Chapter VIII: Part 8

The warmest enthusiast for the C. L. S. C. has never recommended it to young men and women with means and opportunity to pursue a regular college course. On the contrary it has been a claim from the beginning that it tends to arouse in many a home the ambition to have son and daughter enjoy the advantages of the college training. But to the thousands of C. L. S. C. students to whom opportunity is past, or to whom it never came for want of time and money, to those and other thousands of well wishers it will be of interest to consider how and to what extent the C. L. S. C. may be deemed a substitute.

It should be borne in mind that the college proper is entirely distinct from the professional school. The former aims to give that general and accurate knowledge and training which prepares for the work and duties of life. The latter is wholly technical in its character. Now, keeping this definition in view and comparing the C. L. S. C. with the college, we shall see that each possesses its points of superiority and inferiority. The college has facilities for taking the student of physics and chemistry into apparatus-room and laboratory where he may witness experiment and illustration of great practical value. The C. L. S. C. student reaches the same facts and conclusions through the cuts and explanations of text-books, supplemented in many cases by experiments of his own, which, though rude, are often the most valuable of all. All that acquaintance with the operations and formulæ of higher mathematics which the college student with taste and talent for such things may possess, the C. L. S. C. student does not have. But the result wrought out through these higher mathematical processes with all their various practical applications are brought to his knowledge. The C. L. S. C. student does not have the benefit of a critical study of Latin and Greek, but he gets through history and the literatures of these languages as large an acquaintance with Greece and Rome. Horace Greeley, when reminded of the impossibility of his obtaining a good knowledge of the old classic authors because of his ignorance of the languages in which they wrote, replied that he did not think it necessary to eat a few feet of “lead pipe every day in order to get a pint of Croton water.” Whatever may be the strength or weakness of such reasoning it must be admitted that acquaintance with the thought and feeling of mankind is the highest fruit of language study. This, through faithful and scholarly translations, the C. L. S. C. student receives.

In the departments of general history and English literature the C. L. S. C. has a wider range and requires more than the college. It has its special courses which correspond with the idea of elective studies in the more advanced colleges of the times. The C. L. S. C. possesses, too, the advantages of all the improved methods of instruction, so far as circumstances will permit of their application: the lecture, the text-book, the question and answer. The student may lose something by reason of the long distance in miles between himself and the author or lecturer who is his teacher, but he is somewhat compensated by the better facilities which he possesses for the development of habits of personal investigation and self-reliance. The C. L. S. C. is not the college but in many features it is like the college. It is the best substitute for it known.

Wagner.

The recent death of Richard Wagner removes from the world of art one, the greatness of whose work it would be difficult to exaggerate. His musical devotees, who are in every land, and who pay him the most enthusiastic homage, regard his loss as irreparable. The art of music has perhaps had no follower who in all respects was his equal. His impression upon his age was deep, and his work will not soon pass away. He died February 13, in Venice, where he was spending the winter. For some years he had been accustomed, as the season of cold came on, to seek the milder Italian climate.

May 22, 1813, in Leipsic, Wilhelm Richard Wagner was born, the youngest of seven children. His father was an actuary of police, and died a few months after the son’s birth. A step-father, Ludwig Geyer, a portrait painter, who had once been an actor and a writer of plays, probably helped in giving his mind a dramatic bent, but he also died when Richard was but seven years old. Wagner, in his autobiography, tells us that, though he early discovered a strong taste for music, he could never learn to play well on the piano. His teacher in boyhood declared that his making a player was quite out of the question, and the teacher was right. His playing was never good. He was sent to school to prepare for the regular university course; but here his time was largely spent in verse-making, in studying the Greek and other tragedies, and writing plays. He passed among his school fellows for one of bright mind, and he excelled in literary work. Before he had reached his twelfth year verses of his appeared in print. It was a memorable time with the boy when a translation of Shakspere’s works fell into his hands. His admiration for the great genius of English literature knew no bounds; he studied English that he might read the plays in the original. He became an earnest student of this master, and it was his delight to sit at his feet. One of his biographers, speaking of this boyhood period, says that “He projected an immense tragedy, which was a concoction of ‘Hamlet’ and ‘King Lear,’ on an absurdly grand scale. Forty-two men died in the earlier part of the play, and he was obliged to make a number of them return as ghosts, in order to keep the last acts sufficiently supplied with _dramatis personæ_.” Another event in his life was his first hearing at a concert one of Beethoven’s symphonies. The lad of fifteen was deeply moved, and a purpose to be a musician was awakened in his soul. His friends had no faith in his musical gifts, but finally allowed him to follow his inclination. He set to studying music at a furious rate, and to composing music. He studied for a time at the Thomas-schule at Leipsic, but in a desultory fashion at first, from which he derived little good. At length, however, he put himself under the instruction of Theodore Weinlig, cantor of this seminary,—a thoroughly competent teacher,—and laid an excellent foundation for his musical future. He became an adorer of Beethoven, as he had been—and continued ever to be—of Shakspere. “I doubt,” wrote one musical critic, “whether there ever was a young musician who knew Beethoven’s works more thoroughly than Wagner at his eighteenth year. The master’s overtures and larger instrumental compositions he had copied for himself in score. He went to sleep with the sonatas and rose with the quartettes; he sang the songs and whistled the concertos.”

