Chapter IV: Part 4

Six degrees was the most acute angle, the resistance of
which was determined by the valuable experiments of the
French Academy; and it gave 4/10 of the resistance, which the
same surface would have received from the same current when
perpendicular to itself. Hence then a superficial foot, forming
an angle of six degrees with the horizon, would, if carried
forward horizontally (as a bird in the act of skimming) with a
velocity of 23·6 feet per second, receive a pressure of 4/10 of
a pound perpendicular to itself. And if we allow the resistance
to increase as the square of the velocity, at 27·3 feet per
second it would receive a pressure of one pound.

The flight of the _corvus frugilegus_, or rook, during any part
of which it can skim at pleasure, is (from an average of many
observations) about 34·5 feet per second. The concavity of the
wing may account for the greater resistance here received, than
the experiments upon plain surfaces would indicate.

The angle made use of in the crow's wing is much more acute
than six degrees: but in the observations that will be grounded
upon these data, it may safely be stated that every foot of
such curved surface, as will be used in aërial navigation, will
receive a resistance of one pound, perpendicular to itself, when
carried through the air in an angle of six degrees with the line
of its path, at a velocity of about 34 or 35 feet per second.

The next object is to apply what has been advanced to the theory
of aërial navigation; and the following description will convey
a just idea of the best method of effecting it. Suppose a sail
to be made of thin cloth, of a firm texture, containing two
hundred square feet; and that the weight of the man and the
apparatus is 200 pounds. Then if the wind blow with a velocity
of 35 feet per second, in a certain direction, at the same time
that a cord in that direction sustains a tension of 21 lbs.
from being fixed to the machine, the whole apparatus will be
suspended in the air. But it is perfectly indifferent whether
the wind blow against the plane, or the plane be propelled by
any means against the air with an unequal velocity. Hence, if
this machine were drawn forward by the cord under a tension of
21 lbs. and with a velocity of 35 feet per second, the whole
would be suspended in an horizontal path. Now, if, instead of
this cord, any other propelling power were generated in the
same direction, and with the same intensity, an equivalent
effect would be produced, and aërial navigation accomplished.
_Vide Bishop Wilkins's Math. Magic.--Hook's Philosophical
Collections.--Sir G. Cayley on Aërial Navigation._

No. LXXVIII.

A watch to go constantly, and yet needs no other winding from the first setting on the cord or chain, unless it be broken, requiring no other care from one than to be now and then consulted with, concerning the hour of the day or night; and if it be laid by a week together, it will not err much; but the oftener looked upon, the more exact it showeth the time of the day or night.

NOTE.

For a pocket watch it will be necessary to employ a small
balance, with a nut attached to its axis and communicating with
the fusee, the continued vibration of which will, by winding the
watch, give it nearly all the advantages of a perpetual prime
mover. Should the time-piece be placed in a fixed case it will
require a communication between the joint of the door and the
fusee, and this may likewise be readily applied to the case of a
hunting watch.

Mr. Gout's _pedometer_ not only marks the time, but the number
of paces passed over from one place to another: this is
accomplished by means of a chain or string passing to the leg
of the wearer, or to the wheel of a chariot, which is made to
advance the index hand one division at each elevation of the
foot: thus, on the same dial, exhibiting, at one view, both time
and distance. The same pedometer will, by a proper application
to the saddle, ascertain every pace a horse takes, and it may be
made to change its performance in a second, should the horse in
the course of measuring go from one pace to another.

No. LXXIX.

A way to lock all the boxes of a cabinet (though never so many) at one time, which were, by particular keys appropriated to each lock, opened severally, and independent the one of the other, as much as concerneth the opening of them, and by these means cannot be left open unawares.

NOTE.

This suggestion, which is both ingenious and useful, might be
advantageously adopted in every description of cabinet or chest
now in use; it may be performed either by cranks and wires, or
by sliding bolts and levers communicating with each lock: the
latter way, though attended with greater expense, is by far the
most durable.

Another and more simple mode offers itself in the use of a
series of spring locks, which may be closed by the pressure of
the lid, unconnected with any other mechanism.

No. LXXX.

How to make a pistol barrel no thicker than a shilling, and yet able to endure a musket proof of powder and bullet.

NOTE.

It requires no great share of ingenuity to accomplish this
object, as an examination of modern fire-arms will fully
testify; many pocket pistols that are manufactured at the
present period, being at least as thin as those described by the
noble author.

No. LXXXI.

A comb-conveyance carrying of letters without suspicion, the head being opened with a needle screw, drawing a spring towards one; the comb being made but after an usual form, carried in one's pocket.

NOTE.

A pocket comb and portable spoon, as described in this and the
following article, with double sides to conceal any letter,
paper, &c. are too simple to need a particular description.

No. LXXXII.

A knife, spoon, or fork, in an usual portable case, may have the like conveyances in their handles.

No. LXXXIII.

A rasping-mill for hartshorn, whereby a child may do the work of half-a-dozen men, commonly taken up with that work.

NOTE.

A variety of engines have been invented for this purpose, many
of which are capable of effecting the saving of labour described
by the Marquis, as at that period (1663) the process was usually
effected by rubbing the horn or ivory over a common iron grater.

No. LXXXIV.

An instrument whereby persons, ignorant in arithmetic, may perfectly observe numeration and subtraction of all sums and fractions.

