Chapter XII: The Ezra Apocalypse (1)

(2 (4) Esdras)

[LITERATURE.—Volkmar, _Das Vierte Buch Esra_ (1863); Drummond,
_The Jewish Messiah_ (1877); Lupton, in Wace (1888); Kabisch,
_Das vierte Buch Esra auf seine Quellen untersucht_ (1889);
Schürer, _Op. cit._, II, iii. pp. 93-114 (1891) German ed. III.
pp. 315-335 (1909); Ball, in _The Variorum Apocrypha_; Bensly
and James, _The Fourth Book of Ezra; the Latin Version edited
from the MSS._, in “Texts and Studies,” III, 2 (1895); Charles,
_The Apocalypse of Baruch_, pp. lxvii.-lxxvi (1896); Gunkel, in
Kautzsch, II, pp. 331-401; Violet, _Die Esra-Apokalypse_ (4 Esra)
(1910 ...); Box, _The Ezra-Apocalypse_ (1912); Box, in Charles,
II, pp. 542-624.]

I. THE TITLE OF THE BOOK

As we shall see, chapters i. ii. xv. xvi. did not originally belong to our book and are only found in the Latin Version (the Greek Version is not extant). In the oriental Versions (Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic, Armenian) the book consists of only chapters iii.-xiv. In the later Latin MSS. we often find that: “2 Esdras” = chapters i. ii., “3 Esdras” = 1 Esdras of our Apocrypha, “4 Esdras” = chapters iii.-xiv., and “5 Esdras” = chapters xv. xvi. of our book. The reason, therefore, why the book is often referred to as 2 (4) Esdras is because what in our Apocrypha is designated “2 Esdras” is in the Vulgate entitled “4 Esdras.”[535]

The book is a pseudepigraph,[536] for although the name of Esdras (Ezra) occurs in the title, it is obvious, as will be seen as we proceed, that no part of the book can have been written by him. For the reason of such false ascriptions of authorship, see above, pp. 200 ff.

Since the book consists of three independent writings it will be necessary to consider each separately. We shall deal with the two later additions first.

II. CHAPTERS i. ii.

These chapters, which tell how Ezra received the commission to declare to the Jews their rejection by God, contains a curious mixture of Jewish and Christian teaching; i. 4-27 speaks of the deliverance from Egypt and the wanderings in the wilderness somewhat after the manner of Psalm cvi. A number of other passages suggest a mental atmosphere which is Jewish, notably i. 38-40, where it is said that “a people that come from the east” will have for their leaders the patriarchs and the prophets; the enumeration which follows includes the names of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and those of the twelve minor prophets. In another passage (i. 8) evil is threatened against the Jews because they have been disobedient to the Law. On the other hand, these chapters plainly tell of the rejection of the nation as a whole, e.g. i. 7: “Let them be scattered abroad among the heathen, let their names be blotted out of the earth; for they have despised my covenant”; their heritage is to be given to others who have now become the people of God: “Tell my people that I will give them the kingdom of Jerusalem, which I would have given unto Israel.” This “kingdom of Jerusalem” is the “new Jerusalem,” as is clear from the concluding verses of the whole piece (ii. 42-48): “I, Esdras, saw upon the mount Sion a great multitude, whom I could not number, and they all praised the Lord with songs. And in the midst of them there was a young man of a high stature, taller than all the rest, and upon every one of their heads he set crowns.... Then said I unto the angel: ‘What young man is he that setteth crowns upon them, and giveth them palms in their hands?’ So he answered and said unto me: ‘It is the Son of God, Whom they have confessed in the world.’...” There are, moreover, a number of passages which are obviously based upon words in the Gospels, e.g.: “I gathered you together as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings” (i. 30, cp. Matt, xxiii. 37); “I sent unto you my servants the prophets, whom ye have taken and slain, and torn their bodies in pieces, whose blood I will require [of your hands]” (i. 32, cp. Luke xi. 50, 51); “Ask, and ye shall receive; pray for few days unto you, that they may be shortened; the kingdom is already prepared for you; watch” (ii. 13, cp. Matt. vii. 7, xxiv. 22, xxv. 13, 32).

It seems, therefore, probable, that these chapters were written by a Jewish-Christian, who compiled them from various sources. They are a later addition to the body of the book, though they contain material which is older. It is impossible to say when they were added, but there can be no doubt that they were prefixed before chapters xv. xvi. were added.

III. CHAPTERS xv. xvi.

These chapters form an appendix to the book itself; they consist of denunciations against Egypt (xv. 5-27), Asia and Babylon (xv. 28-xvi. 17); while the remaining section, “The beginning of sorrows” (xvi. 18-78) is a prophecy of terrors and tribulation which are to come upon the world; only the Lord’s elect shall ultimately be delivered. The entire section is written in the style of the Old Testament prophets, interspersed, however, with words and thoughts from the New Testament; e.g.: “... he that occupieth merchandize, (let him be) as he that hath no profit by it; and he that buildeth, as he that shall not dwell therein; he that soweth, as if he should not reap; so also he that pruneth, as he that shall not gather grapes; they that marry, as they that shall get no children; and they that marry not, as the widowed” (xvi. 41-44, cp. 1 Cor. vii. 29-31).

The chapters, therefore, partake to some extent of the character of chapters i. ii., though the denunciation of the Jewish nation is here quite absent. As to their date, Thackeray, following Hilgenfeld (_Messias Judæorum_, p. 208) says they are placed “about A.D. 268 by most critics; xv. 10-12 refers to the troubles of Alexandria under Gallienus (260-268), when two-thirds of the population were destroyed by a plague following upon a famine (Eusebius, _Hist. Eccles._, vii. 21, 22). xv. 28-33 refers to the conquests of the Sassanidæ, especially Sapor I (240-273), who overran Syria, but was repulsed by Odenathus and Zenobia, the founders of Palmyra; they, in turn, were defeated by Aurelian. xv. 33 describes the murder of Odenathus at Emesa (266) by his cousin Mæonius. xv. 34 ff. refer to the invasion of Asia Minor by the Goths and Scythians from the north of the Euxine; Gallienus marched against them, but was recalled by the revolt of Aureolus. xv. 46 alludes to the association of Odenathus in the Empire, A.D. 264.”[537]

IV. THE COMPONENT PARTS OF CHAPTERS iii.-xiv.

Before we come to consider the contents of the various sections composing our book it will be well to enumerate them, and to discuss shortly the question of their authorship and date.

