Chapter VI: Part 1: Introductory. Breviary--Divine office, its (4)

[Footnote 113: Why does a deacon perform this ceremony? since other benedictions are reserved to bishops and priests. Rupert assigns as a reason, that Christ's body was wrapped in spices by his disciples, and not by the apostles whose successors are bishops and priests: besides, the hymn sung by the deacon is the praeconium Paschale, or announcement of the Resurrection, which was first made by inferiors to their superiors, by the women to the apostles. We may add that both the fire and the 5 grains of incense are previously blessed by the priest, and in the praeconium itself there is not any form of blessing, strictly speaking. In the church of Ravenna however the bishop used to bless this candle (S. Gregory ep. 28, lib. 9). In the Roman church, according to cardinal Gaetani, the last of the Cardinal priests usually blessed the fire, and the last Card. deacon lighted the _lumen Christi_, or triple candle, and the Paschal candle. The deacon used to bless the latter either at the steps of the presbytery, or from the ambo; and hence we find a marble column, intended to support it, fixed to the ambo in S. Clement's S. Laurence's, and S. Pancras' churches at Rome. See another marble column destined for the same use ap. Ciampini, Vet. mon. cap. 2.]

[Footnote 114: Martene (De antiquis Eccl. rit. lib. 4, c. 24) maintains that this hymn was composed by S. Augustine, and this opinion is adopted also by Baillet and Benedict XIV, and confirmed by a MS. pontifical of the church of Pavia of the 9th century, and other documents cited by Martene, ibid: it was corrected by S. Jerome, if we may believe an ancient Pontifical of Poitiers (quoted ibid.) The _chant_ of this beautiful hymn is very ancient. "I have seen," says Baini "in many manuscripts both anterior and posterior to the 11th century the melodies of the preface, of the _Pater noster_, of the _Exultet_, and of the _Gloria_ precisely such as the modern" (T. 2, p. 92). In a splendid roll of the Minerva (signed D. 1. 2) of the 9th century, are contained the _Exultet_, the solemn benediction of the baptismal font, and the administration of all the ecclesiastical orders. Nor is this the only roll containing the chant precisely similar to the modern. D'Agincourt left another to the Vatican library. See also MS. no. 333 of the Barberini library, of the year 1503.]

[Footnote 115: Prudentius speaks of the "guttas olentes" or odoriferous drops of the candle, and S. Paulinus of Nola of "odora lumina": hence P. Arevalo conjectures that the grains of incense were fixed in the paschal candle even at the time of Prudentius in the 4th century.]

[Footnote 116: In churches, at the words _Apis mater eduxit_, the lamps also are lighted. With regard to the triple candle, we may observe that on an ancient marble column preserved in the Piazza before the cathedral of Capua is a bas-relief representing the lighting of the paschal candle by means of a reed surmounted by 3 small candles, as the Canonico Natali testifies in a letter printed at Naples in 1776. The triple candle is mentioned in the Ordo Romanus of Card. Gaetano, in that of Amelius, and in a MS. Pontifical of the church of Apamea, ap. Martene. As Thomassin observes, "we light a candle divided into three in honour of the Trinity, considering that enlightened by Christ we know that recondite mystery". Gavant also gives the same explanation. In the Greek service the bishop gives his blessing, as often as he sings mass, with a triple candle. In the Latin church it is used only on holy Saturday.]

[Footnote 117: See Appendix.]

[Footnote 118: This custom is proved from the letter of Siricius Pope in the 4th century to Himmerius, from letters of S. Leo and Pope Gelasius, as well as other ancient documents (ap. Bened. XIV, Institut. prima ed lat.); and vestiges of it are preserved in the liturgy of the weeks of Easter and Pentecost. Ordinations were generally conferred before Christmas, as is evident from the lives of the early Popes. Baptism was administered before the great festivals of Easter and Pentecost, that the newly-baptised might be prepared to celebrate them worthily, and receive the graces therein commemorated. Perhaps another reason for selecting the eve of Easter may be found in the parallel drawn by S. Paul between baptism and Christ's death and resurrection (Rom. VI, 5 and foll.): "we who are baptised in Christ Jesus are baptised in his death. For we are buried together with him by baptism unto death: that as Christ is risen from the dead by the glory of the Father, so we also may walk in newness of life" etc.]

[Footnote 119: See on such subjects Del Signore's Institut. Hist. Eccles. with notes by Prof. Tizzani Cap. V. Sec. 19 seq.]

[Footnote 120: See Comm. ad Ord. Rom. Mabillonii tom. 2, Mus. Ital. p. 95.]