The success of Wagner did not come speedily. He was forced to wait a long time for the world’s appreciation. There were years in which failure followed failure with him as a musical director and composer. He struggled long with poverty. He received his share of ridicule. But the time of his triumph came. His music has gone everywhere, and in these last years people from all quarters of the globe have flocked to the little Bavarian city where he had his home to listen to the productions of his genius as rendered by the world’s first artists. The coming of King Ludwig to the throne of Bavaria meant for Wagner his needed opportunity. The young king believed in him and took him under his protection. He could show the world at length the power that was in him. And the world has acknowledged it, and crowned him king in the realm of music. He founded a school; his theories were new and revolutionary. And his school has triumphed; his theories, as one has said, have “leavened the whole lump of European music.” His great name was sought to add to the glory of our American Centennial in 1876, and a portion of the music sung at the opening of the great exhibition in Philadelphia was from his pen. He was more than a musical composer. He was a matchless orchestral organizer and director. He was possessed of exquisite dramatic insight. He was a poet of genuine poetic gifts. He was a profound writer upon political and philosophical subjects. And his writings upon music and the drama have had a great influence. His literary works have been collected and published in an edition of nine volumes, and show in their author a strangely versatile genius. Some of his best known musical compositions are “Rienzi,” “Tannhäuser,” “Lohengrin,” “Tristan und Isolde,” “Die Meistersinger,” the four operas of the “Nibelungenring,” whose presentation enraptured thousands attended at Baireuth—among whom were different crowned heads of Europe—and “Parsifal” given last July at the same place with equal or greater success. Wagner lived in his last years at Baireuth in royal style. If fame, wealth, the homage of men could give man content, his lot should have been one of satisfaction. Personally, he was a man of strong will, of self-assertion, and of stubbornness—a man who could say of others things harsh and severe. Among his friends, however, he was amiable and often jolly. He was twice married. His first wife was not a congenial partner, and was divorced. His second was the daughter of the illustrious Liszt, and she survives him.

The Study of Art.

Within the last decade there has been in this country a marked increase in the interest manifested in all matters pertaining to the fine arts. Not only have amateur artists been multiplied all over the land, but many persons who make no pretensions to the use of brush or chisel, have applied themselves assiduously to the study of the history and principles of art. Each succeeding year adds to the number.

Of late years, also, the facilities for such studies have been greatly increased. In many of our universities and colleges departments of art have been instituted and capable instructors secured to train such students as desire to acquire thorough knowledge. In addition to this, societies are to be found in most of our leading cities, which are designed to encourage the study of art and afford great facilities to those desiring to perfect themselves in its different departments. At least one school of design has been established in this country, which has already attracted many students. Instructions in oil and water colors can be obtained in almost every town and hamlet in the land. Opportunities are numerous and afford delightful and profitable pastime for those who have leisure and capacity for such employments.

The study of art has been given suitable prominence in the course of the C. L. S. C. Text-books, well written and beautifully illustrated, have been prepared by persons in every way qualified for the task they have undertaken. Numerous lectures on this subject, full of entertainment and instruction, have been delivered on the Chautauqua platform, while the Chautauqua Schools of Drawing and Modeling are each year increasing in interest and attendance. A number of articles on various departments of art have appeared in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, and its future numbers will be enriched by many more.

The study of art in all its departments is worthy of the highest commendation and encouragement, and is always productive of beneficial results. It is ennobling and elevating in its tendencies. It is the herald of a broader culture, of a greater refinement of taste and manners, and a higher degree of civilization. Its practical results will be made manifest in more beautifully built and more tastefully adorned homes, in a truer æstheticism, and in a keener appreciation of the beautiful in nature, life, and morals.