(_a_) _The Salathiel Apocalypse_ (iii.-x.); this is divided into four Visions:

First Vision, iii. 1-v. 20.
Second Vision, v. 21-vi. 34.
Third Vision, vi. 35-ix. 25.
Fourth Vision, ix. 26-x. 59.

(_b_) _The Eagle Vision_ (xi.-xii. 39); the passage xii. 40-51 is not part of the Vision.

(_c_) _The Vision of the Man rising from the Sea_ (xiii.).

(_d_) _An Ezra Legend_ (xiv.).

Whether all this matter is to be assigned to one or more authors is a question concerning which a variety of opinions are held by scholars. But on two points there is scarcely room for diversity of view; in the first place, a great deal that occurs in the book is traditional material which has been utilized by the writer; this applies more especially to the eschatological portions; examples will be given when we come to speak about these parts of the book. The sources whence the writer of our book took this traditional material may well have been, in all probability were, written ones; but the excerpts which were made from such writings have been so interwoven with what the writer himself composed that the attempt to indicate precisely how much belongs to a particular source seems to us somewhat precarious. At any rate, that the writer did utilize various sources will not be doubted. Another point upon which there can scarcely be disagreement is that the final form of the work is due to a redactor who has brought the component parts of the book into a more or less connected whole.

Coming now to speak of the date of the book it must be explained that by this is meant the date at which the author wrote it. Since he used traditional material much of the essence of the book goes back to a time long anterior to that of the writer. Again, the book in its present form, having been worked over by a redactor, is obviously of a later date than that in which it left the original writer’s hands. Furthermore, the study of the book makes it evident that the different parts of which it is composed were not all written at the same time. Even if the whole book (apart from i. ii. xv. xvi.) is substantially the work of one author, there is no sort of doubt that he must have written the different parts of it at different times. Bearing these points in mind we turn first to the _Salathiel Apocalypse_. In iii. 1 it is said that “in the thirtieth year after the ruin of the city” (cp. iii. 29), Salathiel (= Shealtiel) was in Babylon, and “thoughts came up over his heart for he saw the desolation of Sion.” The writer looks back and recalls to his mind the terrible catastrophe which befel his people long ago; it was in the year B.C. 586 that Jerusalem was destroyed and the nation was carried into captivity to Babylon. Thirty years after this Salathiel, living in captivity, contemplated the ruin of the city and the dire distress of his people. The writer chooses this episode and writes in the name of Salathiel, because he sees in it a type of his present experience; now again the city has been ruined, and he, like Salathiel of old, contemplates the desolation of his people. Clearly enough there is but one destruction, after that of B.C. 586, of Jerusalem which can be meant here, namely that of A.D. 70 by Titus. So that when the writer gives the thirtieth year after the ruin of the city as that in which he experienced the visions he is about to describe, the date of this portion of the book must be set down as not later than A.D. 100.

Regarding the date of the Eagle Vision, it is generally agreed to be about A.D. 96; the indications of date in the Vision are fairly clear; we shall point out what these are when dealing with this Vision.

The Vision of the Man rising from the Sea contains more of traditional elements than any other part of the book, so that as for as thought and conceptions are concerned it is probably the oldest portion of the whole book; but as adapted by our author it implies, as we shall see later, an historical situation prior to the destruction of Jerusalem i.e. before, but not long before, A.D. 70. The Ezra Legend in chapter xiv. belongs to the same period as the Salathiel Apocalypse, viz. about A.D. 100.

We shall now proceed to examine the contents and teaching of these Visions, and it will be best to take them in their chronological order.

V. THE VISION OF THE MAN RISING FROM THE SEA.

This Vision is as follows[538]:

And it came to pass after seven days that I dreamed a dream by
night; and, behold, a wind arose from the sea, and it stirred
up all the waves thereof. And I looked, and behold [that wind
caused to arise up from the heart of the sea as it were the
form of a man. And I looked, and behold], that man flew with
the clouds of Heaven; and whithersoever he turned his face and
looked, everything quaked that was seen by him; and whithersoever
the voice from his mouth went, all that heard his voice melted
away,[539] like as wax melteth away when it feeleth the fire.
And after this I looked, and behold, a multitude of men, without
number, from the four winds of Heaven, were gathered together to
war against the man who had arisen from the sea. And I looked,
and behold, he cut out for himself a great mountain, and did
fly upon it. But I sought to see the region of the place out
of which the mountain had been cut; but I could not. And after
this, I looked, and behold, all those who had gathered together
against him to make war upon him, feared greatly; nevertheless
they dared to fight. And behold, when he saw the onslaught of
the approaching multitude, he neither raised his hand, nor took
hold of spear or other warlike weapon; but I only saw how he sent
forth from his mouth as it were a fiery stream, and from his
lips a flaming breath, and from his tongue he shot forth a storm
of sparks; and all these were mixed together, the fiery stream
and the flaming breath and the mighty storm.[540] And these fell
upon the approaching multitude, ready to fight, and burned them
all, so that suddenly nothing was seen of the immense multitude
but the dust of ashes and the smell of smoke. And I looked, and
was amazed. And after this I saw that man coming down from the
mountain and calling unto himself another, a peaceful, multitude.
And there drew unto him the faces of many men, some of whom were
glad, and some were sorrowful, and some were bound, and some were
leading others who were to be offered.