NOTE.

Sir Samuel Morland has published a detailed account of two
instruments of this kind in a tract entitled, _The Description
and Use of two Arithmetic Instruments_, &c.--London, 1673. The
Roman _Abacus_ and Chinese _Swan-pan_ are also instruments of a
like description.

The _Abacus_ was variously contrived; that chiefly used in
European countries was made by drawing any number of parallel
lines at pleasure, at a distance from each other, equal to
twice the diameter of a _calculus_ or counter. This placed on
the lowest line, signified 1; on the second, 10; on the third,
100; on the fourth, 1000; on the fifth, 10,000; and so on. In
the spaces between the lines, the same counters signified half
of what they represented on the next superior line; viz. in the
space between the first and second lines, 5; between the second
and third, 50; between the third and fourth, 500; and so on. The
abacus was also divided cross-wise into _areolæ_, and by this
means subtractions were performed. The calculating instrument of
Mr. Babbage is however much superior to any other contrivance
yet suggested.

No. LXXXV.

A little ball, made in the shape of a plum or pear, which, being dexterously conveyed or forced into a body's mouth, shall presently shoot forth such, and so many bolts of each side and at both ends as, without the owner's key, can neither be opened nor filed off, being made of tempered steel, and as effectually locked as an iron chest.

NOTE.

The steel fangs with which this instrument is furnished must,
like the bolt of a common latch, be chamfered from the point,
so that, on its being inserted within the teeth, the bolts
will instantaneously spring out; and no power short of the key
previously made to fit the wards of the lock will suffice to
free those who are thus ensnared. This is evidently one of those
discoveries which, though practicable in itself, appears better
calculated for swelling the catalogue of the noble Author's
inventions, than for any beneficial result likely to accrue to
the public from its discovery.

No. LXXXVI.

A chair made _à-la-mode_, and yet a stranger, being persuaded to sit down in it, shall have immediately his arms and thighs locked up, beyond his own power to loosen them.

NOTE.

Chairs of this description are stated to have been employed
by the monks in the darker ages of Christianity; and were
originally designed for the purpose of entrapping those who,
possessing more courage, or less of prudence than their
neighbours, ventured to penetrate the mysteries of papal
seclusion. They were formed like a common arm-chair, and
provided with two levers at the extremity of the arms; and
the same number were fixed immediately below the seat. These,
on pressing the cushion, were immediately discharged like a
man-trap: four powerful springs acting on the levers for that
purpose; and so firmly will the occupant of a chair of this
description be fixed, that it will take the united force of
four or five persons to free the prisoner. A similar chair was
exhibited at the _Villa Borghese_, Rome, in 1644--"They shew'd
us also a chayre w^{ch} catches any who sitts downe in it so as
not to be able to stir out, by certaine springs concealed in the
armes and back thereoff which at sitting downe surprizes a man
on the suddaine, locking him in by the armes or thighs, after a
true tretcherous Italian guise."--Vide _Evelyn's Memoirs_, vol.
i. p. 107.

No. LXXXVII.

A brass mould to cast candles, in which a man may make five hundred dozen in a day, and add an ingredient to the tallow, which will make it cheaper, and yet so that the candles shall look whiter and last longer.

NOTE.

The usual method of dipping _store candles_ is subject to many
objections, though the expense attendant on casting those called
_moulds_ has hitherto been an impediment to their general
manufacture. A more simple method now offers itself, which is
equally advantageous and economical. A quantity of drawn tubes
being first cut into the given lengths, metal collars must then
be soldered on the extremity of each length, with an orifice of
sufficient size to allow the tallow and wick to pass through the
whole series of tubes. They must then be connected together by
a screw cut in each alternate end, and the whole, thus formed,
passed through a steam pipe of sufficient size to prevent the
tallow chilling in its passage through the moulds. When cold,
each joint of the mould must be separately unscrewed and the
candles separated by a sharp knife.

A means of purifying the tallow, and as such, of rendering the
candles whiter and more durable, likewise suggests itself in
the following simple process. The vat, or copper, containing
the melted tallow, must be provided with a shower bath placed
immediately over the surface, to which must be attached a
reservoir of cold water: this, by the action of a lever, may be
thrown through the grating of the bath, and falling upon the
tallow, will, in its passage, carry to the bottom of the vat
the whole of the carbonised animal matter and other impurities
with which it is charged. After allowing a few minutes for the
lighter fluid to rise, the water may then be drawn off, by a
cock placed at the bottom of the vat for that purpose, and the
same process repeated till the tallow is fit for use.

No. LXXXVIII.

An engine, without the least noise, knock, or use of fire, to coin and stamp 100lbs. in an hour, by one man.

NOTE.

Antoine Boucher appears to have been the first engraver who used
the fly-press for the multiplying of metallic impressions from
an engraved matrix. This ingenious mechanic was employed by
Henry the Second of France, and the first money was struck with
it in that kingdom about the middle of the sixteenth century;
it was soon however laid aside on account of the great expense
attendant on its use, and the old method of striking with the
hammer was again resorted to. Queen Elizabeth also had milled
money coined in England about the same period; but it did not
continue for more than ten years; and it was not till 1662, that
the screw press was finally established in the mint of this
kingdom. The accelerated motion of a screw, although possessing
many advantages over the old method, does not appear fully to
answer the above description, as the noise attendant on its use
is certainly very considerable; it is probable therefore, that
the hydrostatic press, or a powerful lever worked by a crank,
was intended by the noble author as a substitute for this useful
machine.