Increased study and admiration of a subject is always productive of desire to possess and enjoy its works. The great acquisition of wealth in recent years by the people of this country affords ample means to gratify this noble desire awakened by this study. Hence the demand for works of art has greatly increased, so that the artist who is able to produce well-executed pictures or statues is sure of a profitable and even lucrative employment. Genius in this realm, as well as elsewhere, is rare; but patient and persistent effort on the part of any one possessed of even moderate ability, will enable its possessor to attain to sufficient excellence to insure a fair degree of success in an artistic career.

It is true that works of art will always be, as regards the cost of production, beyond the means of those in ordinary circumstances, but not on this account should persons in the humble walks of life be deterred from the study of art. The benefits received from such a course of study are as sure to be obtained by the poorest as by the richest. But while paintings and statuary may be too costly for the many, photographs and engravings of the masters, both in painting and sculpture, can be obtained for comparatively small sums. The humblest and poorest need not be without the inspiration derived from the marvelous designs of the great artists who, from age to age, have delighted the world with their wonderful works.

Art galleries, which constitute one of the chief attractions of European cities to cultured tourists, do not abound in our country, but art exhibitions are occasionally within the reach of all, and should be attended whenever possible by every one who desires to attain proficiency in the study and knowledge of art.

Washington Irving.

A hundred years have gone since the birth of this genial writer, to whom we owe so great a debt. The Irving centenary will occur on April 3, and this number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN affords a most fitting place for Prof. Bruce’s eloquent lecture upon his writings. We would also make room here for a résumé of his life and work.

The life of this favorite author is comprised between the dates April 3, 1783, and November 28, 1859. He lived reasonably long, and his years were eminently fruitful. His birth-place was New York city, and he died at his “Sunnyside” place, famous and beloved, on the Hudson. His parents were English, which may partly account for the warm side he ever had for the English people. He was the youngest of several children. His early educational advantages were good, and well improved. At the age of sixteen he entered upon the study of law. The bent of his mind, however, was toward literature. As early as 1802 he wrote for the press, and among other effusions a series of articles in the _Morning Chronicle_, signed “Jonathan Oldstyle,” came from his pen. In 1804 he was threatened with consumption, and visited Europe in pursuit of health. At Rome he made the acquaintance of the great painter, Washington Allston, with whom he set out to study for an artist. The new passion, however, was short-lived. A trial of three days satisfied him that he was not born to wield the brush. On his return from his European trip he was admitted to the bar, but instead of seeking law-practice he devoted his time to literary work. The first of his published works which was important was the serial “Salmagundi”—the joint production of his brother William, James K. Paulding, and himself—the first number of which was issued in January, 1807. This humorous work, abounding in clever hits at persons and things, was very successful, and was received with favor on the other side of the Atlantic as well as at home. The exquisite “Knickerbocker’s History of New York” soon followed, a burlesque which was taken for veritable history by some rather dull readers, and gave offense to certain descendants of the old Dutch families. Irving’s brother Peter had some hand, though quite a subordinate part, in the construction of this work. After the publication of “Knickerbocker,” nothing of much importance came from his pen for a number of years. After his father’s death, two of Irving’s brothers succeeded to his important mercantile business, and he himself became a sleeping partner in the firm. In 1815 he again visited Europe. He became a resident of London. There he found himself favorably known by his works, and became intimate with many of the literary men of the day. The time came when his firm became bankrupt, and he was obliged to take hold of literary work in earnest for a livelihood. In 1820 “Geoffrey Crayon’s Sketch-Book” was published in London, at the time it was also appearing in America. “Bracebridge Hall” and “Tales of a Traveler” afterward appeared at intervals of two years. In 1824 he was prepared to gratify a desire for travel, and he proceeded to make a protracted tour of the continent. This finished, he took up his residence in Spain, where he collected materials for his “Life of Columbus,” “The Conquest of Granada,” and “The Alhambra,” which works were published in the order named. In 1829 he returned to London, and the second year following he received from the University of Oxford the degree of LL.D. After an absence of seventeen years, he returned to his native land in 1832. In this time he had become a bright star in the world’s literary firmament. His countrymen, proud of his great fame, extended to him a royal welcome. He built “Sunnyside,” near Tarrytown, N. Y., where he loved to entertain his literary and other friends, and here he passed the remaining years of his life. His pen continued busy. The other works he gave to the world are “Astoria,” “Captain Bonneville,” “Life of Goldsmith,” “Mahomet and his Successors,” and “The Life of Washington.” The last work he had just time to finish before sudden death commanded his pen to perpetual silence.

