Chapter IV (2)

These desks evidently stood in the old library against the shafts of the roof, for one of the ends has been hollowed out in each to receive the shaft; and the finial, which is left plain on that side, is bent over slightly, to admit it under the brace (fig. 39).

As I have now described three varieties of the lectern-system, I will place before my readers, side by side, elevations of each of the three (fig. 62) drawn to the same scale. It will be seen that they resemble each other exactly in essentials. The differences observable are accidental, and may be referred to individual taste.

That this form of desk was recognised on the continent as typical of library-fittings is proved by its appearance in a French translation of the first book of the _Consolation of Philosophy_ of Boethius, which I had the good fortune to find in the British Museum[321] (fig. 63). This manuscript was written in Flanders towards the end of the fifteenth century. In such a work the library shewn requires what I may term generalised fittings. An eccentric peculiarity would have been quite inadmissible.

In the Stadtbibliothek of Nuremberg some of the oldest works on jurisprudence still preserve their chains. Each has a short chain about 12 in. long fixed on the upper edge of the left-hand board. The title is written on the middle of the upper edge of the right-hand board. It is obvious that these volumes must have lain on a desk with their titles uppermost[322].

From a MS. of a French translation of the first book of the _Consolation of Philosophy_ by Boethius: written in Flanders towards the end of the fifteenth century.]

It is probable that similar fittings were used in the library of the Sorbonne, Paris, which was first established in 1289, with books chained for the common convenience of the Fellows (_in communem sociorum utilitatem_)[323]. This library was divided into two separate collections, which formed, so to speak, two distinct libraries. The first, called the great library, or the common library, contained the books most frequently studied. They were chained, and could only be taken out under the most exceptional circumstances. A statute, dated 1321, the provisions of which recall the collegiate statutes summarised above, directed that the best book the society possessed on each subject should be thus chained. The second division of the library, called the small library, contained duplicates, books rarely consulted, and generally all those of which the loan was authorised under certain conditions[324]. The following description of this library has been given by Claude Hemere (Librarian 1638-43) in his MS. history. This I proceed to translate:

The old library was contained under one roof. It was
firmly and solidly built, and was 120 feet long by 36
feet broad.... Each side was pierced with 19 windows of
equal size, that plenty of daylight both from the east
and the west (for this was the direction of the room)
might fall upon the desks, and fill the whole length and
breadth of the library. There were 28 desks, marked with
the letters of the alphabet, five feet high, and so
arranged that they were separated by a moderate
interval. They were loaded with books, all of which were
chained, that no sacrilegious hand might [carry them
off. These chains were attached to the right-hand board
of every book] so that they might be readily thrown
aside, and reading not be interfered with. Moreover the
volumes could be opened and shut without difficulty. A
reader who sat down in the space between two desks, as
they rose to a height of five feet as I said above,
neither saw nor disturbed any one else who might be
reading or writing in another place by talking or by any
other interruption, unless the other student wished it,
or paid attention to any question that might be put to
him. It was required, by the ancient rules of the
library, that reading, writing, and handling of books
should go forward in complete silence[325].

This description indicates desks similar to those of Zutphen. Even the height is the same.

A library which vividly recalls the above account, with 19 windows on one side and probably the same number on the other, was built in 1506 for the College de Navarre, Paris, now the Ecole Polytechnique[326]. My illustration (fig. 64) is from a photograph taken shortly before its destruction in 1867. I have calculated that it was about 108 ft. long by 30 ft. wide.

The library of the College d'Autun, Paris, was similarly arranged. An inventory taken 29 July, 1462, records: "dix bancs doubles, a se seoir d'une part et d'autre, et ung poupitre; esquelz bancs et poupitre out este trouvez enchaisnez les livres qui s'ensuyvent, qui sont intitulez sur la couverture d'iceulx[327]." The catalogue enumerates 174 volumes, or rather more than 17 for each "banc" or lectern. The expression _bancs doubles_ is interesting, as it seems to imply that there were at that time libraries in which _bancs simples_ were used; that is to say, lecterns with only one sloping surface instead of two.