It appears probable that the insertion of this Article
originated in an ignorance of the plan formerly proposed by
Boucher, which appears of all others best adapted for the
purpose of coining with rapidity, and which was not at that
period acted upon in England; on the discovery of which the
following Article was substituted by the noble author; and
appeared in the first printed edition of the _Century_.

No. LXXXVIII.

How to make a brazen or stone head, in the midst of a great field or garden, so artificial and natural, that though a man speak never so softly, and even whispers into the ear thereof, it will presently open its mouth, and resolve the question in French, Latin, Welsh, Irish, or English, in good terms, uttering it out of his mouth, and then shut it until the next question be asked.

NOTE.

Albertus Magnus, a celebrated philosopher of the thirteenth
century, is said to have constructed an _automaton_ which not
only performed all the apparent motions of life, but absolutely
answered questions. It is recorded of Thomas Aquinas, that,
having accidentally seen the head, he was so terrified that he
broke it in pieces, upon which Albert exclaimed: _Periit opus
triginta annorum_! Though this appears one of the earliest
instances of a speaking automaton constructed by one of the
laity, there is no doubt but that the method of conveying
answers to various interrogatories, by the agency of concealed
pipes or a speaking trumpet, was practised at a very early
period. That the impostor Alexander, however, caused his
Æsculapius to speak in this manner is expressly related by
Lucan. He took, says this author, instead of a pipe, the gullet
of a crane, and transmitted the voice through it to the mouth of
the statue. But the invention of the _invisible girl_, which may
be considered as an improvement on the oracular responses of the
darker ages, infinitely surpassed any of those hitherto recorded.

This very ingenious apparatus was publicly exhibited both at
Bristol and in London for a considerable period, during which
time no discovery was made of its internal mechanism; and it
is probable that its construction would have remained a secret
to all but the exhibitors, but for the ingenuity of Mr. (now
Professor) Millington, who, in a course of Lectures delivered
in the winter of 1806, explained the manner in which it was
performed.

The _visible_ part of the apparatus connected with the
_invisible girl_ was thus constructed: first a mahogany frame
resembling a bedstead, having at the corners four upright posts
about five feet high, was united by a cross-rail near the top,
and two or more cross-rails near the bottom, to strengthen
the frame, which was about four feet square. The frame thus
constructed was placed upon the floor, and to the top of each
of the four pillars were attached as many strong bent brass
wires converging towards the top, where they were secured by a
crown and other ornaments. From these wires a hollow copper ball
was suspended by slight ribbons, so as to cut off all possible
communication with the frame. The globe thus supported was
supposed to contain the invisible being, as the voice apparently
proceeded from the interior of it: and for this purpose, it was
equipped with four trumpets, placed round it in a horizontal
direction, and at right angles to each other; the trumpet
mouths coming to within about half an inch of the respective
cross-rails of the frame surrounding them.

When a question was proposed, it was asked from any side of
the frame, and spoken into one of the trumpets, and an answer
immediately proceeded from the whole of them, so loud as to
be distinctly heard by the inquirer, and yet so distant and
feeble, that it appeared as if coming from a very diminutive
being. In this the whole of the artifice consisted; and the
variations were so contrived that the answer might be returned
in several languages, a kiss might be returned, the breath
producing the voice was felt, and songs were sung, accompanied
by the piano-forte, &c. To produce this illusion, the sound was
conveyed by a tube, in a manner similar to the old and well
known contrivance of the _speaking bust_; the invisible girl
only differing in one circumstance; that an artificial echo
was produced by means of the trumpets and hollow globe, in
consequence of which the sound was completely reversed.

In the invisible girl the orifice of the tube was in one of
the handrails just opposite the mouth of one of the trumpets,
the opening being concealed by reeds and other mouldings; the
tube itself, which was about half an inch in diameter, ran
through half the handrail, then down one of the corner posts,
and from thence under the floor till it reached a large deal
case almost similar to an inverted funnel, along the side of
which it rose till it came nearly into contact with the ear of
the confederate, who with a piano-forte, &c. was concealed in
this case. Any question asked by a voice directed into one of
the trumpets was immediately reflected back from the concave
interior surface of the globe to the orifice of the tube, along
which it was conveyed so as to be distinctly heard by the person
in the deal case, who returned the requisite answer, which
appeared to come precisely from the interior of the globe. A
small hole closed with glass was likewise left through the deal
case and side wall of the apartment, by means of which the
concealed person had an opportunity of observing and commenting
upon any circumstance which occurred in the room.

No. LXXXIX.

White silk, knotted in the fingers of a pair of white gloves, and so contrived without suspicion, that, playing at _primero_ at cards, one may, without clogging his memory, keep reckoning of all sixes, sevens, and aces, which he hath discarded, and without foul play.

NOTE.

That sliding knots or rings may be formed on the fringe of silk
or other gloves, by which means a reckoning can be kept, may
easily be conceived; but it is scarcely too much to aver that
an undue advantage taken of an opponent, even at cards, savours
very much of foul play, if not absolute cheating.

No. XC.