Irving was the first American author to be known and admired in Europe. He has remained in England the favorite among our writers. His extended fame is well merited, and now that nearly a quarter-century has gone since his death, it does not seem to wane. His writings are to be admired for their classic English, their beauty of style, their sweet and genial spirit, their sparkling humor, their pure and noble thoughts. While he lived six hundred thousand volumes of his works were sold in our land alone, and since his death their sale has averaged more than thirty thousand volumes yearly. And such a token of appreciation is no more than his due. In his personal character he was one of the most estimable of men. His life was without reproach. He lived and died in the Christian faith. He was a man of large hospitality, and the most winning courtesy. His affections were strong and his nature generous. He never married. A young lady, to whom in his youth he was attached, was removed by death, and his heart was never given to another. Well does the “Easy Chair” of _Harper_ call for the erection of an Irving statue in Central Park. And it is most fitting for the lovers of his writings, who are uncounted thousands, to pay some observance to the centenary of this author, through whom it first became known to the trans-Atlantic world that in America was the power to produce a literature.

EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK.

It will be good news to readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN that Mrs. G. H. Cook, of Boston, Mass., has kindly consented to come to our rescue by taking up the story of the “Tour Round the World,” where sickness obliged Mrs. Mary Lowe Dickinson to give it up. Mrs. Cook traveled leisurely with her husband, the Rev. Joseph Cook, on his recent tour round the world, and she made voluminous notes on points of interest in every land they visited. Her articles, which will appear in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for May, June, and July of the current volume, will be of special interest. She will start from Italy and go to Greece and Palestine, thence to Egypt and India, then through China and Japan. She will give us the latest and best things that can be gathered on this line of travel.

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In the Quincy, Michigan, local circle, a new feature has been introduced into the program for a regular meeting, viz., _a paper on “current events of the week.”_ This will educate the members to observe passing events, and to study their bearings on our civilization. It will awaken a new interest in reading the daily and weekly papers, and excite members to _learn_ to read the papers. It will remove the objection that is sometimes made that so much ancient history in the C. L. S. C. course is dry and uninteresting, by giving present history. It is, however, a _departure_ that should be indulged in with care, because we may let a taste for current events destroy a taste for the more substantial history of the past, which has been prepared by the masters, and is set all around with the _results_ grown out of the events. Yet a paper on _current events of the week_ is a good kind of paper for a local circle.

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The Star Route trial, No. 2, at Washington, goes on and on. Rerdell, who was ex-Senator Dorsey’s book-keeper, has turned against his employer and confessed under oath that he had perjured himself on the witness stand in the first trial. There is no doubt but there is crime under the indictments in this case, if it can be located, and that is what the government is now trying to do. It is humiliating that a powerful organization like the United States government should be obliged to consume so much time and be at such enormous expense to prove the guilt or innocence of the few men involved in this case. Attorney General Brewster has endured a severe storm of criticism from sympathizers with the accused; while Mr. Ingersoll, who has been using his wits to point out the mistakes of Moses, has now, as Mr. Dorsey’s counsel, assumed the task of showing up the mistakes of the United States government. The embarrassment seems to be that while an increase in the mailing facilities of the West was needed, more of an increase was made than was economical or just. To fasten the injustice where it belongs is the task of the trial.

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A certain class of Presbyterian ministers in this country perpetuate the old custom of wearing a gown in the pulpit. The Rev. Dr. Paxton, and the Rev. Dr. John Hall, of New York, are among the number.

The Rev. Dr. W. H. DePuy, for many years associate editor of the New York _Christian Advocate_, has resigned his position, to devote his time to the “People’s Cyclopædia.” Dr. DePuy has made a fine reputation as a wise and enterprising editor, a clear and strong writer. He will be greatly missed in the columns of the _Advocate_. Dr. Buckley, the editor-in-chief, is to have Mr. Dougherty, a layman, and former critical proof reader, for his associate in Dr. DePuy’s place.

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Mr. B. C. Herrick, of Akron, graduated in the C. L. S. C. clans of 1882, but, by some mistake, his name did not appear in the published list.

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We are prepared to supply back numbers of the present volume of THE CHAUTAUQUAN. We can also fill orders for the CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY DAILY HERALD of 1882. Persons writing for the ASSEMBLY HERALD should be careful to say which volume, 1882 or 1883.

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The _Scientific American_ says: “The reappearance of the variable star poetically known as the Star of Bethlehem is among the possibilities of the present year; for unless astronomical calculations are in fault, this long-looked for star must flash forth from the sky-depths before the year 1885 has completed its course, and it may appear at any time, as its period, if it have one, is very near completion.”