The writer’s interpretation of this Vision with which the rest of the chapter is taken up, is as follows: The man who ascended from the sea and flew with the clouds of Heaven is the Messiah; the innumerable multitude of men who fight against him, and who are annihilated, are the nations of the world; the great mountain which was cut out, and concerning which the seer was in perplexity, is the heavenly Jerusalem which came down from Heaven. The fiery stream, and flaming breath, and storm of sparks represent the fire of the Law whereby the enemies of the Messiah are annihilated. The peaceful multitude which the Messiah called unto himself are the ten tribes gathered out of the lands of the Dispersion. Those who were glad and those who were sorrowful are respectively Jews and Gentiles coming to do homage to the Messiah. Those who were bound were Jews who had been in captivity; while those who were leading others to be offered, were the heathen bringing Jews as an oblation to the Messiah, according to the word of the prophet: “And they shall bring all your brethren out of all the nations to be an oblation to Jehovah” (Isa. lxvi. 20).

Stress must be laid upon the fact that between the Vision itself and the writer’s explanation of it there are some incongruities; this, as Box truly points out (_Op. cit._, pp. 281 f.), “is a common phenomenon in apocalyptic; the material employed by the apocalyptists is often extremely old, and has been derived by the apocalyptic writer from a tradition which was already ancient when he wrote. The meaning of certain details in the fixed tradition which he uses is not always clear to the apocalyptic writer himself. Hence the lack of adjustment between certain features in the Vision and the interpretation.... Thus, here the rising of the man from the sea is explained (verse 52) as symbolical of the mysterious origin of the Messiah (_My Son_), and the peaceable multitude as the lost ten tribes. There are also features in the interpretation which have nothing corresponding to them in the Vision itself, viz., the internecine war of the nations before they band themselves together against the Messiah (verses 31 f.), and the mention of the survivors who are found ‘within my holy border,’ and whom the Messiah shall defend (verses 48, 49).... Thus the first point to be noted is that when the Vision first assumed a written form, the real significance of many features in the original Vision was already lost, and was obscured by a more or less artificially adjusted interpretation. In other words, religious thought and outlook had long outgrown those of the fixed tradition. It had become necessary to re-interpret the latter to suit later conditions.” What the Vision and many of its curious details really mean is an intricate, but very interesting, question; we cannot, however, deal with this here, and must direct those who desire further information on the subject to the following works: Gunkel, _Chaos und Schöpfung in Urzeit und Endzeit_, pp. 64 ff. (1895); Volz, _Jüdische Eschatologie_, pp. 220 ff. (1903); Gressmann, _Der Ursprung der israelitisch-jüdischen Eschatologie_, pp. 349 ff.; Oesterley, _The Evolution of the Messianic Idea_, passim (1908); Box, _Op. cit._, pp. 282 ff.

VI. THE EAGLE VISION

This Vision is too long to quote in full, but, put shortly, its contents are as follows: In his vision the seer sees an eagle ascending out of the sea, having twelve wings and three heads. The eagle spreads her wings over all the earth, and the winds of heaven blow upon her. Out of her wings eight smaller wings grow; but her heads remain at rest. The middle head was greater than the others, “yet rested it with them.” Then the eagle flew to reign over the earth, and all the earth was subject unto her. And the seer heard the eagle bid her wings not all to watch at once, but each in turn; “but let the heads be kept until the end.” The voice which the seer heard came not from the heads, but from the midst of the eagle’s body. Then arose on the right side of the eagle one wing which reigned over the earth, and then disappeared; likewise a second wing arose, and reigned for long, then disappeared; but concerning this second wing a voice declared that after it none should reign even half as long. All the wings in turn arose, reigned, and then appeared no more. And now the seer sees the little wings set up, on the right side, in order to reign; some ruled, but disappeared almost at once, others rose up as though to rule, but did not. Nothing remained now on the eagle’s body but the three heads that rested, and six little wings. Two of these latter divided themselves from the rest and remained under the head that was upon the right side, the other four remained where they were. Of these four one assayed to reign, but quickly disappeared, then another vanished even more quickly; before the other two could arise to reign the middle head awoke and united itself to the other two heads which it then devoured. This head then ruled over all the earth with much oppression; but, like the wings, it, too, suddenly disappeared. There remained, however, the two heads, who also reigned over the earth; but presently that on the right side devoured that on the left. “Then,” the seer proceeds, “I heard a voice, which said unto me, Look before thee, and consider the thing that thou seest.” And he sees a lion which comes, roaring, out of a wood, and, speaking with the voice of a man, upbraids the eagle for her cruel oppression, and announces her approaching destruction, saying: “Therefore appear no more, thou eagle, nor thy horrible wings, nor thy evil little wings, nor thy cruel heads, nor thy hurtful talons, nor all thy worthless body; that all the earth may be refreshed, being delivered from thy violence, and may hope for judgement and mercy of him that made her.” While the lion spoke thus with the eagle the last head disappeared; and the two little wings which had detached themselves and had gone over to it, arose and sought to reign, but “their kingdom was small and full of uproar,” and they soon disappeared. “Then the whole body of the eagle was burned, so that the earth was in great fear.”

Thus the Vision; then follows the interpretation. The eagle who arose from the sea, he is told, “is the fourth kingdom which appeared in vision to thy brother Daniel.” In this kingdom twelve kings shall reign; these are represented by the twelve wings. Of these kings the second shall reign longer than any of the others. The eight smaller wings represented eight kings “whose times shall be small, and their years swift”; two of them shall perish when the “middle time” of the kingdom comes, four shall be preserved until the approach of the end, and two shall be kept until the end. The interpretation of the three heads as given to the seer is that in the last days of the kingdom the Most High will raise up three kings, who will renew many things in the kingdom, and bear tyrannous rule. “And whereas thou sawest that the great head appeared no more, it signifieth that one of them shall die upon his bed, and yet with pain. But for the two that remained, the sword shall devour them” (xii. 26, 27). The two wings that detached themselves and went to the head on the right are reserved for the end; for a short time they shall reign after the last head has disappeared, but their reign shall be troublous. The voice proceeding from “the midst of the body” means that “in the midst of the time of that kingdom” there shall arise “no small contentions, and it shall stand in peril of falling; nevertheless it shall not then fall, but shall be restored again to its first estate” (xii. 18). Finally, the lion is the “anointed one,” i.e. the Messiah, Whom the Most High has kept to the end of days.