A most dexterous dicing-box, with holes transparent, after the usual fashion, with a device so dexterous, that with a knock of it against the table, the four good dice are fastened, and it looseneth four false dice, made fit for this purpose.

NOTE.

There are few who profess the science of cheating at cards or
dice, or to be encouragers of those who do; and it may fairly be
conceded that there are not two periods in our regal annals, in
which this detestable meanness had become fashionable enough to
sanction a nobleman in inscribing to the King and his Parliament
a method by which it might be advantageously effected.

No. XCI.

An artificial horse, with saddle and caparisons fit for running at the ring, on which a man being mounted, with his lance in his hand, he can at pleasure make him start, and swiftly to run his career, using the decent posture with _bon grace_, may take the ring as handsomely, and running as swiftly as if he rode upon a barbe.

NOTE.

Any person who is acquainted with the various automaton figures
that have been constructed by those celebrated mechanics,
Vaucanson, Kempelen, and Maelzel, will readily admit the
possibility of making a horse of this description; nor should
we too readily undervalue those mechanical pursuits, which,
though not of any immediate national advantage, have formed the
employment of one of the greatest potentates of modern Europe.[7]

[7] CHARLES V., after his abdication, retired to the monastery
of St. Justus, in Estramadura, where he amused himself, during
the latter period of his life, in the making of automatons, in
which he was assisted by a very ingenious artist named
Turriano.

The most celebrated of the modern automata were those made by
Vaucanson, and which are thus described by Beckman:--

"One of them, which represented a flute-player sitting,
performed twelve tunes, and, as we are assured, by wind issuing
from its mouth into a German flute, the holes of which it opened
and shut with its fingers."

"The second was a standing figure, which in like manner played
on the Provençal shepherd's pipe, which it held in its left
hand, and with the right beat upon a drum."

"The third was a duck, of the natural size, which moved its
wings, exhibited all the gestures of that animal, quacked like
a duck, drank water, ate corn, and then, after a little time,
let drop behind it something that resembled the excrement of a
duck."[8]

[8] History of Inventions, vol. iii. p. 326.

Of these automata, or rather _androides_, the flute-player of
Vaucanson is the only one of which a correct description has
been preserved; a particular account of its mechanism having
been published in the Memoirs of the French Academy. The figure
was about five feet six inches high, and was placed upon an
elevated square pedestal. The air entered the body by three
separate pipes, into which it was conveyed by nine pairs of
bellows, which expanded and contracted in regular succession,
by means of an axis of steel turned by the machine. The three
tubes, which conveyed the air from the bellows, after passing
through the lower extremities of the figure, united at the
chest; and ascending from thence to the mouth, passed through
two artificial lips. Within the cavity of the mouth was a small
moveable tongue, which by its motion at proper intervals,
admitted or intercepted the air in its passage to the flute. The
fingers, lips, and tongue derived their specific movements from
a steel cylinder turned by clockwork. The cylinder was divided
into fifteen equal parts, which by means of pegs, pressing
upon a like number of levers, caused the other extremities to
ascend. Seven of these levers directed the fingers, having rods
and chains fixed to their ascending extremities; which, being
attached to the fingers, made them to ascend in proportion
as the other extremity was pressed down by the motion of the
cylinders, and _vice versa_. Three of the levers served to
regulate the ingress of the air, being so contrived as to open
and shut, by means of valves, the communication between the lips
and reservoir, so that more or less strength might be given, and
a higher or lower note produced as occasion required.

The lips were directed by four similar levers; one of which
opened them to give the air a freer passage; another contracted
them; a third drew them backward, and the fourth pushed them
forward. The remaining lever was employed in the direction
of the tongue, which by its motion shut or opened the mouth
of the flute. The varied and successive motions performed by
this ingenious androides, were regulated by a contrivance no
less simple than efficacious. The axis of the steel cylinder or
barrel was terminated by an endless screw composed of twelve
threads, above which was placed a small arm of copper, with
a steel stud made to fit the threads of the worm, which, by
its vertical motion, was continually pushed forward. Hence,
if a lever was moved, by a peg placed on the cylinder, in any
one revolution, it could not be moved by the same peg in the
succeeding revolution in consequence of the lateral motion
communicated by the worm. By this means the size of the barrel
was considerably reduced; and the statue not only poured forth a
varied selection of instrumental harmony, but exhibited all the
evolutions of the most graceful performer.

No. XCII.

A screw, made like a water-screw, but the bottom made of iron-plate spadewise, which, at the side of a boat, emptieth the mud of a pond, or raiseth gravel.

NOTE.

The Archimedean screw, though hitherto only applied to the
raising of water, appears to be equally applicable to many
other purposes; as the procuring of sand from pits, taking dry
goods of small dimensions from carts or barges, clearing rivers,
&c. though in that case it will be necessary to make the lower
end of the machine in a conical form, gradually increasing the
size of the orifice from the point to its upper extremity, in
order to prevent the materials from clogging the screw, which
would otherwise occur.

The _dredging machine_ worked by a steam-engine, and employed in
the Thames for a similar purpose, is well known.

No. XCIII.

An engine, whereby one man may take out of the water a ship of five hundred tons, so that it may be caulked, trimmed, and repaired, without need of the usual way of stocks, and as easily let it down again.

NOTE.

