animals, are liable to be infested with worms,
which may not cause any disturbance, unless in great numbers or when
another disease is in existence.

The =Common Round-worm= is very prevalent in young kittens, generally
when they are living on milk, upon which these worms thrive.

Their natural residence in the cat is in the small intestine, but
sometimes they wander from here into the stomach, and set up vomiting
and occasionally convulsions.

_Treatment._—The worms should be expelled and the animal fed on
nutritious and stimulating food, such as raw fish, raw meat, and fresh
birds. The milk, to which is added a pinch of salt, should be boiled.
The best remedy to expel these worms is santonin given along with or
followed by an aperient. The following is a convenient formula:—

Santonin 1 grain.
Calomel ½ „

This powder is to be dropped on the back of the tongue of an adult cat
after fasting twelve hours, every other morning, until four doses have
been given. Half this quantity is suitable for a cat three or four
months old, and a quarter for a kitten of a month to six weeks of age.

The commonest =Tapeworm= of the cat is the _Tænia elliptica vel
felis_, with which fifty per cent. or more are affected. It is caused
by fleas, lice, and mange-mites which have at some time or another
infested the cat.

They do not seem to cause much harm, even when numbering hundreds. In
one case that I encountered the cat was in the pink of condition, and
yet I found 700 of these worms.

It is a delicate tapeworm with joints resembling a cucumber in
outline. The ripe joints, which are often of a reddish tint,
frequently become detached, and pass with the fæces, on which they are
seen. They are generally termed by fanciers _maw-worms_.

_Treatment._—The worms should be expelled, and fleas, lice, or
mange-mites destroyed, so as to prevent a recurrence of the trouble.

Another tapeworm of the cat is the _Tænia crassicollis_, or
broad-necked species. It is seen only in cats that kill and eat rats
and mice, in the liver of which the larval form of this parasite
resides.

It is a big, coarse tapeworm, measuring eighteen to thirty inches in
length, and having no well defined neck.

_Treatment._—For the expulsion of tapeworms there are many remedies,
the best of which are areca nut, kamala, oil of male fern,
pomegranate, and kousso, but as the dose of these in the crude is
generally too bulky for the cat, it is advisable to give either of
them, with the exception of the male fern, in their alkaloidal form,
as:—

Koussein ½ to 2 grains.
Kamalin ½ to 2 „
Arecoline ¼ to ½ grain.
Pelletierine ¼ to ½ „

Any one of these may be given either in pill or tabloid form, or
rubbed up with milk sugar, as a powder on an empty stomach after the
animal has fasted at least twelve hours, and repeated every third or
fourth morning. A dose of castor-oil or jalap should be given an hour
after. The oil of male fern is best administered in a capsule.
Powdered pumpkin seed may be sprinkled on the food.

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS.

Diseases of the kidneys, such as degeneration, fatty degeneration,
parasitic disease, tuberculosis, cancer, acute and chronic Bright’s
disease, and calculi are not rare, but, as the space at our command is
limited, we only mention them.

=Incontinence=, or the involuntary passage of urine, is usually due to
weakness of the bladder, brought about by over-distension. It
sometimes results from injury to the spine and calculi.

The _treatment_ that is best suited for this is the administration of
¹⁄₁₆ grain of the alcoholic extract of nux vomica and ½ grain of
quinine in a pill three times a day. If there be irritability of the
bladder, soda bicarbonate 2 grains and extract of henbane ⅛ grain in a
pill should be given.

Retention of urine is generally caused by a calculus or chalky
material blocking up the urethra or canal leading from the bladder,
and preventing the exit of the fluid. If relief is not given to the
bladder—that is, if the obstruction is not immediately removed—the
urine decomposes and then sets up inflammation of the bladder, and
death takes place from uræmic poisoning.

_Symptoms._—The cat seems in pain, and makes ineffectual attempts to
pass its urine; it strains to no purpose; it seems restless, getting
up, lying down, rolling on its side, swishing its tail, looking
towards its side, and crying. After a time the animal becomes drowsy
and indifferent. If the abdomen is manipulated, the bladder will be
felt to be distended, hard, and painful.

_Treatment._—The only rational treatment is to remove the obstruction
and pass the catheter immediately, a special silver catheter, half the
size of the smallest human catheter, being required for this purpose.
If the urine is bloody, it may be necessary to wash out the bladder
with a warm solution of boracic acid and alkalis and sedatives, but no
meat or meat extracts should be given.

DISEASES OF AIR PASSAGES AND LUNGS.

=A Common Cold=, or coryza, or acute nasal catarrh, or cold in the
head, is caused by exposing the cat to the inclement weather, or
washing it and not thoroughly drying afterwards. It may also be due to
the irritating vapours of chloroform or ether used by inhalation to
produce anæsthesia. Letting a cat out in the cold and wet after it has
been used to a warm, dry dwelling sometimes results in a cold. It is
not contagious, but is frequently mistaken for distemper.