The Vision represents history veiled in symbolical garb; as in the Vision of the Man rising from the sea, the seer’s interpretation does not always harmonize with the contents of the Vision itself; this is to be accounted for by the fact that a redactor made alterations in order to bring the Vision into agreement with the course of history as viewed from his, chronologically later, standpoint. As to the meaning of the general historical outline of which the Vision treats most scholars are agreed, but they differ as to details. The following table shows, in the main, the bulk of learned opinion (cp. Gunkel, _Op. cit._, p. 345):

_The Eagle_ = The Roman Empire, the eagle being the military
emblem of Rome.

_The Sea_ = The Mediterranean sea; the Roman Empire, “for the
Orientals, came up, as a matter of historical fact, from the sea,
and it is this fact which is doubtless in the apocalyptist’s
thought here” (Box).

_The Twelve Wings_ = Julius Cæsar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula,
Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vindex, Nymphidius, Piso.
The second wing, mentioned in xi. 13-17, “which bare rule a great
time,” symbolizes Augustus, who reigned for over fifty years.

_The three heads_ Vespasian, Titus, Domitian; the middle head
which is greater than the two others symbolizes Vespasian.

_The eight smaller wings_ = ?

_The two little wings_ (xi. 24) = Mucianus, proconsul of Syria,
and Tiberius Alexander, prefect of Egypt, according to Gunkel;
but he says that this interpretation is uncertain. These two
little wings are said to have remained under the head that was
upon the right side; this head symbolizes Domitian.

_The two heads that remained_ (xi. 34, 35) = Domitian and Titus,
the latter is said to have been murdered by the former.

That this interpretation is not in all points satisfactory becomes clear as soon as it is studied in detail, and the same applies to other interpretations that have been offered; but recently a new solution has been put forth by Box which merits attention; we will give it in his own words (_Op. cit._, p. 265):

“It may be assumed that in the original form of the vision[541] the three heads represent the three Flavian emperors; the twelve wings represent the six Julian emperors from Cæsar to Nero, reckoning the wings by pairs. The present writer suggests that the reckoning by pairs in the original vision was intended only to apply to the twelve wings, and had a symbolical significance. The pairs served to emphasize the greater dignity and power of the real emperors as contrasted with the ephemeral rulers symbolized by the little wings. In order to exaggerate the contrast the latter were intended to be reckoned singly. The eight little wings represent, in the original form of the vision, Vindex (March, 68), Nymphidius (a few months later)—these disappeared about the same time as the last of the twelve wings (end of Nero’s reign), as represented in our text (xi. 22). The middle four represent Galba, Otho, Civitis (died June, 69), and Vitellius (died Dec., 69). The two little wings that were to survive the last head probably signify Roman governors or generals who were expected to claim the imperial throne at the last, or possibly the two last members of the Herodian family, Agrippa II and Berenice.... In its original form, then, the vision may date from the closing years of Domitian’s reign (_circa_ 95 A.D.). But if the editor did not incorporate it into his book—our Ezra-Apocalypse—till 120 A.D. or later (some time certainly in the reign of Hadrian), what, it may well be asked, was the significance he himself attached to the vision? He can no longer have identified the three heads with the Flavian emperors, seeing that the reigns of these had already long ended and the predicted deliverance had not yet come.” Box holds that the Redactor identified the three heads with Trajan, Hadrian and Lucius Quietus, the last of these being a favourite of Trajan and regarded as destined for the throne. Further, according to Box’s interpretation, the Redactor put a new meaning on to the “twelve wings,” these being symbolic of the six Julian emperors, Galba, Otho and Vitellius, together with the three Flavian emperors. There is much to be said in favour of this hypothesis, though it will not be denied that some difficulties still remain.[542]

VII. THE SALATHIEL APOCALYPSE

This portion of our book, of which it forms the bulk, is of a very different character from those already considered. It consists of four Visions. We retain the term “Vision,” as it is that usually adopted, but they are rather _Dialogues_; the writer addresses God, but is answered by an angel. The questions put by the former are prompted by moral difficulties which trouble him; the answers are intended to solve these difficulties.

_The First Vision_ (iii. 1-v. 19).

Salathiel, “the same is Esdras,” sees the desolation of Sion, and the prosperity of Babylon. This incongruousness between the adversity of God’s chosen people and the prosperity of the godless Gentiles causes perplexity to the mind of the seer, and prompts him “to speak words full of fear to the Most High.” In the thoughts which follow it is noticeable, first of all, that the writer expresses a sense of sin which was deeper than that of the traditional Jewish teaching on the subject. Hitherto the tendency had been to regard transgressions solely from the point of view of isolated acts; but here the conviction is implied that such isolated sinful acts are symptomatic of something far worse than temporary lapses would lead one to suppose; from Adam onwards, it is now taught, the whole human race has been steeped in sin; the existence not merely of sinful men but of sinful humanity—the realization of this fact is what plunges the writer into dark despair. Hence the sorrow and suffering in the world: “For the first Adam, clothing himself with a wicked heart, transgressed and was overcome; and not he only, but all they also who were born of him. Thus disease was made permanent” (iii. 21, 22); there is no hope in this world. Then a further thought comes into the writer’s mind; sin is everywhere prevalent, but how is it that while Israel suffers for sin the Gentiles are in such prosperity? Nay, more, is there any other nation that knows God besides Israel? And yet Israel is not rewarded! Let God, therefore, weigh the sins of each in the balance. All men sin; yet assuredly Israel, if not better, is not worse than the Gentiles; nevertheless, these prosper, but Israel languishes. Then comes God’s answer, given by the angel Uriel; it takes the form of calling upon the seer to do three things:

“Weigh me the weight of fire.”
“Measure me the measure of the wind.”
“Recall me the day that is past.”