Beckman, in his History of Inventions, says, that a machine
of this description was invented by a citizen of Amsterdam,
in the year 1690, and was by him called the _water camel_. It
consisted of two half ships, and on the deck of each were placed
horizontal windlasses from which proceeded ropes made to pass
under the keel of the vessel intended to be raised. The two
sides of the camel having been sunk by the admission of water,
the ropes were drawn tight, and the pumps being put in motion,
the vessel was gradually raised to the surface. It appears
to have been principally employed in crossing the bar of the
Zuyderzee.

No. XCIV.

A little engine, portable in one's pocket, which placed to any door, without any noise, but on crack, openeth any door or gate.

NOTE.

The simple engine called a _Jack_, used for the purpose of
raising great weights, with small manual exertion, appears to
be admirably calculated for this purpose; and its even uniform
motion is evidently described by the noble author.

Ramelli has also given a description of several very curious
instruments for the same purpose. Vide _Artificiose Machini_, p.
255, &c.

No. XCV.

A double cross-bow, neat, handsome, and strong, to shoot two arrows, either together, or one after the other so immediately, that a deer cannot run two steps, but, if he miss of one arrow, he may be reached with the other, whether the deer run forward, sideward, or start backward.

NOTE.

The cross-bow, though long since superseded in point of general
utility by the invention of fire-arms, might still be found a
useful auxiliary in the sports of the field, and as such, it
has been thought advisable to notice what appears to be the
plan on which this instrument must be constructed. To fire two
arrows in immediate succession, it will be necessary either
to attach a second bow to the under side of the stock, which,
after discharging one arrow, may immediately be reversed, and
the second fired. Or, where a bow of sufficient length is used,
the string may communicate the required degree of impetus to
two arrows in succession, a stud being previously prepared for
its reception, about half-way down the stock, from which it may
readily be liberated for the second discharge.

No. XCVI.

A way to make a sea-bank so firm and geometrically strong, that a stream can have no power over it; excellent likewise to save the pillar of a bridge, being far cheaper and stronger than stone walls.

NOTE.

The _break-water_ erected by Mr. Rennie at Plymouth is, in its
results, precisely what the noble author has here described. The
plan of its construction is this: a mass of stone in blocks, of
about three feet in diameter, is thrown promiscuously into the
sea, and left to find their own base, the extremity of which is
generally about seventy yards. This sea-wall has been carried
about eight hundred fathoms in length, and the total expense
attendant on its erection is estimated at £1,150,000. In 1766,
Mr. Smeaton also applied loose stones to strengthen the middle
piers of London bridge, which was the means of preserving
that venerable structure from the almost certain ruin which
threatened it.

But the most economical sea-bank yet constructed was executed at
Rye, in 1804, under the superintendence of the Rev. Daniel Pape,
curate of that place.

The dam or bank was formed in its lower part in two parallel
ridges close to each other, like the double roof of a house,
which were covered over, first with straw, and then with hazel
faggots about thirteen feet long; and the whole was then pinned
down with piles, which were united to each other at their heads
by pieces put across the direction of the faggots. When this
bank was completed, Mr. Pape formed another bank, on the top
of the preceding, by filling up the interval between the two
ridges, and covering the whole in the manner above described.
All this was accomplished in one tide, and when completed it
fully answered the purpose for which it was intended.

No. XCVII.

An instrument, whereby an ignorant person may take any thing in perspective, as justly, and more so than the most skilful painter can do by the eye.

NOTE.

Vitruvius is the first author who directly treats on this
branch of the fine arts, though there can be no doubt but the
ancients fully understood its most essential rules, which they
must have practised at a very early period in the decoration of
their theatres. Vitruvius, in the _proem_ to his seventh book,
informs us, that Agatharchus of Athens noticed the subject,
when preparing a tragic scene for a play exhibited by Æschylus:
but the principles of the art were more distinctly taught by
Democritus and Anaxagoras, the disciples of the former painter.

Pietro del Borgo, early in the fourteenth century, constructed a
very ingenious machine, which was afterwards employed by Albert
Durer for the above purpose. It consisted of a transparent
tablet, through which the object being viewed from a small
aperture, the artist contrived to trace the images which the
various rays of light emitted from them would make upon it.

Mr. Ferguson has also described a machine for this purpose, the
invention of which he ascribes to Dr. Bevis. But the most simple
and efficient instrument yet discovered for large objects is
the camera obscura and camera lucida; both of which fully answer
the description given by the noble author.

No. XCVIII.

An engine, so contrived, that working the _primum mobile_ forward or backward, upward or downward, circularly or cornerwise, to and fro, straight, upright or downright, yet the pretended operation continueth and advanceth; none of the motions above mentioned, hindering, much less stopping the other; but unanimously, and with harmony agreeing, they all augment and contribute strength unto the intended work and operation; and therefore I call this a _semi-omnipotent engine_, and do intend that a model thereof be buried with me.

No. XCIX.

How to make one pound weight to raise an hundred as high as one pound falleth, and yet the hundred pounds descending doth what nothing less than one hundred pounds can effect.

No. C.