A study of the catalogue drawn up in 1513 for the Augustinian House of S. Victor, Paris, by Claude de Grandrue, one of the monks, shews that the same system must have been in use there. Further, his catalogue is an excellent specimen of the pains taken in a large monastery to describe the books accurately, and to provide ready access to them. A brief prefatory note informs us that the desks are arranged in three rows, and marked with a triple series of letters. The first row is marked A, B, C, etc.; the second AA, BB, etc.; the third AAA, BBB, etc. To each of these letters are appended the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, to shew the position of the required volume. For instance--to take one at random--_Abaelardi confessio_ is marked P. 13: that is, it is the thirteenth book on the desk in the first row marked P. When the catalogue proper--in which each manuscript is carefully described--was finished, the author increased its usefulness by the composition of an alphabetical index[328].

How, I shall be asked, can the form of the bookcase or desk (_pulpitum_) be inferred from this catalogue? I reply: In the first place, because there are no shelf-marks. The librarian notes the letter of the desk, and the place of each book on it, but nothing more. Secondly, because the number of manuscripts accommodated on each desk is so small. There are 50 desks, and 988 manuscripts--or, an average of little more than 19 to each. At Zutphen the average is exactly 18. This piece of evidence, however, is so important that I will give it in detail. The following table, compiled by myself from the catalogue, gives the letters used to mark the desks, and the number of manuscripts on each.

A 13 | AA 13 | AAA 15
B 21 | BB 16 | BBB 16
C 13 | CC 19 | CCC 17
D 18 | DD 18 | DDD 19
E 17 | EE 21 | EEE 17
F 20 | FF 17 | FFF 29
G 18 | GG 18 | GGG 24
H 16 | HH 17 | HHH 29
I 16 | II 23 | III 25
K 17 | KK 21 | KKK 29
L 22 | LL 21 | LLL 23
M 21 | MM 20 | MMM 26
N 18 | NN 20 | ----
O 14 | OO 13 | 269
P 19 | PP 23 |
Q 22 | QQ 27 |
R 14 | RR 26 |
S 14 | SS 28 |
T 21 | TT 24 |
----| ----|
334 | 385 |

These totals give a general total of 988 manuscripts, which, divided by 50, makes the average number for each desk, as stated above, 19.76.

Further, my theory is supported by the positive evidence of a description of this library (unfortunately without date) quoted by M. Delisle: "Les livres estoient couchez et enchaisnez, sur de longs pupitres, et une allee entre deux[329]." It is obvious that the English system of placing each lectern between a pair of windows could not have been maintained here.

At Queens' College, Cambridge, the catalogue, dated 1472, enumerates 192 volumes, divided over 10 desks and 4 half-desks, each called a step (_gradus_). There were (avoiding fractions) 8 books on each half-desk, and 15 on each complete desk; so that by comparing the plan (fig. 50) and elevation of a desk (fig. 51) with the views of the library at Zutphen, a good idea of a college library in the fifteenth century can be obtained.

Before I leave the lectern-system, I will describe two eccentric specimens of it. The first is still to be seen at Trinity Hall, Cambridge; the second once existed at the University of Leyden.

From MS. 164 in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.]

The library of Trinity Hall is thoroughly medieval in plan, being a long narrow room on the first floor of the north side of the second court, 65 feet long by 20 feet wide, with eight equidistant windows in each side-wall, and a window of four lights in the western gable. It was built about 1600, but the fittings are even later, having been added between 1626 and 1645 during the mastership of Thomas Eden, LL.D. They are therefore a deliberate return to ancient forms at a time when a different type had been adopted elsewhere.