But Esdras answers, who among the sons of man could do such things! Then the angel says, if I had asked thee how many dwellings there are in the heart of the sea, or how many springs in the source of the deep, or how many ways above the firmament, or where is the entrance to Hades, or the way to Paradise—with reason thou wouldst have been unable to say; but I have asked thee only concerning things within thine own cognizance, and thou canst give me no answer! Then the angel concludes: “Thine own things, that are grown up with thee, canst thou not know; how then can thy vessel [i.e. the body; containing the soul] comprehend the way of the Most High” (iv. 10, 11). In other words, God’s ways are inscrutable. This does not satisfy Esdras; so the angel proceeds to show him how foolish it is for a mortal man to wish to penetrate into the divine secrets; he would, in any case, be unable to understand them; “he only that dwelleth above the heavens may understand the things that are above the height of the heavens” (iv. 21). To this Esdras protests that it was not in his mind “to be curious of the ways above,” but only concerning such things as he sees daily before him. What he is unable to understand—and here he reverts to his initial difficulty—is why Israel should be afflicted, and in consequence the Law made of none effect. Then he is told that a New Age is about to dawn upon the world, and then all things will be made clear. On Esdras asking when the New Age will come, and whether he will still be on the earth then, the angel answers that he is unable to tell; but he recounts the signs that are to precede the end. These are given in v. 1-12; they are, in the main, the traditional and stereotyped eschatological “signs.” Thus ends the first Vision.

_The Second Vision_ (v. 21-vi. 34).

The subject-matter of this Vision is the same as that of the preceding. Why does Israel suffer at the hand of oppressors? The angel replies by again showing Esdras that the ways of God cannot be comprehended by man, but that in spite of what appears God’s love is for His people. The seer then asks much about the coming of the End, and is told that this will be brought about by God alone.[543] The Vision concludes with a second enumeration of the signs of the End.

_The Third Vision_ (vi. 35-ix. 25).

Once more the problem which was the burden of the two first Visions is reiterated, though put in a somewhat different form: if the world was created for Israel’s sake, and if the world is steeped in sin, why does Israel not enjoy his inheritance, why is the world not subjected to Israel? “If the world hath indeed been created for our sakes, why do we not possess the world for our inheritance? How long shall this endure?” (vi. 59). The angel tells Esdras that this present world is but a narrow and dangerous entrance which leads to the wide world which is to come; it was, indeed, originally created for Israel, but through Adam’s sin it has become a place of sorrow and suffering, and therefore the righteous suffer with the wicked. There follows then (vii. 26-44) a long eschatological description which seems to have fallen out of its place, it breaks the course of the argument here. In the glorious world which is to come, it then continues, only those will be worthy to partake of its joys who have fulfilled the Law; but who has truly done so? Who among mortals, whether Jew or Gentile, has not been guilty of transgressing the divine Law? The angel answers that there are some who are righteous, but they are comparatively few; for them future joy is reserved. The rest of mankind will perish. A long section then deals with the subject of the state of the soul after death and before the last Judgement. The righteous enter into bliss, but the wicked are destined to suffer seven degrees of torment. These descriptions, as Box truly remarks (_Op. cit._, p. 141), are “psychological in character, and apparently portray the emotional experiences of the soul through which it passes during the entire period of the intermediate state. In its subtle delineation of the soul-life the whole section is remarkable, and by the elevation and refinement of its conceptions affords a striking contrast to similar descriptions in other parts of the apocalyptic literature.”

It is then shown to the seer that there is no escape for sinners, and he bitterly bewails the terrible fate hanging over the mass of humanity. But the angel has no further comfort to give than that there is more joy in heaven over the salvation of the few than sorrow over the loss of the many. Not unnaturally this reply does not satisfy the seer; he cannot think that the divine mercy and love, which are so lavishly displayed in the natural world around, should be so restricted in regard to souls hereafter. The reply to his question suggested by this thought, viz., that this world was made for the many, but the next for few, is so discouraging that he ceases to inquire concerning the human race as a whole, and restricts himself to his own race, the Jewish. But here again he is told that only the righteous, among whom he is reckoned, can enjoy felicity hereafter; he is bidden to refrain from further questionings regarding the fate of the wicked; they have but themselves to thank for their doom.[544] The seer reiterates his former objection; to this a final reply is given: All the sorrow and suffering of this world is due to the sins of men; there was a time, before men were created, when none spoke against God, or disobeyed Him; but now men are evil, and have become “corrupted in their manners” (ix. 19); only a grape from the cluster, therefore, only a plant from the great forest, shall, by God’s mercy, be saved. “Let the multitude perish then, which has been born in vain; and let my grape be saved, and my plant; for with great labour have I made them perfect” (ix. 22).

_The Fourth Vision_ (ix. 26-x. 59).

This Vision begins with a soliloquy concerning the Law which God gave to the fathers, but they did not observe it any more than later generations did; Israel must, therefore, perish; but the Law will abide in glory. In the same way, the earthly Jerusalem must perish, but the heavenly Jerusalem is eternal; upon this latter hope must be fixed, for it is to be the joy of those blessed ones who shall gain a glorious immortality in the world to come. The seer then recounts a vision that he sees of a disconsolate woman who brought up an only son, and he died on his wedding day. While the seer speaks with this woman, he looks, and behold she vanishes, and in her place “there was a city builded, and a place showed itself of large foundations” (x. 27). The woman is the heavenly Jerusalem, her son is the earthly Jerusalem. The heavenly reality is thus manifested to the seer, and he is bidden to go and see “the beauty and greatness of the building.... For thou art blessed above many, and with the Most High art called by name, like as but few” (x. 55-57).