Upon so potent a help as these two last mentioned inventions, a water-work is, by many years' experience and labour, so advantageously by me contrived, that a child's force bringeth up, an hundred feet high, an incredible quantity of water, even two feet diameter. And I may boldly call it, _the most stupendous work in the whole world_: not only with little charge to drain all sorts of mines, and furnish cities with water, though never so high seated, as well to keep them sweet, running through several streets, and so performing the work of scavengers, as well as furnishing the inhabitants with sufficient water for their private occasions: but likewise supplying the rivers with sufficient to maintain and make navigable from town to town, and for the bettering of lands all the way it runs; with many more advantageous, and yet greater effects of profit, admiration, and consequence: so that deservedly I deem this invention to crown my labours, to reward my expenses, and make my thoughts acquiesce in way of further inventions. This making up the whole Century, and preventing any further trouble to the reader for the present, meaning to leave to posterity a book, wherein, under each of these heads, the means to put in execution and visible trial all and every of these inventions, with the shape and form of all things belonging to them, shall be printed by brass plates.--Besides many omitted, and some of three sorts willingly not set down, as not fit to be divulged, lest ill use may be made thereof, but to show that such things are also within my knowledge, I will here in myne owne cypher sett down one of each, not to be concealed when duty and affection obligeth me.

_In bonum publicum, et ad majorem Dei gloriam._

NOTE.

The three last inventions may justly be considered as the most
important of the whole "Century," and when united with the 68th
article, they appear to suggest nearly all the data essential
for the construction of a modern steam-engine. The noble
author has furnished us with what he calls a "definition" of
this engine; and although it is written in the same vague and
empirical style, which characterises a large portion of his
Inventions, it may yet be considered as affording additional
proofs of the above important fact.

The Marquis's "definition" is exceedingly rare, as the only copy
known to be extant is preserved in the British Museum.--It is
printed on a single sheet without date, and appears to have been
written for the purpose of procuring subscriptions in aid of a
Water Company, then about to be established.

"A stupendous, or a water-commanding engine, boundless for
height, or quantity, requiring no external, nor even additional
help or force to be set, or continued in motion, but what
intrinsically is afforded from its own operation, nor yet
the twentieth part thereof. And the engine consisteth of the
following particulars:--

'A perfect counterpoise, for what quantity soever of water.

'A perfect countervail, for what height soever it is to be
brought unto.

'A _primum mobile_, commanding both height and quantity,
regulator-wise.

'A vicegerent or countervail, supplying the place, and
performing the full force of man, wind, beast, or mill.

'A helm or stern, with bit and reins, wherewith any child may
guide, order, and control the whole operation.

'A particular magazine for water, according to the intended
quantity, or height of water.

'An aqueduct, capable of any intended quantity or height of
water.

'A place for the original fountain or river to run into, and
naturally of its own accord incorporate itself with the rising
water, and at the very bottom of the aqueduct, though never so
big or high.

'By divine providence, and heavenly inspiration, this is my
stupendous water-commanding engine, boundless for height and
quantity.

'Whosoever is master of weight, is master of force; whosoever is
master of water, is master of both: and consequently to him all
forcible actions and atchievements are easie.'"

It may now be adviseable to trace the history of the steam-engine through some of its earlier modifications; and we shall find that, although the present form of this stupendous machine almost deserves the title of an invention, yet that many steps have been taken, and much labour and much ingenuity expended, before it was brought to that point from which the more modern improvements may be said to have begun. And whilst we admire the genius of those who have perfected the application of a mighty power, let us not refuse the tribute of praise to those, who first pointed out that such a power existed.

The first apparatus of this description, of which any authentic account has been preserved, was suggested by Hero of Alexandria, and consisted of a vessel F in which steam was generated by the application of external heat. The ball G was supplied with the elastic vapour thus procured, by means of the bent pipe E B, a steam tight joint being provided for that purpose. Two tubes bent to a right angle at A and D, are the only parts open to the air, and as the steam rushes out from very minute apertures, a rotatory motion is produced. An account of this apparatus is preserved in Hero's _Spiritalia_, published by the Jesuits in 1693; and a copy of this highly curious work, with a Latin translation prefixed, is now in the Library of the London Institution.

A modification of Hero's apparatus is represented beneath: It was constructed by Mr. Styles for the use of the Editor in his public lectures. The circular tube _a_ is in this case supported by the upright pillar _c d_; and the flame of alcohol in the trough _b_, by generating high pressure steam, which rushes from the apertures _e_, produces a rotatory motion.

Brancas's revolving apparatus, as will be seen by reference to the diagram in the preceding page, was still more simple than that contrived by Hero. A copper vessel filled with water, (in the original figure made in the form of an ornamental head,) was furnished with a pipe _c_, through which the steam was propelled, and striking against the vanes of the float wheel _d_, readily gave motion to a pestle and mortar, which was employed in the alchemist's laboratory.

The only work in which a description of this engine has been preserved, was published in 1629; it is exceedingly rare, and the above diagram is engraved from a copy in the possession of Major Colby.

A slight examination of the principle upon which this simple apparatus is constructed, will shew that no very considerable force could have been obtained; as the steam passing through the atmosphere in its passage to the wheel, must, to a certain extent at least, be converted into water.

After the publication of the work by Brancas, more than thirty years elapsed ere the publication of the Marquis's "Century" recalled the attention of the scientific world to this important subject; and this invention, which he states as having been completely carried into effect, was evidently very different from that of his predecessors.