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The poem by Charlotte E. Leavitt on the “Comet” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for March, reads “The first faint _flashes_ of the coming morn.” It should read “_flushes_.”

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“The circle has been a factor in making ‘_two hearts beat as one_.’” The above message is frequently received at the office of THE CHAUTAUQUAN; this time, the address of Miss Maggie Barclay became Mrs. Fred. S. White, Minneapolis. Her name was changed, while her husband his name retained, February 20. “What don’t the C. L. S. C. help people to do?”

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While eminent men in political life are occasionally seen going to ruin, through their own weakness, or by the treachery of their former associates, it brightens the picture to see a man like ex-Governor Edwin D. Morgan, of New York, finish his course and come to his death like a Christian, patriot, and philanthropist. He called the Chicago convention together that nominated Abraham Lincoln for the Presidency; as the war Governor of New York he sent 273,000 of her sons as soldiers into the Union army, and twice did he refuse to become Secretary of the Treasury of the United States. He left an estate estimated to be worth $6,000,000, of which he gave $795,000 to various benevolent objects.

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The interest taken in the “Wiggins storm” was about as phenomenal as the storm itself. Less than a year ago Barnum, an American, awakened and excited the people of two great nations over Jumbo. This time it was an Englishman who prophesied, ostensibly basing his predictions on scientific calculations, that a _tremendous_ storm would sweep over certain portions of the earth on the 10th and 11th of March. A storm came, but it was the old kind of a March storm. The people of Kansas, Dakota, and other portions of the West see greater storms once a month. We are a foolish people—ready to believe many foolish things, if they come in the name of science. The correct philosophy of storms has not been formulated. Scientists are unable to tell us much about their origin or end; herein they are in accord with the greatest of teachers—who has said, “The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof but canst not tell whence it cometh or whither it goeth.”

Congress has adjourned. In the Senate, Senator Davis resigned his presidency in season for the Republicans to elect Senator Edmunds to his place, thus preparing against an emergency. In the case of President Arthur’s death Mr. Edmunds would succeed to the Presidency of the United States. The tariff absorbed the most attention and consumed the most time of both houses near the close of the session. On this question the great political parties are choosing their ground preparatory to the next presidential campaign.

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The Buffalo, Pittsburg & Western Railroad Company has purchased the “Transit Line of Steamers” on Chautauqua Lake. The Chautauqua traveling public are to be congratulated on this change, for this corporation has already shown much enterprise in the extension of their line of railroad to the Chautauqua grounds. Under the management of this corporation we may reasonably expect that profanity and intemperance, which vices have been too common on Chautauqua steamers, will be suppressed. We shall now hope for a better administration.

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No author of the C. L. S. C. has been more of a friend to us all than John Richard Green, the author of “Green’s Short History of the English People.” It is with sorrow that we chronicle his death. In the first year of the course we read his work. Mr. Green had the rare faculty of viewing history with a philosophical eye, and of describing its events and results in a lively, entertaining style. We have seen page after page of his writings read before a class of young people without their interest flagging for a moment. The man who can so write for the people, does more for his race than many investigators and critics. Though a popular writer, Mr. Green’s position as examiner in the School of Modern History, Oxford, proves his exact and critical knowledge. No historian who has recently died will be mourned by a greater number of people, and the C. L. S. C. will especially feel his loss.

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Miss Helen Winsor, of Jamestown, N. Y., is a young lady who has been afflicted in body for many years, but not to an extent to prevent the cultivation of her taste for works of art. We remember some beautiful crayon sketches she wrought on the blackboard for a Sunday-school when she was a mere girl. She is now with friends in Philadelphia pursuing the study of art, and doing some excellent work with her own brush. We learn that she proposes to open a studio there for work, and for the sale of her paintings.

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In this number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN our readers will find a new department under an old name. Turn to the “Editor’s Table” and you will see that we anticipate the questions of the questioners. The suggestion was made by a local circle in California—we have mislaid the letter—and emphasized by Dr. Vincent. We have therefore decided to try to throw a stronger light on the dark parts of the required readings in the C. L. S. C. course of study. This is not to be understood as a reflection on the authors who write for the C. L. S. C., but rather a necessity which grows out of the fact that our writers put much in little, as Plutarch says, “give the sense of things;” hence it is important that we supplement their articles with the pronunciation of hard words, explanatory notes, etc. It is the old “Editor’s Table” with this difference: we do not wait for our readers to send in their questions for answers; we anticipate them by a critical reading and re-reading of the articles, and then make the notes as you will find them in this number.