There are five desks and six seats on each side of the room, placed, as usual, at right angles to the side-walls, in the inter spaces of the windows, and in front of the windows, respectively. Their arrangement, and the details of their construction, will be understood from the general view (fig. 65), and from the elevation (fig. 66).

These lecterns are of oak, 6 feet 7 inches long, and 7 feet high, measured to the top of the ornamental finial. There is a sloping desk at the top, beneath which is a single shelf (fig. 66, A). The bar for the chains passes under the desk, through the two vertical ends of the case. At the end farthest from the wall, the hasp of the lock is hinged to the bar and secured by two keys (fig. 67). Beneath the shelf there is at either end a slip of wood (fig. 66, B), which indicates that there was once a moveable desk which could be pulled out when required. The reader could therefore consult his convenience, and work either sitting or standing (fig. 65). For both these positions the heights are very suitable, and at the bottom of the case was a plinth (fig. 66, C), on which he could set his feet. The seats between each pair of desks were of course put up at the same time as the desks themselves. They shew an advance in comfort, being divided into two, so as to allow support to the reader's back.

Similar desks occur in a beautiful miniature (fig. 68) from a manuscript (now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge[330]) written in France about 1480. They appear to be solid--possibly fitted with cupboards for books under the sloping portion. No seats are shewn, and, as a reader is standing between them consulting a book, it may be concluded that they could only be used by students in that position.

Lastly, I reproduce (fig. 69) a print by Jan Cornelis Woudanus, shewing the library of the University of Leyden in 1610[331]. The bookcases were evidently contrived with the view of getting the largest number possible into the room. Each contained a single row of books, chained to a bar in front of the shelf; and, also for the purpose of saving the space usually occupied by a seat, readers were obliged to consult them standing. There are eleven bookcases on each side of the room, each containing from 40 to 48 volumes. At the end of the room are two cupboards, probably for manuscripts; and to the right of the spectator is a third press, marked _Legatum Josephi Scaligeri_. He died in January, 1609. Further, as an illustration of the usual appliances for study found in libraries at this period, and often mentioned in catalogues and account-books, I would draw attention to the globes and maps.

I present these bookcases at this point of my researches with some diffidence, for they can hardly be said to represent the lectern-system. On the other hand, they do not exactly represent any other; and I therefore submit that they may be looked at here, as transitional specimens, bridging over the interval between the desks we have lately been considering, and those which we shall have to consider in the next chapter.

From a print by Jan Cornelis Woudanus, dated 1610.]

FOOTNOTES:

[258] The Statutes of the Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge bearing on the care of books have been thoroughly analysed by Professor Willis in his essay on "The Library," _Arch. Hist._ III. pp. 387-471, which I edited and completed. I have therefore not thought it necessary to acknowledge each quotation separately, but I wish it to be understood that this section of my present book is to a great extent borrowed from him.

[259] Wood, _History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford_, ed. Gutch, 4to. Oxford, 1796, Vol. II. Part 2, p. 910.

[260] _Commiss. Docts._ (Oxford), Vol. 1. Statutes of Merton College, Cap. 2, p. 24.

[261] _Sketch of the Life of Walter de Merton_, by Edmund [Hobhouse], Bishop of Nelson, New Zealand, 8vo. Oxford, 1859, p. 39.

[262] _Annals of University College_, by Wm. Smith, 8vo. 1728, pp. 37-39. I have compared Mr Smith's version with the Statute as printed by Anstey, _Munimenta Academica_, I. 58, 59, and have made a few corrections.

[263] _Commiss. Docts._ (Oxford), Vol. I. Statutes of Oriel College, p. 14.

[264] _Ibid._ p. 22.

[265] _Commiss. Docts._ (Cambridge), II. 38. De omnibus libris Domus, Munimentis, et Chartis custodiendis.

[266] _Ibid._ p. 17. De Duobus Decanis et eorum officio.

[267] _Commiss. Docts._ (Cambridge), II. 44. Statutum de libris Collegii.