It is said that the Marquis, while confined in the Tower of London, was preparing some food in his apartment, and the cover of the vessel, having been closely fitted, was, by the expansion of the steam, suddenly forced off and driven up the chimney. This circumstance attracting his attention, led him to a train of thought, which terminated in the completion of his "water-commanding engine."[9] Of the Marquis's invention no record has been preserved beyond the articles to which we have already alluded in the present work: and in the absence of other data, the Editor readily introduces Professor Millington's design for an engine on similar principles; and which, with a few alterations, might be made available for the purposes recommended by our author.

[9] _Vide_ Historical and Descriptive Account of the Steam-engine,
by C. F. Partington, p. 6.

In this diagram, _q_ represents a strong and close vessel or boiler to contain water, set in brick work like a common copper, with a fire-place _r_ underneath it, having a chimney _s_. The boiler thus constructed, is intended to afford the means of producing steam: and if we conceive two casks or strong hollow vessels of any form to be placed under the surface of the water, near the boiler, as at _t_ and _v_, and that each of these vessels has a valve opening into it in its lower part as _u_ _u_, and two pipes _w_ _w_, proceeding from the upper part of the vessels to the top of the steam boiler _q_, while two other pipes _x_ _x_ proceed from the lower parts of these vessels into a cistern _y_, forty feet above the level of the water; an apparatus thus constructed will nearly form the water-commanding engine, for if the vessels _t_ and _v_ are both filled with water by the valves _u_ _u_, and the cock _z_ be opened after the steam has accumulated in the boiler, the elastic fluid thus generated will instantly rush down into the vessel _t_, and when the surface of the water is heated expel the whole of its contents up the pipe _a x_, into the cistern _y_, where it will be retained by a valve opening upwards in any part of that pipe, as at _a_. This done, the cock _z_ must be shut, and after permitting the steam to accumulate for a short time, that at _b_ must be opened, and the steam will rush into the vessel _v_ and perform a similar office, _c_ being the valve to prevent the return of the water. When the steam is shut off from the vessel _t_, the elastic fluid which had previously been introduced to expel the water, will be condensed by the cold media round it, and thus a vacuum will be produced in the vessel _t_, consequently a part of the water in which it is immersed will rush into it by the valve _u_, and occupy the whole internal cavity, thus putting it in a state of preparation for a second opening of the cock _z_, by which its contents will be again discharged into the cistern _y_, and so of the two vessels alternately; for while _v_ is emptying, _t_ will be filling, and vice versâ, which agrees with the Marquis's account when he says, "that the man is but to turn two cocks, that one vessel of water being consumed, another begins to force," &c.

The above suggestion for an engine capable of raising water may be still further improved by adding a suction pipe to the valves _u_ _u_, and the pressure of the atmosphere will increase the working power of the engine more than thirty feet: and should a less height be required, the forcing pipe may be shortened in a proportionate degree: indeed this fact was attended to by the next person who claims the honour of having invented the steam-engine, to which it may now be adviseable to direct the reader's attention.

The engine suggested by Savery for the purpose of raising water, consisted of a boiler _a_ furnished with a safety valve _v_. The steam-vessel _r_ was connected with the well H, by a suction pipe _n_; and when water was to be raised the vessel _r_ was filled with steam, which rushing in, soon expelled the air: when that was completely effected, the communication with the boiler was closed, and the steam condensed, which diminishing its bulk, formed a vacuous space within the vessel; the pressure of atmosphere then operating upon the surface of the water in the well, drove it up the pipe. In this form of the apparatus, the inventor was seldom able to raise water more than thirty feet: and when a greater altitude was required, it was effected by the impellent force of high pressure steam. This was accomplished by the ascending pipe _k_, which was sometimes carried sixty feet higher than the steam-vessel _s_; and a reference to the great expansive force of steam will show that this operation must be attended with considerable danger. After condensing the steam and filling the vessel _r_ with water, a new supply of steam was then introduced, which pressing on the surface of the water, drove it up the pipe _k_; and it will be evident that the pressure on the internal surface of the boiler must be proportioned to the height of the column of water thus raised by the steam.

The principal objection to this form of the engine arises from the great consumption of fuel, a considerable portion of the caloric employed in the generation of the steam being absorbed in heating the new surface of cold water last raised from the well; and where great heights are required, there appears no mode of completely obviating this objection. Should it, however, be required merely to raise water about thirty feet, there are few contrivances more economical or better adapted for general use.

While speaking of Savery's apparatus it may be adviseable to notice the very ingenious adaptation of the same principle to the construction of a _gas engine_, by Mr. Brown. In the latter case a vacuum is formed by the introduction of an inflamed jet of carburetted hydrogen gas, which consumes the oxygen, and rarefies the nitrogen, by the increase of temperature which ensues. The vacuum thus produced is much more perfect than would at first view have been supposed, from the nature of the process resorted to by the patentee; but the economy of employing carburetted hydrogen gas as a substitute for condensible vapour is still somewhat problematic.[10]

[10] Since writing the above, the Editor has seen a report on Mr.
Brown's engine by Professor Millington, in which it is distinctly
stated that the apparatus is fully adapted to the purpose for which
it is intended.

To more fully understand the nature of Mr. Brown's engine, it may be better to revert to a diagram, which will sufficiently explain its general principles.