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_The Watchman_ is a neatly printed and ably edited little paper issued monthly by the Rev. E. K. Creed, for the benefit of his church at Silver Creek, N. Y. This is a better method than the “tract,” so called, in a congregation. It is fresh every month, and useful as the organ of every society in the church. It affords a splendid opportunity for the pastor to emphasize ideas and plans for church work. We are acquainted with four large churches where a little paper of this character has been made the medium for a vesper and praise service on a Sunday evening once a month. The Scriptures are selected and arranged for responsive readings by pastor and congregation, and two or three verses from about six hymns, set to tunes that the people know, are interspersed through the readings. It makes a delightful half-hour service, which may be followed by a fifteen or twenty minute address by the pastor. It breaks up monotony, introduces a pleasing variety into church services, and educates the people to read the Scriptures and sing the songs of the Church.

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No argument strikes harder than one of figures, and such the Rev. Joseph Cook has recently given us in his powerful preludes to his Boston Monday lectures. He shows us that one-third of our children are growing up in ignorance; that the liquor traffic for a day equals the missionary collections for a year. He proves our needs, and tells us what must be done. Trite and tiresome as the topics appear to many, upon the success or failure of them depend all national and Christian health. For many years these questions must be discussed, but the longer indifference is manifested, the harder it will be to uproot the evil results growing with such fearful rapidity in our nation.

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Mr. J. B. Rogers, of Dundee, N. Y., writes the following: In company with a few ladies and gentlemen of the geology class, I visited Panama Rocks last summer. The questions were asked, how were they formed? To what system do they belong? and a number of other questions of similar import. Undoubtedly a great many persons have asked the same questions before. From the few observations which my limited visit afforded me, I came to the conclusion that the conglomerate was an outlier of the lowest conglomerate of the carboniferous system and that the adjacent portions had been removed by denudation. After reaching home I found that Prof. James Hall, in his report on the geology of the fourth district of the State of New York, held the same view. The rock at Panama is about 60 feet thick. The stratum in Pennsylvania, a few miles south of the State line, is 150 feet thick. In the states of Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky, the same rock is about 100 feet thick. It “thins out” toward the west, showing that the locality from which the materials of the conglomerate were obtained, was situated to the east. In fact, the rocks of New York and Pennsylvania, in the majority of cases, thin out toward the west; showing that while they were being deposited, there existed a large region of land surface to the east, from which the material of the rocks was derived. On the summits of the two highest hills over which the road passes from Chautauqua to Panama, the same conglomerate is found, affording an excellent example of erosion, for the intervening rock has been removed. The rock at Panama has evidently dropped down. Imagine an over-hanging cliff of conglomerate, the soft greenshale being worn away by water, undermining the conglomerate. It falls, and is broken in great blocks. The adjoining portions are worn down and carried away, as the rock is now being worn. The portions between Panama and Chautauqua are evidently _in situ_. I have been informed that on the north side of the lake a detached mass of conglomerate caps the hill.

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Our country has been terribly visited during the last month by floods of enormous extent. In all the suffering and loss there has been marked sympathy and aid. While the waters were devastating the banks of the Rhine, Ohio sent contributions to the suffering people. Hardly were these evidences of friendliness received before Cincinnati was submerged and over the ocean came help from the Rhine. Certainly international brotherhood is fast increasing, and we are on the highway to unity.

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A member of the C. L. S. C. complains of discrepancies between the measurements given in the text-book on astronomy and those in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Our friend must not forget that when doctors disagree it is hard to be exact. In regard to the velocity of light various results have been reached. Foucault gives it 185,000 miles, and Newcomb says this is probably within 1,000 miles of the truth. Again, 185,200 is given; 186,250; 191,000. The _exact_ diameter of the sun and its volume as compared with the earth is not known. The figures are approximate. As to the number of comets, the text-book refers to all the comets visible to naked eye and observed by telescope, and the discrepancy will disappear when it is noticed that THE CHAUTAUQUAN makes a division; the total being 700, which agrees with the text-book.

EDITOR’S TABLE.

The following notes on the Required Readings for April make a new feature of “THE CHAUTAUQUAN” which we expect will be a regular department for the use of readers and circles that have neither time nor books to look up the classic allusions, definitions, or dark points of articles. They are intended to contain what would be required of students in a recitation, and should be used by leaders of circles as subjects for questions. It is earnestly desired by the Counselors of the C. L. S. C. that the course shall be pursued thoroughly, hence the object of this department is to help all members, but especially those that are doing thorough work.

The notes will stand in the order of the articles as found in the Required Readings for the month, the page and column being given. “P.” will stand for page; “c.” for column.