* * * * *

In these Visions, then, it will have been noticed that the problem which figures in some of the later Psalms, and in the Book of Job, as to why the righteous suffer and the wicked are in prosperity, is reiterated; the solution given being that the righteous will come to their own when they attain immortal life hereafter. The writer is deeply pessimistic as far as this world is concerned; the universal prevalence of sin which is ingrained in humanity through the fall of Adam, and through which death, originally unnatural to man, has come into the world, compels him to look upon the ultimate fate of humanity as hopeless. Though an ardent Jew, he sees but little hope even for himself or for his own people; the divine Law itself is of no avail, for it cannot be truly observed; “he despairs of a life of absolute obedience to the Law, even by Israel, not to speak of the world. The unconscious and unexpressed cry of the book is for a moral dynamic, which legalism could not supply.”[545] There is, thus, an essential contradiction running through these Visions; on the one hand, hope in the world to come, on the other, hopelessness here and hereafter because all mankind is irretrievably lost through sin. Nothing could better illustrate those alternating emotions which incessantly stir the human heart: the voice of Conscience, and trust in the Divine Mercy. If our writer’s heart remains dark to the end, it is because his true instinct concerning sin is not balanced by an equally true conception of God. At first sight it appears illogical that, in spite of all that the writer has said, happiness hereafter should be declared to be secured for a righteous remnant, among whom he himself is included; the reason for this is, however, apparently that God’s purpose in creating man for eternal life should not be wholly frustrated.

In his eschatological teaching the writer of these Visions departs from the older doctrines; “he does not look forward to a restoration of the Jewish State, or a rebuilding of Jerusalem; nor to a renewed and purified earth under the conditions of the present world-order. His hopes are fixed on the advent of the new and better world which will follow the collapse of the present world. Consequently he anticipates merely the catastrophic end of the present world-order—his theology does not allow of any intermediate Messianic Age. The new Jerusalem which is to come will be the Heavenly City ... which belongs to the future Age.”[546]

VIII. AN EZRA LEGEND

In chapter xiv. occurs the legend of Ezra re-writing the sacred books. It tells of how Ezra, while sitting under an oak, heard the voice of God “out of a bush,” telling him that he would soon be taken away from men. He is told to set his house in order, to reprove his people, to comfort the lowly, to instruct the wise, and to renounce the life that is corruptible. Ezra expresses his readiness to do as commanded; but he asks who there will be to admonish those who are born after he is gone, for the world is in darkness and God’s Law is burnt.[547] Then Ezra himself proposes that he should re-write the Law “that men may be able to find the path, and that they who would live in the latter days may live” (xiv. 22). He is then commanded to prepare many tablets and to take five men with him who can write swiftly; “and when thou hast done, some things shalt thou publish openly, and some things shalt thou deliver in secret to the wise” (xiv. 26). Ezra does as he is commanded after having asked for the divine spirit to guide him; so that before he commences his work he is given a cup to drink from, full of water, but the colour of it like fire.[548] When he had drunk from this cup his heart poured forth understanding, and wisdom grew in his breast, and his spirit retained its memory. For forty days he dictated, and by the end of this time ninety-four books were written by the five scribes. Then he is commanded by the Most High to publish openly the first twenty-four books that had been written, so that they might be read by the worthy and the unworthy; but the last seventy he is told to keep in order to deliver them to “such as be wise” among his people. This Ezra does. Here the legend ends abruptly.

The twenty-four books refer to the canonical books of the Bible, “the seventy secret books included, we may infer, not only the book of _signs_ and the secret (apocalyptic) tradition associated with the name of Moses, but many other apocalyptic books as well.... Thus, according to the representation of our chapter, Ezra, i.e. the historical Ezra living in Jerusalem in the middle of the fifth century B.C., was the restorer not only of the canonical books of the Old Testament, but also of the large apocalyptic literature, including some apocalyptic books which detailed visions and revelations that had, ostensibly, occurred to himself.... This amounts to a claim that the apocalyptic tradition occupies an essential place in genuine Judaism. It claims for itself the great names of Moses and Ezra, ‘the second Moses.’”[549] Box suggests that the object of the publication of our book, and of associating it with the name of Ezra, was to uphold, or to re-assert, the authority of the apocalyptic literature, and thus gain for it “an officially recognized place within Judaism as part of the oral tradition.” That this was one of the objects for which the book was published seems highly probable when it is remembered that the Jewish religious authorities rejected the apocalyptic literature as a whole[550]; it was to be expected that the apocalyptists should make strenuous efforts to secure the recognition of books which, as they believed, recorded genuine tradition, and which in any case taught much that was edifying.

Like the apocalyptic literature in general, this story of a divine revelation accorded to Ezra to re-write all the sacred books which had been destroyed, enjoyed considerable recognition among the Church Fathers; it was known not only as included in our book, but as an independent tradition. For references to it in patristic writings see Bensly and James, _Op. cit._, pp. xxxvii. f.

* * * * *

Every reader of the Ezra-Apocalypse must, as he reads, be very soon struck by the many reminiscences of Pauline thought and teaching which it contains. But as the book is later than almost all the books of the New Testament this is not the place to deal with this important and fascinating subject; to those who might wish to pursue the study of the connection between 4 Esdras and Pauline teaching on such doctrines as the Fall and Sin, the Law, Election, Justification and Eschatology, etc., no better English book could be recommended than Thackeray’s _The Relation of St. Paul to Contemporary Jewish Thought_ (1900).

GENERAL INDEX

(_Pages printed in thick type indicate passages in which the subject in question is dealt with in detail._)

Aaron, 149, 150

_Abinu Malkenu_, 391

Abtinas, house of, 194

Abubus, 437

Achikar, 195

— the Wise, story of, 349 ff.

Achior, 373

Adam, 523

— and Eve, Life of, 218, 223

Adaptation of belief, 20

Additions to Daniel, =385-397=

— to Esther, =398-403=

— —, Authorship of, 403

— —, Date of, 403

Aesculapius, 396

Agrippa II, 521

Ahasuerus, 399

Akiba, Rabbi, 143, 192, 194

Alcimus, 430 f.

Alexander Balas, 419, 432

— Jannæus, 393

— the Great, 12 ff., 16, 17, 30, 33, 52, 69

— —, conquests of, 12 f., 29, 424

— —, division of his empire, 424

— Zabinas, 436

Alexandria, 17, 50, 458, 512

—, centre of Jewish Dispersion, 17

—, the Jews in, 53 f.