In the above view, the cylinders _c_ and _d_, are the vessels in which a vacuum is alternately effected; _g i g_ and _h j h_ are two pipes, leading into the lower cylinders _x_ _x_, shewn in the next page, from which the water rises along those pipes to fill the vacuum cylinders alternately. The water thus supplied is discharged through the pipes B into the tank or trough _z_, where it falls upon the overshot water-wheel, and, by the rotatory motion thus produced, gives power to such machinery as may be connected to it. The water runs from the wheel along a case surrounding the lower half, into a reservoir _v_, from which the lower cylinders _x_ _x_, are alternately supplied.

The gas is supplied to the cylinders by the pipes _k_ _k_ _k_, which must be, of course, attached to a gasometer, or some other reservoir of gas. The gas also passes along the small pipe _l_ _l_ (which communicates also with the gasometer), and being lighted at both ends of that pipe, is kept constantly burning in order to ignite the gas within the cylinders.

The gas being admitted along the pipe _k_, the flame from the pipe _l_ is now freely communicated to the gas in the cylinder, through the orifice, by the opening of the sliding valve _s_, which is raised by the arm _r_, lifted by the rod _o_ by means of the beam.

The water in the reservoir _v_ passing down one of the pipes _w_, into one of the lower cylinders _x_, causes the float _y_ in that cylinder to rise, and, pushing up the rod _o_, raises the end _b_ of the beam, which, of course, draws up with it the cap _f_, and forces down the cap _e_ of the other cylinder _c_.

The _alternate_ action of each cylinder is produced by chains and rods, attached to a glass or iron vessel _p_, more than half filled with mercury, and turning upon a pivot; each end receives its movements of elevation and depression from the rise and fall of the projecting arms _q_, by the action of the beam above; the mercury within flowing to the lower end, giving an impetus, and thus regulating the supply of gas to the cylinders, and the movement of the slide in the trough _v_. By this action the water from the reservoir flows down the pipe _w_, into the vessel _x_, and produces the elevation of the float _y_ and the rod _n_, and raises the cap _e_ by the ascent of the beam at _a_.

The motion thus produced in one part of the machinery, operates upon the corresponding parts on the other side, and hence a corresponding motion is obtained: the slider in the trough _v_, moved by the action of the mercurial tube _p_, being removed from its position, allows the water to fall into the other pipe _w_; and, as it ascends, suffers the float _y_ to descend, and rising into the main cylinder, then lifts again the beam at _b_, and its connexions, and forces down the cap _e_ on the top of the other cylinder.

When the vacuum is produced in the cylinders, the air must be admitted to allow the water to be discharged, and the caps to be raised: this is effected by a sliding valve in the air-pipe _m_ _m_, acted upon by chains _t_ _t_, attached to the floats in the reservoir, and as motion is given to them, the valve is made to fly backwards and forwards, so as to allow the free admission of atmospheric air.

Chains _u_ _u_, with suspended weights, open the cocks in the pipe _k_ _k_, and produce the alternate flow of the gas, and regulate and modify its supply. In the pipes _g_ _i_ _g_, and _h_ _j_ _h_, are clacks to prevent the return of the water, when the air is admitted into the cylinders.

A piston may be worked as is above described, with the machinery attached; but it may also be worked in a distinct vessel so as to communicate with several cylinders, and, consequently, several pistons may work at the same time, the air and vacuum valves being opened and closed by similar means to those adapted to work the induction and eduction valves of steam-engines.

The atmospheric engine comes next in order, and its claim to practical utility is of a very early date.

The cylinder _b_, is in this engine placed over a boiler _n_, and if we suppose the piston _p_ made to fit air-tight, it will be evident, that it must be driven up by the action of the steam beneath, should a sufficient supply of heat be applied; when this is effected, the condensible vapour may be reduced to its original bulk, by the introduction of water from the cistern _i_. In the working engine however, the ascent of the piston is effected by the action of the lever _e g_, acting on the fulcrum _f_. To the end _g_ of this lever or working beam is attached the pump-rod _h_, and it will be evident that whenever that preponderates over the piston _p_, that the latter must be drawn up. On the readmission of the steam, a new supply of condensing water is introduced by turning the cock _l_, and the pressure of the atmosphere above the piston being unbalanced by any resistance beneath, the end _e_ is again depressed, and the pump-rod again elevated. The pipe _g_ is employed to carry off the condensing water, which would otherwise accumulate within the cylinder; and the small forcing pump, with its rod _v s_, supplies the condensing cistern _i_, by the pipe _t_.

At the beginning of the last century, the atmospheric engine had made considerable progress in the mining districts, and in 1718, the patentees agreed to erect an engine for the owners of a colliery, in the county of Durham, where several hundred horses had previously been employed. Mr. Henry Beighton, who was engaged as an agent in this concern, materially improved the engine by making it self-acting, and divesting it of nearly all the complicated machinery, which had been previously employed for that purpose.

A very simple and at the same time ingenious mode of illustrating the operations of an atmospheric steam-engine will be found in the annexed apparatus, suggested by Professor Brande, and employed in his lectures at the London Institution.

The glass tube and bulb _b_ is shewn with its piston _a_, the rod being hollow and closed by a screw _c_. If steam be generated by the spirit lamp _d_, the air will speedily be expelled, and after this is effected, the screw _c_ may be closed, and a working stroke produced by artificial condensation.