[Footnote 121: According to the Ordo Romanus, children after baptism on this day were to take no food or milk before Communion "and on all days of Easter-week let them go to Mass, and let their parents offer for them, and let all communicate". As Cabassutius proves in his notitia Ecclesiastica saeculi primi, they used to receive the B. Sacrament under the form of wine alone. The bishop dipped his finger into the sacred blood, and then put it into the mouth of the child a practice observed in modern times in some parts of the East, according to the learned Maronite Abraham Ecchellensis; afterwards a little milk and honey was put into their mouths, as an emblem (according to John the deacon) of the promised land, to which they were called. This custom of giving communion to children was not of necessity for salvation, as Cardinal Noris proves in Vindiciis Augustinianis Sec. 4, and the Council of Trent observes. In some places an abuse crept in of putting the milk and honey into the consecrated chalice, but it was prohibited by an African Council.]

[Footnote 122: In the 4th century, S. Basil writing to the clergy of Neocesarea observes, that the litanies, which they then used, were introduced after the time of S. Gregory Thaumaturgus (Epist. 63). In Gaul about the year 452, S. Mamertus bishop of Vienne appointed solemn litanies to be recited on the three _rogation_ days. "At Rome," say Palmer, "no doubt litanies were in use at an early period, since we find that in the time of Gregory the great (A.D. 590), the appellation of litany had been so long given to processional supplications, that it was then familiarly applied to those persons who formed the procession". Vol. 1, p. 271. That holy Pontiff gave the following directions; "Let the litany of the clergy set out from the church of S. John the Baptist, the litany of the men from the church of the holy martyr Marcellus, the litany of the monks from the church of SS John and Paul: the litany of the handmaids of God from the church of the blessed martyrs Cosmas and Damian, the litany of the married women from the church of the blessed protomartyr Stephen; the litany of the widows from the church of the blessed martyr Vitalis, the litany of the poor and children from the church of the blessed martyr Cecilia". Vita S. Gregorii a Joanne Diacono, lib. 1, c. 42. That the litanies were recited on holy-saturday appears from several ancient _rites_ quoted by Marlene (De Ant. Eccl. Ritibus, lib. 4, c. XXV, and lib. 1, c. I, art. 18). Palmer, wishing to defend the liturgy of the church of England, maintains the antiquity of litanies, but pretends that the invocations of saints were not originally contained in them, but were added to them in the west about the eighth century (vol. I, p. 289). From a passage in Walafridus Strabo he is led to admit that at _his_ time (the ninth century) "these invocations must have been _for some time_ in use, and accordingly manuscript litanies containing invocations have been discovered by learned men, which appear from internal evidence to be as old as the eighth century". He attempts however by _negative_ arguments to shew, that these invocations are not more ancient than that period; although at the same time he confesses that "we have no _distinct account_ of the _nature_ of the service which was used on occasions of peculiar supplication during the earliest ages". p. 272. To his arguments we may oppose the _positive_ testimony of Walafridus Strabo, who says "The litany of the holy names is believed to have come into use after Jerome, following Eusebius of Cesarea, had composed the martyrology". A long time, about three centuries, elapsed before the _canon_ of the scriptures was determined; and it is not therefore surprising if the _canon_ of saints, (if such it may be called), who died at considerable intervals, required some time for its formation. Invocations of the saints in ancient litanies may be seen ap. Martene (lib. 4f c. 27 and lib. 1, c. 1, art. 18). One would conceive from Palmer's account of the Ambrosian litany that it did not contain invocations of the saints, p. 276; yet in the Ambrosian processional, to which he alludes, we read as follows "Afterwards they go to the altar, were the litanies are recited on bended knees, in reciting which the _names of the saints_ without _Intercede pro nobis_ are sung aloud by the provost and clergy of the first collegiate church; and by the other clergy with _Intercede pro nobis_ and this rite of singing the _litanies_ and antiphons is observed in every other stational church". ap. Martene lib. 4, c. 28. In the Ordo Romanus also De Benedictione Ecclesiae these invocations are found. The question however concerning their antiquity _in the litanies_ is of minor importance. Even Palmer admits, that "Catholic fathers in the 4th century invoked the saints" p. 292, though he gravely assures his readers, that "they were too well instructed in the Christian faith to believe positively that the saints heard our prayers". He mentions the learned work of Serrarius called "Litaneutici seu de Litaniis etc." as an instance of the writings, in which "innumerable passages have been cited from ancient writers to prove, that the invocation of saints is more ancient than the eighth century. But most of those passages do not refer to the invocation of saints, but to prayers made to God for the intercession of saints". Palmer, vol. I, p. 278. We consider that there is little difference in principle between these two things: we shall however, to satisfy him, quote only one passage from an ancient Oriental liturgy. "Mother of our Lord Jesus Christ, pray for me to the only begotten Son, who was born of thee, that he may forgive me my offences and sins, and may receive from my feeble and sinful hands this sacrifice, which in my weakness I offer on this altar, through thy intercession for me, O holy Mother". (From the ancient liturgy used by the Nestorians called the liturgy of the holy apostles. Renaudot, t. II. See bishop Poynter's Christianity, Note E: and ancient inscriptions in Rock's Hierurgia, p. 347 and foll.) Though we have the _innumerable ancient_ passages above-mentioned in favour of the Catholic doctrine, yet shall we call Mr. Palmer's attention to the following passage of his own work. Speaking of secrecy, he says: "this primitive discipline is sufficient to account for the fact, that very few allusions to the liturgy or eucharistic service are found in the writings of the Fathers". I, p. 14. His fears of _heresy and blasphemy_ arising from the invocation of Saints may be calmed by the simple perusal of the doctrine of the church taught by the Council of Trent, sess. 25. "The holy synod commands all bishops and other teachers--_diligently to instruct the faithful, teaching them_ that the Saints reigning with Christ offer to God their prayers for men; that it is _good and useful_ to invoke them with supplication, and to have recourse to their prayers, help, and assistance, in order to obtain benefits _from God through his Son Jesus Christ our Lord, who alone is our Redeemer and Saviour_". Accordingly we say in the litany "Lord, have mercy on us: holy Mary _pray for us_" etc.]