[268] _Commiss. Docts._ (Cambridge), II. 432. De libris Collegii.

[269] The words are "in libraria communi ... ad sociorum communem usum continue remanere."

[270] _Commiss. Docts._ (Oxford), Vol. I. Statutes of New College, p. 97. De libris collegii conservandis et non alienandis.

[271] _Commiss. Docts._ (Oxford), Vol. I. Statutes of All Souls' College, p. 54. De custodia bonorum ad capellam pertinentium.

[272] _Ibid._ Vol. II. Statutes of Magdalen College, p. 60. De custodia librorum, ornamentorum, jocalium, et aliorum bonorum collegii.

[273] _Ibid._ Statutes of Corpus Christi College, p. 89. De custodia bonorum Collegii.

[274] This passage is quoted in a short account of Pembroke College Library, drawn up by Matthew Wren, D.D., while Fellow, as the preface to a volume dated 1617, in which he recorded the names, of those who had presented books to the Library. The words at the end of the statute are: "sub cautione idonea custodi librorum exposita sine fraude."

[275] The history of Merton College has been most admirably written, in Mr Robinson's series of College histories, by my friend Bernard W. Henderson, M.A., Fellow and Librarian. His researches have thrown a new light on the library, and especially on the date of the fittings. My most cordial thanks are due to him, to the Warden and to the Bursar, for their kindness in allowing me access to the library, and also to all the documents referring to it.

[276] _Reg. Vet._ fol. 7 b. Vicesimo quarto die Octobris celebrata erat eleccio librorum philosophie inter philosophicos collegii socios.

Undecimo die mensis Novembris celebrata erat eleccio librorum theologie in domo custodis inter Theologos collegii socios.

[277] _Ibid._ fol. 110. 18^o. die eiusdem mensis [Marcii] fuit eleccio librorum logicalium in Alta Aula.

[278] _Ibid._ fol. 125 b.

[279] _Reg. Vet._ fol. 118.

[280] The words are: "qui quidem liber jacuit pro caucione alterius libri decretorum collegii."

[281] _Ibid._ fol. 121.

[282] _Ibid._ fol. 100 b.

[283] See above, p. 71.

[284] Dugdale, _Mon. Angl._ IV. 403-406.

[285] See above, p. 108.

[286] _Cat. Vet. Libr. Eccl. Cath. Dunelm._ ed. Surtees Soc. pp. 39-41.

[287] Wood, _History etc._, Vol. II. p. 910.

[288] Leland, _Comm. de Script. Brit._ ch. 131. I owe this important quotation to the kindness of Dr James.

[289] Printed in the _Camb. Antiq. Soc. Comm._, Vol. II. p. 73.

[290] The headings of the two lists are as follows: "Libri per nos de presenti dicto nostro Collegio dati et in dicto Collegio ex nunc ad Sociorum communem usum perpetuo remansuri."

"Libri vero de presenti per nos dicto collegio dati, quorum usum nobis pro vitae nostrae tempore quamdiu nobis placuerit duximus reservandum, immediate inferius describuntur."

[291] _Arch. Hist._ Vol. II. p. 442. History of Trinity College.

[292] _Collected Papers of Henry Bradshaw_, 8vo. Camb., 1889, pp. 19-34.

[293] No heading to the first division of the list is given in the catalogue.

[294] _Camb. Ant. Soc. Comm._, Vol. II. p. 165.

[295] _Ibid._ Vol. II. p. 258.

[296] _Camb. Ant. Soc. Quarto Publ._, No. I. This catalogue represents the state of the library at the end of the fifteenth century, for it contains the books given by Richard Nelson, who founded a Fellowship in 1503, and probably gave his books at the same time, "sub ea condicione quod semper remanerent cum tribus sociis."

[297] From my additions to the essay on "The Library," by Professor Willis, p. 404.