Allegorical interpretation of Scripture, 57

Allegorization of ancient myths, 22

Allegorizing of Greek myths, 57

Allegory, 230 f.

— in Proverbs, 72

Almsgiving, 361

—, means of atonement, 272 f.

Altars to unknown gods, 23

_Am-haarez_, 93

_Amidah_, 500 ff.

Amyrtæus, 51

Angelology in Apocalyptic Literature, 110

—, Jewish, 38, 39

— of the Essenes, =43= f.

Angels, 102

—, doctrine of, in Additions to Daniel, 301 ff.

—, —, Ecclesiasticus, 300 ff., 340

—, —, 2 (4) Esdras, 303 ff.

—, —, Esther, 302

—, —, Ep. of Jeremiah, 302

—, —, 2 Maccabees, 302 f.

—, —, Prayer of Manasses, 302

—, —, Tobit, 301

—, Sadducæan doctrine of, 147 f.

_Anima Mundi_, 86

Antiochus Epiphanes, 34, 35, 77, 134, 156, 423, 427, 481 f., 488, 493

— —, death of, 482

— —, his attempt to stamp out Judaism, 425 f.

— Eupator, 428, 432

— Sidetes, 437, 491

— the Great, 430

— VI, 420

— VII, 420

Antonines, The, 13

Apamæa, 437

Apocalypse of Moses, The, 218

Apocalyptic Movement, 40, =90-95=, 160

— —, beginnings of the, 90 ff.

— books, authorship of, 199 ff.

— —, Hebrew and Aramaic originals lost, 200

— Jewish, 90 f.

— Literature, 91, =198-223=

— —, doctrinal teaching of, =101-110=

Apocalyptic Literature, place claimed for in orthodox Judaism, 530

— — rejected by Pharisees, 199

— — teaching on Individualism, 102 f.

— — — Particularism, 103 f.

— — — Universalism, 103 f.

— —, Supernatural colouring of, 97 f.

Apocalyptists, The, =95-112=, 161, 205 f., 530

—, —, asceticism of, 101

—, —, claims of, 99

—, —, concerned with the future, 97

—, —, denunciations of, 97

—, —, determinism of, 98 f.

—, —, effects of teaching, 96 f.

—, —, inconsistency of teaching, 95 f.

—, —, loyalty to the Law, 99 f.

—, —, other-worldliness of, 99

—, —, prophets of the people, 96

—, —, religious conceptions regarding humanity, 105

—, —, their message, 96

—, —, universalistic attitude of, 101

—, —, upholders of the people’s faith, 97

Apocrypha books, dates of, 320

Apocrypha, Doctrinal teaching of the, =251-315=

—, meaning of, 183

—, traces of Greek influence in, =77-87=

Apocryphal and canonical books, 161 ff.

—, use of term, 187

—, — by Origen, 189

—, — Jerome, 191

_Apokryphos_, meaning of, 185 ff.

Apollonius, 425, 427, 434

Apollophanes, 486

_Apostolical Constitutions_, 407, 410

Apsu, 231

Arabia, 435

Aramaic _papyri_, 50 ff., 194 f., 349

— Targums, 193

—, the language of Egyptian Jews, 60

Areios, 418

Aristeas, letter of, 443

Aristotle, 15, 16, 17

Armour of God, The, 474 f.

Artaxerxes, 51, 400, 441 f., 448

Artaxerxes III (Ochus), 50

Ascalon, 30

Ascension of Isaiah, The, =219-220=

Asceticism, 344

— of the Essenes, 43

Asmodæus, 358

_Assidæans_ (see _Chassidim_), 125

Assimilation, faculty of, among the Jews, 58

Associations, religious, 23

Assouan (Syene), 58

Assumption of Moses, The, 218

Atheism, 73

Athens, 14

Athenians, 14

Atonement, death a means of, 342

Attalus II, king of Pergamum, 432

Attic Greek, 14

— ideals, 14

— sea-power, 14

Attitude towards religious beliefs, 21

Augustus, 53, 520

Aurelian, 512

Aureolus, 512

Authorship, function of, in ancient times, 200

Avesta, 133

Azariah, Prayer of, 386 ff.

—, —, when composed, 388 f.

—, —, liturgical character of, 389 f.

Azotus, 30

Babylonia, 38

Babylonian influence, 227, 231 f.

Bacchides, 430 f.

Badness of the Body, doctrine of, 84 f.

— —, Platonic doctrine of, 85

Balas, Alexander, 419, 432

Baptism of the Essenes, 45

Baruch, book of, =495-506=

—, —, _A Sage’s Words of Encouragement_ in, 303 f.

—, —, account of, 495 ff.

—, —, _Book of Confessions_ in, 497 ff.

—, —, component parts of, 497 ff.

—, —, contains liturgical material, 502 f.

—, —, contents of, 495 ff.

—, Greek Apocalypse of, 223

—, Syriac Apocalypse of, =222=

Bel and the Dragon, 386, =394 ff.=

Beliefs, intermingling of, 22

Ben-Sira, 116, 123, 124, 195

—, attitude towards Gentiles, 337 f.

—, autobiographical details, 326 f.

—, his claim to be an inspired writer, 325 f.

—, his house of instruction, 325, 328

—, his views on the sacrificial system, 339

—, his knowledge of the O.T., 324

—, his list of famous men, 165 ff.

Benedictions, 502 f.

_Bĕni Zadok_, 134, 154

_Berakah_, 500

Berenice, 521

Bethsura, 429

Bible, Hebrew, contents of, 162 ff.

—, the Greek (see Septuagint), 161

“Biblical” Greek, 15

Biography a science in the Hellenistic period for the first time, 19

Blindness, 367

Book of Jubilees, The, =216-218=

— of secret words of Moses, 218

Books, ancient Jewish, 194

—, heretical, 198

—, reading of in ancient times, 195

—, the seventy, 529

—, the twenty-four, 529

Brotherhood of man, 18

Burial of the dead, 358

Cæsarea, 30

Calendar, Jewish, Pharisaic and Sadducæan attitude towards, 150 ff.