[Footnote 123: We shall say nothing of sculptured figures taken from the catacombs, such as the statues of the good shepherd and S. Hippolitus now in the Vatican, or the numerous bas reliefs on Christian sarcophagi (on which see Raoul-Rochette, Tableau des Catacombes, c. IV. Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. B. 2, in the description of the Christian Museum in the Vatican Library). On another class of Christian representations the reader may consult Buonarruoti's _Osservazioni sopra alcuni frammenti di vetro, ornati di figure_. We shall rather call the attention of the Christian antiquarian to the numerous frescoes painted in the chapels of the catacombs, and illustrated by Bosio, Bottari, d'Agincourt etc., the latter of whom attributes some of them to the second century on account of the similarity of their style to that of frescoes in the tomb of the Nasones, which is situated on the Flaminian way at a short distance from Rome; his opinion is confirmed by the fact that some of them have been broken through, with the view of preparing a place of burial for the bodies of martyrs slain in _subsequent persecutions_. A list of their subjects which are _generally_ taken from the old and new Testaments may be seen in Raoul-Rochette (c. 3, p. 157 foll. ed. de Brusselles). Of these we may briefly notice in particular some of the representations of Christ, of the B. Virgin, of the apostles and martyrs. In them Christ sometimes appears as an infant on the lap of His holy mother, Who ever pure and modest is always veiled; and this lovely group is found not only on these paintings, but also on bas-reliefs and glass-vessels generally anterior to the 4th century, and consequently to the general council of Ephesus held in 431; although it is pretended that such figures were first designed after that period. (Instances are enumerated by Raoul-Rochette c. VI). Constantina, daughter of Constantine, whose tomb is still preserved at Rome, begged of Eusebius bishop of Cesarea a likeness of our Divine Saviour (Concil. Labbe. t. VII, 493 seq): we must have recourse to the catacombs for His most ancient portraits. See one resembling the ordinary type of His sacred head and taken from the cemetery of Calixtus, at the end of Raoul-Rochette's work. This type, repeated again and again on Christian monuments during the last sixteen hundred years or more, may suggest the hope that some traces of our Divine Saviour's features are still preserved among us, notwithstanding the diversity of His portraits, of which S. Augustine complained, De Triniti l. 8, c, 4 5. Raoul-Rochette's opinion, that this likeness and the portraits of the apostles were of Gnostic origin, is altogether unsupported, as the Belgian editors of his work justly observe. Christ is frequently represented also as seated amid His apostles, of whom SS. Peter and Paul were favourite subjects of the old artists: see Raoul-Rochette c. VI, where he mentions, after the older antiquaries, the ancient representations of S. Ciriaca, S Priscilla, SS. Stephen, Cyprian, Laurence, Agnes, and other martyrs. During Diocletian's persecution, the provincial council of Eliberis in Spain decreed, that there should be no paintings on the walls of churches: its 36th canon was evidently intended to save sacred pictures from the profanations perpetrated by the pagans. The faithful however, fertile in expedients to gratify their devotion, now began to use those portable representations of pious subjects called diptychs, because they generally consisted of two tablets which could at pleasure be _folded_ together. They were formed of ivory or wood, and resembled the presents of that name formerly sent by the consuls on the day of their entrance into office: on these were usually inscribed the names and the portraits of the new magistrates. (Symmachus lib. 2, ep. 80, all 71). The sacred diptychs, of which many are preserved in the Vatican Library, were easily saved from the fury of the Iconoclasts. Their folding form without their portability is preserved in many of the ancient altar-pieces of Italian and other churches and from them the modern altar-pieces are derived: they did not however supersede the use of frescoes, or mosaics, as is evident from innumerable ancient and modern ecclesiastical monuments of this city. In the preceding chapter we laid before our readers the doctrine of the catholic church concerning respect paid to images, p. 80.]