[298] This catalogue, written at the beginning of the old parchment Register of the College, has been printed by Dr James in his _Catalogue of the MSS. in the Library of Peterhouse_, 8vo. Camb., 1899. pp. 3-26.

[299] From my additions to the essay on "The Library," by Professor Willis, p. 402.

[300] _Commiss. Docts._ (Cambridge), Vol. I. p. 21. Stat. 24.

[301] _Ibid._ p. 22.

[302] This analysis of the catalogue of Peterhouse Library is borrowed from the Introduction which I had the pleasure of contributing to my friend Dr James' _Catalogue_.

[303] _Arch. Hist._, The Library, p. 404.

[304] _Arch. Hist._, vol. I., p. 138.

[305] I have to thank my friend Mr T. G. Jackson, architect, for kindly lending me this section of Bishop Cobham's library. For his history of the building, see his _Church of St Mary the Virgin, Oxford_, 4to. 1897, pp. 90-106. With regard to the number of windows he notes (p. 102): There would have been eight, two to a bay, were it not that the tower buttresses occupy half the western bay.

[306] Anstey, _Mun. Acad._ I. 227.

[307] Jackson, _ut supra_, p. 98.

[308] The total height of this desk-end is 66 in.; from the ground to the beginning of the groove 31 in.; each slit is 19 in. long.

[309] For scale see fig. 62, p. 163.

[310] _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._ Vol. VIII. pp. 379-388, 7 May, 1894.

[311] The existing Library is still called the New Library.

[312] _Novum ac Magnum Theatrum Urbium Belgicae_, fol. Amsterdam, 1649, s. v. Zutphania. For these historical facts I have to thank my friend Mr Gimberg, _Archivarius_ at Zutphen.

[313] I have to thank Mr T. D. Atkinson, architect, for drawing this plan.

[314] I have again to thank Mr Gimberg for this photograph. It was a work of no small difficulty owing to the imperfect light.

[315] For scale see fig. 62, p. 163.

[316] I have described this library in _Camb. Ant. Soc. Proc. and Comm._ Vol. VIII. pp. 11-18.

[317] This book is now in the University Library, Cambridge.

[318] _Arch. Hist._, The Library, III. 429. It is obvious that these heavy chains must have been attached to the lower edge of one of the boards, and that the bar must have been below the desk and not above it. See above, p. 139.

[319] _Arch. Hist._ II. 244.

[320] See above, pp. 117-121.

[321] MSS. Harl. 4335. The picture hanging on the wall represents Philosophy offering her consolation to a sick man.

[322] For this information I have to thank my friend, Bernard W. Henderson, M.A., Fellow of Merton College, Oxford.

[323] Delisle, _Cabinet des manuscrits_, II. 186, _note_.

[324] This account is, in the main, a translation of that given by M. Delisle, _ut supra_.

[325] Bibl. Nat. Par. MSS. Lat. 5493. For the history of this library see Delisle, _ut supra_, pp. 142-208; Franklin, _Anciennes Bibliotheques de Paris_, I. pp. 221-317.

[326] Franklin, _ut supra_, vol. I. p. 399.

[327] Franklin, _Bibliotheques de Paris_, II. 70.

[328] Delisle, _ut supra_, II. 228-231; Franklin, _ut supra_, I. 135-185. The catalogue of Claude de Grandrue is in the Bibliotheque Nationale, fonds latin, No. 14767; the alphabetical index in the Bibliotheque Mazarine, No. 1358.

[329] Delisle, p. 228, _note_.

[330] The MS. (No. 164) is by Frere Jehan de Castel.

[331] This reproduction is from a copy of the print now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. It also occurs on a reduced scale in _Les Arts au Moyen Age et a l'Epoque de la Renaissance_ par Paul Lacroix, 4^o. Paris, 1869, p. 492; and in _Illustrium Hollandiae et Westfrisiae Ordinum_ etc. 4^o. Lugd. Bat., 1614.