_Symptoms._—There is frequent sneezing, and sometimes a cough; a clear
watery discharge trickles from the corner of the eyelids and nostrils.
After a time this discharge becomes gluey, thick, and yellowish or
greenish; the eyelids become partially closed, and the haw protrudes
over the front of the eyeball; food is refused, or sparingly eaten;
the fur is dull and open; warm or dark corners are sought for; the
animal trembles and seems miserable. If the throat is sore, there is a
cough; the breathing is wheezy, and a discharge may issue from the
angles of the mouth. These symptoms generally pass away in a few days.

_Treatment._—Where many cats are kept, an animal suffering from “a
cold” should be isolated from the rest as soon as possible, as it is
difficult to distinguish a simple case of “catarrh” from the early
stage of a case of distemper. A warm place, well ventilated, but free
from draughts, is essential.

Raw meat, scraped and given three times a day, is the best diet. Fish,
milk, bread and milk, or rice-pudding should be offered.

A small pilule of half a grain of quinine sulphate should be dropped
at the back of the mouth three times a day. The nostrils and eyelids
should be sponged with a warm solution of boric acid, containing eight
grains to the ounce of water, and afterwards smeared with a little
white vaseline three times a day. Sanitas or turpentine should be
sprinkled on the floor of the room. Great relief is often given by
inhaling the fumes of eucalyptus oil dropped into a jug of boiling
water.

=Chronic Nasal Catarrh=, sometimes called “feline glanders,” differs
from the preceding complaint, inasmuch as it runs a longer and more
persistent course; it may, however, follow on simple catarrh which has
been neglected. Distemper is one of the commonest causes of it, but it
is also seen after diphtheria. It may occur as a symptom of
tuberculosis, foreign bodies in the nasal channels, malignant growths,
such as sarcoma or cancer attacking the turbinated bones, diseased
bone, or teeth, etc.

When neglected, it may last for months or even years, and is
frequently incurable.

_Symptoms._—There is a persistent gluey, odourless, or sometimes fœtid
discharge either of a gelatinous or yellowish appearance, with or
without streaks of blood from the nostrils, the outsides of which are
sometimes ulcerated. The throat may be swollen; the appetite and
general condition of the animal are often preserved. Sometimes there
is an abscess in the inner corner of the eye.

_Treatment._—In those cases that are due to malignant tumours or
tuberculosis, and, in consequence, incurable, merciful destruction of
the animal is called for. If due to foreign bodies—as fish-bones,
pieces of grass, or food, or to diseased teeth—they should be removed.

Syringing the nostrils, so as to wash the diseased lining membrane of
the nasal channels, with some mild antiseptic is the only means to
insure success. The mode of procedure is this: A skilled assistant
must firmly secure the animal between his hands—that is, he holds the
limbs firmly—then the operator grasps the head with his left hand,
taking care to keep the mouth shut by means of the thumb and index
finger, and steadies it on the table; and with the right hand he
carefully and gently passes the pipe of the syringe up one of the
nasal channels and then presses out the fluid. When this is finished,
the other nostril is served the same.

The following is a suitable formula for the solution to be injected:—

Alum 30 grains.
Boric Acid 2 drachms.
Liquid Extract of Hydrastis 2 „
Warm Water ½ pint.

This should be used every other day until some benefit is derived from
it. If the disease is not amenable after a fortnight’s adoption of
this treatment, the following should be substituted:—

Tincture of Iodine (B. P.) 10 minims.
Glycerine 6 ounces.
Warm Water 1 ounce.

Pills of iron, quinine, arsenic, and such-like, as well as plenty of
flesh food along with cod-liver oil, should be given. Fresh air is
invigorating, and a change to the seaside sometimes does miracles.
Eucalyptus sprinkled about the cat’s box is useful, because it acts
not only as an antiseptic, but as a stimulant to the mucous membrane
of the nostrils.

=Bronchitis=, or inflammation of the bronchial or air tubes, may occur
as a sequel to catarrh or during its course, and may also accompany
distemper. It is also due to small worms in the tubes; washing
followed by exposure to draughts; medicine, especially light powders,
going down the windpipe, etc. It is frequently due to tuberculosis.

_Symptoms._—There is a frequent cough, the breathing is wheezy, and
sometimes quickened or difficult. The desire for warmth is great;
there is shivering, and perhaps a discharge from the eyes and nose. On
listening to the chest by means of the stethoscope, wheezing or
hissing or bubbling sounds will be heard.

_Treatment._—The animal should be kept in a constant temperature of
60° F., and have warm milk and beef administered to it. The throat and
sides should be rubbed with oil of mustard. Inhalations of steam are
useful when expectoration seems difficult. Kermes mineral (two grains)
and powdered squill (one grain) should be given.

=Pneumonia=, or inflammation of the substance of the lungs, may be due
to various causes, such as exposure to cold, chills after washing,
medicines passing down the windpipe, foreign bodies, blood-poisoning,
small worms, and principally distemper or tuberculosis. It may be
associated with pleurisy or bronchitis, and is then termed
pleuropneumonia or bronchopneumonia respectively; and also sometimes
with a purulent collection or tuberculosis, and then it receives the
names septic pneumonia or tubercular pneumonia, or phthisis.