[Footnote 124: "He is risen; he is not here. But _go, tell_ his disciples and _Peter_, that he goeth before you into Galilee". Mark XV, 6 7.]

[Footnote 125: This Hebrew word, which frequently occurs in psalms of praise, CIV, 34, CV, 45, CVI, 1, etc. has been preserved, as well as _Amen_, and _Sabaoth_, in its original form in most liturgies. According to S. Gregory (Ep. 64, ind. 2). who appeals to S. Jerome's authority, it was introduced into the Roman liturgy in the time of Pope Damasus. S. Gregory forbade it to be sung at funerals, (as it had been at that of Fabiola: S. Jerome in Epitaphio Fabiolae;) or during Lent.]

[Footnote 126: Gavant and others, following Walafridus Strabo and the abbot Berno, think that the Offertory and _Agnus Dei_ are not said, in order to signify the silence of the holy women returning from the sepulchre (Mark XVI, 8). Others attribute some of these omissions to the circumstance, that there is no communion; on this day, and therefore neither offertory or postcommunion; anciently however communion was given on this occasion, as is evident from the Gelasian sacramentary (See Bened. XIV, De Festis c. VIII). The kiss of peace, as Grancolas observes, is not given, because formerly at the dawn of easter-sunday, soon after the mass of easter-eve, the faithful used to assemble in the church "and kissing one another with mutual charity to say, _Surrexit Dominus_ "; (the Lord is risen) Ordo Rom. ab Hittorpio ed. p. 55. Merati says, that the _Agnus Dei_ is omitted because it is of recent origin, having been first introduced into the liturgy by Pope Sergius A.D. 688 (lib. Pont.), whereas the Mass of the day is of greater antiquity.]

[Footnote 127: Cancellieri says that the music of this _Magnificat_ was composed by Luca Marenzio. Among the compositions prior to Palestrina, and still sung in the papal chapel, Baini reckons the Magnificats of Carpentrasso and Morales, as well as the _Te Deum_ and _Lumen ad revelutionem gentium_ of Costanzo Festa.]

[Footnote 128: This basilic, which is the cathedral of the bishop of Rome, was first erected by Constantine, whose statue taken from his baths adorns the portico. It was in great part destroyed by fire in 1308; but it was restored by the munificence of the Popes and the piety of the faithful, emulated in these days, in which we deplore the burning of S. Paul's. In the gothic tabernacle over the high altar are preserved the heads of SS. Peter and Paul. The mosaics of the tribune were made by order of Nicholas IV (A.D. 1278-1292).]

[Footnote 129: This baptistery, as well as the basilica, is attributed to the time of Constantine; it was reduced to its present state by Urban VIII; On an ancient and interesting Christian sarcophagus taken from the Vatican cemetery is represented a basilica with its apsis, and near it a circular building evidently meant for the baptistery: this is covered with a cupola surmounted by the monogram of Christ; and over the gate are curtains drawn up on each side, See Raoul-Rochette-Tableau des Catacombs, p. 332. The font is an ancient urn of basalt the paintings above it, between the second order of columns, representing, the life of S. John Baptist, are by Carlo Maratta.]

[Footnote 130: In a missal of Pavia it is called a figure of the column which preceded the Israelites going out of Egypt.]

[Footnote 131: The stag was a favourite subject of the early Christian artists, who often represented it in their paintings, and afterwards on their mosaics. The text above quoted explains its signification.]

[Footnote 132: "In most of the old rituals we find that the font was hallowed with various ceremonies besides prayer. It was customary to make the sign of the cross, as we learn from the testimony of Chrysostom, Augustine, and Pseudo-Dionysius". Palmer vol. 2, p. 195. Martene observes that the rite of pouring chrism into the water is mentioned in all the ancient Gallican, Ambrosian, and Mozarabic liturgies. The blessing of baptismal water is reckoned by S. Basil, in the 4th century, among apostolical traditions. (De Spiritu. S. c. 27).]