“HISTORY OF RUSSIA.”

P. 365, c. 1.—“Tatar.” Also written Tata; the correct, though unusual forms of the word Tartar, supposed to be of Chinese origin.

P. 365, c. 1.—“1224-1264.” Contemporaneous with these invasions we have Henry III. in England, holding the first regular parliament, and fixing weights and measures for his kingdom. Frederick I., of Germany, carries on the sixth crusade, and Louis IX., of France, the seventh. Roger Bacon invents spectacles, and the Bible is first divided into chapters. The papal chair is filled successively by Innocent III., Honorius III., Gregory IX.; while in 1258 Bagdad suffers its first overthrow.

P. 365, c. 1.—“Federation.” To unite in a league.

P. 365, c. 1.—“Ban-dog” is a corruption of band-dog—one which is kept chained because of its fierceness.

P. 365, c. 1.—“Marke.” Notice the use of the capital. Among the ancients and during the Middle Ages there was no distinction between the use of capitals and small letters. The Germans begin all substantives with capitals. A practice continued for some time in old English.

P. 365, c. 1.—“Matthew Arnold.” The son of Dr. Arnold, the famous Rugby teacher. His principal works are his poems and “Essays in Criticism.” The _Edinburgh Review_ says of him: “For combined culture and fine natural feeling in versification, Dr. Arnold has no superior.”

P. 365, c. 1.—“Oxus.” A classic name for the Amoor Darya or Jihoon River. It flows into the Aral Sea, though geologists affirm that it once flowed into the Caspian.

P. 365, c. 1.—“Kal´mucks;” “Kuz´zacks.” Tribes living north of what is now Eastern Russia.

P. 365, c. 1.—“Kirghizes,” ke´ri-gheez. One of the six divisions into which the Tatar race is divided, occupying the region around the Aral Sea.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Bo-kha´ra.” A khanate (kân´ate, or kăn´ate) of Turkestan; its most famous city bears the same name.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Khiva,” kî´va. A khanate of Turkestan; supposed by geologists to have been the bed of an ancient sea, of which the Aral and Caspian now remain. Many interesting facts of the customs and character of the Khivians may be gathered from Burnaby’s book, “A Ride to Khiva,” published by Harper Brothers.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Toor´kums,” tu´kas. Tribes of Tatars that lived in Southern Turkestan.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Salore.” A province in Central Asia.

P. 365, c. 2.—“At´truck.” A river flowing into the Caspian Sea.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Ferghana,” fer´gä-na.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Jaxartes,” jax-ar´tes. The ancient name for the Sur Daria River.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Kipschak,” kips-chak; also written kiptchak. A vast territory north of the Caspian Sea, stretching from the Don to the Turkestan.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Genghis Khan,” jen´ghis kan. An Asiatic conqueror, born in 1160, died in 1227. At fourteen he succeeded his father as chief of a Tatar horde. He soon succeeded in vanquishing all the surrounding tribes, and was proclaimed their khan, or prince. Having established a new form of government, and laid down a code of laws, which is still known in Asia, he began an unparalleled line of conquests. He annexed Tartary, overran China, capturing Pekin, conquered Bokhara, Samarcand, Southern Russia, Corea, and the countries northwest of India. Having destroyed the Tangut dynasty, he was contemplating new conquests, when death ended his career.

“Tchep,” chep.

“Subudaï-bagadur,” su-bu´dā bag´a-dür.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Bruited,” bru-ted. Rumored.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Polovtsui.” See map.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Petchenegs.” See map. Wandering tribes which inhabited the western and southern borders of Russia, and during the tenth and eleventh centuries kept the people of the borderland in incessant war and turmoil.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Drevliané.” See map. A tribe whose condition was little above that of the beasts. They were first subdued by Olga, who partially civilized them.

P. 365, c. 2.—“Boyar,” boy´ar. A Russian nobleman.

P. 366, c. 1.—“Avant courier.” Forerunner.

P. 366, c. 1.—“Feodor,” fē-o´dor.

P. 366, c. 1.—“Andrei Bogoliubski,” an-drë´ï bō-gō-li-ub´ski.

P. 366, c. 2.—“Metrophanes,” me-tro-pha´nes.

P. 366, c. 2.—“Tver.” Tv pronounced quickly, as in _ver_.

P. 366, c. 2.—“Kozelsk,” kô´zelsk.

P. 367, c. 1.—“Russian St. Anthony.” Saint Anthony lived in Egypt during the first half of the fourth century. He is honored as the founder of monastic life. The catacombs spoken of are hewn from the rock.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Louis IX.” is the Saint Louis of the Catholic Church.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Leignitz,” līg´nits.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Olmutz,” ol´muts.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Karinthia,” usually spelt Carinthia. It is a crown-land of Austria. Its capital is Klagenfurt.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Laraï,” lara´ï. The city was destroyed by a Tatar khan about 1502.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Nogais,” no´gā.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Bashkirs.” See map. Uncivilized tribes west of the Ural Mountains. Not subdued until the middle of the last century.