_Symptoms._—At first there is intense shivering, a great desire for
warmth, loss of appetite, dull appearance, dull cough, sickness,
difficulty of breathing, which after some days becomes laboured or
panting. On auscultation of the chest the characteristic sounds may be
heard. At first fine crepitations, then a day or two after the tubular
or blowing sounds, and when convalescence sets in the fine crackling
or crepitating sounds are heard again. The cough becomes more frequent
and the appetite increases. On the other hand, if there be no
improvement, the coat becomes dull and open, the eyes sunken, and the
pupils dilated; the flanks move up and down like a pump-handle, and
the breath becomes fœtid; food is totally refused, and diarrhœa sets
in, a fatal termination is to be anticipated.

_Treatment._—The animal should be kept in a temperature of 60° F., and
fresh air, but no draughts, allowed. The sides are to be rubbed with
oil of mustard, or painted with tincture of iodine, or an ointment
composed of one part of tartar emetic to eight of lard. Quinine
sulphate, ½ grain; alcoholic extract of nux vomica, ¹⁄₁₆ grain; and
extract of digitalis, ⅛ grain, in a pill, may be administered every
four hours, and nourishing food given. In the case of tubercular
pneumonia, which is generally chronic, the animal should be destroyed.

=Pleurisy=, or inflammation of the covering of the lungs or internal
lining of the chest cavity, in the cat as well as in the dog, is
chiefly due to tuberculosis. It may, however, result from pneumonia,
abscess in the lung, cancer, parasites, injuries, foreign bodies,
gunshot wounds, cold, etc. It is generally accompanied with a dirty
sanious, or clear amber-tinted, or port-wine-coloured fluid, sometimes
containing yellowish white strings of lymph floating in it in the
chest cavity. One or both sides may be affected. It is usually fatal.

_Symptoms._—The cat has an anxious, painful facial expression, and
moans, or rather grunts, and sometimes attempts to bite when the chest
is touched or made to move; the abdomen is retracted, and the
breathing, which is short and jerky, seems to be performed by the
flanks. There is a slight or suppressed cough, but this is often
absent. The animal wastes away, the coat becomes dull and open and
lustreless, and the hairs are easily pulled out. The creature hides
under the furniture and refuses its food, and when a fatal termination
is at hand, the flanks move up and down like a pump-handle, the
breathing becomes difficult and suffocative, the mouth, which is
offensive, being opened at every inspiratory and expiratory effort;
the tongue becomes purplish, the elbows turn out, the cat assumes a
squatting position on all fours, and a fœtid diarrhœa sets in.

_Treatment._—Although generally fatal, treatment may be desired to be
attempted. The chest should be painted with tincture of iodine or oil
of mustard; if there be much pain, a hypodermic injection of morphine
will prove useful, and a pill composed of ¼ grain powdered digitalis
leaves, ½ grain sulphate of quinine, and 1 grain of iodide of
potassium, administered three times a day. When the breathing becomes
difficult in consequence of the accumulation of fluid in the chest
cavity, it may be deemed advisable to draw the fluid off by means of a
trocar. Nourishing liquid food, such as milk, Mosquera’s beef jelly,
or eggs, should be given, little and often.

DISTEMPER.

Distemper is a contagious, inoculable fever, due to a specific microbe
(the cocco-bacillus, or pasteurella of Lignières), and is similar, if
not identical, to that causing distemper in the dog. Krajewsky,
Laosson, Lignières, and others have experimentally demonstrated its
identity, but I have never observed the cat naturally giving the dog
distemper, nor _vice versâ_, and I believe this is the experience of
most veterinary surgeons in this country.

The microbe of distemper—which belongs to the same class of
micro-organisms, the pasteurella, that causes influenza in the horse,
fowl cholera, swine-fever, guineapig distemper, etc.—is generally
found in the blood, which it alters to such a degree as to make so
profound an impression on the system as to diminish its natural
resistance to the ordinary germs, which become, in consequence,
increased in virulence, and cause the various phenomena by which we
know the disease. It is difficult to detect in the body after about a
week.

The disease varies in severity according to the degree of virulence of
the microbe. If this is very virulent, it causes a _very acute_ or
_septic disease_, as is observed in the typhus or gastro-enteric
outbreak, which kills off a large number of animals within a few days
or even hours. If it is of a milder strength, we get the _subacute
form with localisations_, such as we usually see in distemper. There
is also a _chronic form_, which lasts a long time, and which tries the
patience of the owner as well as the vitality of the sufferer.
Finally, a _chronic wasting_ or _cachectic form_ is sometimes
observed; it resembles the “going light” in birds and other animals,
and may be mistaken for starvation, which it simulates very much.

The microbe may exist in a healthy cat’s body for weeks without
causing it any disturbance until, perhaps, the animal catches cold, or
is depressed in some other manner. However, an apparently healthy
animal with this microbe in it may be infective for other cats.