[Footnote 133: "Some form of admission to the class of catechumens was used in all churches at an early period, and it seems most commonly to have consisted of imposition of hands with prayers for the person. To this in many places were added various rites, such as, signing the forehead of the candidate with the cross, the consecration and giving of salt, which was entitled the sacrament of catechumens, repeated exorcisms, or prayers and adjurations to cast out the power of Satan, anointing with oil, and other mystical and figurative rites. In the course of many ages, when the Christian church had overspread the face of the world, and infidelity had become in most places extinct, the form of admission to the class of catechumens was from a veneration for old customs in many places conjoined to the office of baptism, and administered at the same time with it to the candidates for that sacrament whether they were infants or not". Palmer, vol. 2, c. 5, sect. 1.]

[Footnote 134: "It has been customary in the Christian church from the most remote period, for the candidates for baptism to renounce the devil and all his works, before they were admitted to that sacrament. This renunciation was always followed by a profession of faith in Christ, as it is now in the English liturgy. The last interrogation and answer "Vis baptizari, Volo" have long been used in the west. (Martene de Antiq. Eccl. rit. tom. I, p. 180, 192). According to the ancient custom of the Roman church, represented in the Sacramentary of Gregory, the profession of faith occurs between the hallowing of the water and the administration of the sacrament. This custom has long been used in the Roman church; since the Sacramentary of Gelasius (A.D. 494) appointed the confession of faith to be made immediately before baptism, _though the renunciations were made some hours before_. In primitive times the sign of the cross was not only made on the forehead of the elect at the time of baptism, but was used very often in other ways: this act is probably not more recent than the apostolical age; and this sign was made in some part of almost every Christian office. The administration of baptism was succeeded by various rites in the primitive church; among other the newly-baptised were clothed in white garments. Formerly also confirmation followed immediately after baptism". I have extracted the preceding passages from different sections of Palmer's 5th chapter, vol. 2: coming from a clergyman of the church of England, they are important admissions, and they dispense with the necessity of my proving the antiquity of these various baptismal riles. The reader may see proofs of them collected in Palmer (loc. cit.) Martene T. 1: cap. 2, etc.]

[Footnote 135: Palmer says, that in confirmation, to the rites of prayer and imposition, of hands was added "that of anointing with an unguent or chrism, made of oil and balsam, and hallowed by the prayers of the bishop.--We learn from the writings of Tertullian and Origen, that it was already customary both in the east and the west at the end of the 2nd or beginning of the 3rd century. This chrism was intended to signify the grace of the Holy Spirit then conferred". Palmer, Or. Lit. vol. 2, p. 199. If this unction had not been of apostolic origin, it would not have been customary in all churches at so early a period.]

[Footnote 136: At S. John Lateran's, when the _Agnus Dei_ is said, the ancient custom is preserved, which was originally established by Pope Sergius, of saying _Miserere nobis_ three times, and not _Dona nobis pacem_, which words were introduced into the liturgy, (according to Innocent III, De Myst Missae) about the 10th century, in time of schism.]

[Footnote 137: Orders are generally conferred on the saturday of each ember-week, besides the saturday before passion and easter sundays. A minute detail of the numerous ceremonies of ordination can not be expected in a work on the ceremonies of holy-week. The reader may find them all enumerated in the Pontifical, and on their antiquity he may consult Morinus, De Ordinationibus; Martene, De Ant. Eccl. Rit. t. 2. etc. On the service of holy saturday see the MS. Pontifical of the Apamean church and various Ordines ap. Martene, lib. IV, c. 24. Formerly after the mass there was general communion; and at Rome no Vespers were said (Alcuin), and 7 altars were consecrated.]

[Footnote 138: In the afternoon the parish-priests bless with prayers and holy water the houses and paschal food of their parishioners. In the Ordo Romanus, besides the blessing of milk and honey, there is a formula of benediction of a lamb and other food. Durandus also (lib. 6 Ration.) mentions the blessing of the lamb, a custom which is preserved at Rome till the present time. The shops of the _pizzicaroli_ are illuminated and gaily decorated, probably because _they_ have peculiar reasons to rejoice at the conclusion of the _austerities_ of lent.]

[Footnote 139: For the ceremonies of Easter-sunday see The Pontifical Mass sung at S. Peter's on Easter-sunday etc. By C.M. Baggs. D.D. Rome 1840.]