Caligula, 460, 464, 520

Cambyses, 448

Canon, Hebrew, 162 ff.

—, Hebrew, formation of, =169-174=

—, idea of a, =161-169=

—, final fixing of, 173, =174-176=

—, meaning of the word, 162

— of Old Testament, origin of, 160 ff.

—, unknown to Ben-Sira, 167

—, — Ben-Sira’s grandson, 168 f.

Canonical and apocryphal books, 161 ff.

Canonicity, Josephus’ theory of, 171 f.

—, Rabbinical theory of, 172

Cardinal virtues, the four, 87, 458

Cendebæus, 437

Chæreas, 486

Chæronea, battle of, 14

_Chakamim_, 115, 116, 127, 233

_Chanukkah_, 428

_Chassid_, 42

_Chassidim_, 92, 93, 125 f., 203, 205, 257, 365, 427

—, creators of apocalyptic literature, 93

—, the spiritual ancestors of Pharisees and Apocalyptists, 93 ff.

Chijja, Rabbi, 194

Chislev, 490

Chlamys, 33

_Chokmah_, 233

Civitis, 521

Claudius, 520

Cleopatra, 434

Cœle-Syria, 29

Colonies, Greek-speaking, 15

Common meal of the Essenes, 45

Confession of sins, 500

Connection between _gānaz_ and _apokryphos_, 188 f.

Cosmology, Babylonian, 231

Cosmopolitanism, 18

Crete, 434

Critical faculty of the Greeks, 20

Crocodile’s liver, 367

Cup of inspiration, The, 529

Cynic philosophers, 18

Cyrus, 440

Daniel, 302

—, Additions to, =385-397=

Darius, 12, 51, 441

— II, 51

Darius’ bodyguard, story of the three young men of, 451 ff.

Dead, prayers for the, 489 f.

Death, means of atonement, 272, 342

Dedication, feast of, 428

—, 487, 490, 491 f.

Defile the hands, meaning of, 175 f., 177 ff.

Deified princes, 462 f.

Deities, national, 22

Demetrius I, 419, 429 f.

— II, 419, 433 ff.

— Nicator, 434

Demonology in Apocalyptic Literature, 110

— in Ecclesiasticus, 304

— in Tobit, 304 f.

—, Jewish, 38

_Didascalia_, 407, 410

Dispersion, The, 17, =49-54=

—, Eastern, 50

Divine Immanence, doctrine of, 57

— revelation accorded to Ezra, 530

Doctrine of God in Baruch, 258

— — 2 (4) Esdras, 258

— — 1 Maccabees, 257 f.

— — Wisdom, 259 f.

Doctrines, inter-relation of, 39

Dôk, 438

Domitian, 520

Dor, 437

Dositheus, 486

Dualism of the Essenes, 43

Ea, 231

Eagle Vision, The, 513 f., 517 ff.

Eastern Dispersion, 50

Ecclesiastes, 456 f.

—, canonicity disputed, 170

—, traces of Greek philosophy in, 74 ff.

Ecclesiasticus, an apologetic book, 327

— and the Ep. of St. James, 347 f.

—, author of, 322

—, A.V. and R.V. of, 331 ff.

—, compared with Tobit, 364 f.

—, date of, 327 f.

—, Hebrew manuscripts of, 329 f.

—, original language of, 329 f.

—, Pharisaic recension of, 333, 340 ff.

—, placed on “Index Expurgatorius,” 340

—, present form not intended to be final, 322 f.

—, Prologue to, 168 f., 459

—, Sadducæan standpoint in, 333 ff.

—, title of, 321 f.

—, traces of Greek influence in, 77 ff.

—, unity of authorship, 322

—, universalism in, 338

—, value of, for N.T. study, 345 ff.

Egypt, 12, 28

—, Jewish settlements in, 51

Ekron, 434

El, 394

Eleazar, 59

Election, 531

Elect One, The, 246

Elephantiné, 349, 353

Elephantiné _papyri_, 50 ff., 194 f.

Elijah, 289 f.

End, signs of the, 524

Enoch, the book of, =201-208=

—, —, authorship, 203 f.

—, —, component parts of, 202

—, —, dates of component parts, 202 f.

—, —, original language of, 207

—, —, teaching, 207 f.

—, Book of the Secrets of, =220-222=

Epheboi, 33

Ephraim, 435

Epicuræanism, 79, 135, 456, 460

Epicuræan teaching, 21 f.

— — on immortality, 75

— — in Ecclesiastes, 74 f.

Epicuræans not irreligious, 21

Epicuros, 21, 75

Epidaurus, 396

Epilepsy, 367

Epistle of Jeremiah, =506-508=

Eschatological signs, 524

Eschatology, Jewish, 38

Esdras, 1 (3), _see_ Greek Ezra

Essene baptism, 45

— communities, 45

—, meaning of, 42

— monotheism, 45

— teaching on the Resurrection, 44

Essenes, The, =41-46=

— and the Law of Moses, 45

—, asceticism of, 43

—, dualism of, 43

—, their angelology, 43 f.

—, their purifications, 45

—, their Sabbath observance, 45

Essenism a blending of the Mosaic and Hellenic spirit, 45

— a mystery-religion, 45

—, influence of Hellenism on, 42

—, un-Jewish in many respects, 42 ff.

Esther, 399

—, canonicity disputed, 170

Eternal seed-plant, The, 102

Ethical teaching of the Hellenistical period, 18 f.

Euergetes I, 328

— II, Physcon, 328, 422

Euhemerism, 458

Ezekiel, 31

Ezra, 28, 71, 92, 116, 118, 442, 450, 453, 529

—, divine revelation accorded to, 530

—, not mentioned in Ecclesiasticus, 340

—, opposition to, 121 f.