P. 368, c. 1.—“As-tra-kan´,” a country north of the Caspian Sea, and divided by the Ural River into two desolate steppes.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Khubulai,” khu-bu-la´i.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Khan Uzbeck,” kan uz´bek.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Islam,” iz-lam. A word signifying obedience to God, used by Mohammedans to designate their religion and the whole body of believers.

P. 368, c. 1.—“Propagandist,” prop´a-gan-dist. One who devotes himself to the spread of any creed or principle.

P. 368, c. 2.—“Orientalism.” A system of doctrines or customs peculiar to the inhabitants of the East.

P. 368, c. 2.—“Innoculate.” To communicate.

“HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF SCANDINAVIA.”

P. 369, c. 1.—“Wain of Charles.” A common name for the constellation of Ursa Major; also called the “Big Dipper,” “Great Bear.” Tennyson uses this name in his “New Year’s Eve”:

“And we danced about the May-pole, and in the hazel copse,
Until Charles’s Wain came out from behind the chimney tops.”

P. 369, c. 1.—“Mā´-lar’s Palace.” A large lake in Sweden upon whose shores Stockholm and other cities are built. Many large palaces are built upon its shores.

P. 369, c. 1.—“Casque,” käsk. A helmet.

P. 369, c. 2.—“Klinias,” klin´i-as. Father of the Grecian commander Alcibiades, celebrated for his beauty.

P. 369, c. 2.—“Czar Peter’s City.” St. Petersburg. Peter the Great laid the foundation of the city after having seized the river Neva from the Swedes. In 1712 it became the capital of Russia, superseding Moscow.

P. 369, c. 2.—“Saint Nicholas.” A patron saint of the Catholics, held in particular honor by the Russian Church. Precisely when he lived and what he did is not known, but he is said to have performed many miracles. Children and schools are his especial care.

P. 369, c. 2.—“Sota’s reef,” sō´ta. A cliff of the Sodermanland range, in the district of Sothland.

P. 369, c. 2.—“Hjalmar,” yálmar. A celebrated Norse champion, slain in combat with Angantyr.

P. 369, c. 2.—“Odin,” ō´din. That God of Norse mythology who is said to have created heaven and earth. He was as great among the Scandinavians as Jupiter among the Greeks. Not until after the reformation did the belief in Odin and his court die out, and even now among the ignorant it survives. The origin of the myth is disputed. Some attribute it to the worship of a warrior, who is said to have come from Saxony, conquered the country, and established a glorious rule; others to nature worship.

P. 369, c. 2.—“Valhalla,” val-hal´la. The heaven of Scandinavian mythology, where the god Odin reigns, and where all warriors go to enjoy the pleasure to which they were most attached on earth.

P. 370, c. 1.—“Gustavus’s hosts.” Referring to the war carried on by Gustavus II. against Germany in the early part of the seventeenth century.

P. 370, c. 1.—“Halberd,” hăl´berd. An ancient weapon used for thrusting and cutting.

P. 370, c. 1.—“Denmark.” Gustavus I. of Sweden, went to war with Denmark for the crown in 1520-1523.

P. 370, c. 1.—“Thor.” The god of thunder in the Norse mythology, son of Odin. In his attribute of thunder he is associated with Jupiter, or Zeus. Thursday is named from him.

P. 371, c. 1.—“Saga,” sā´ga. Strictly, a Scandinavian tale, but used in reference to the legends of all Northern Europe.

P. 371, c. 1.—“King Heimer.” Foster-father of Aslög in Hlymdaler.

P. 371, c. 2.—“Skalds.” Poets.

“PICTURES FROM ENGLISH HISTORY.”

P. 371, c. 2.—“Macaulay.” An eminent English scholar, writer and historian; born in 1800. When twenty-five years of age he published his essay on Milton. A work which became at once as popular as a novel and placed its author in the front ranks of literature. For several years Macaulay was in Parliament but retired to engage in literary pursuits. His most famous work is his history of England, but the “Essays” and “Lays of Ancient Rome,” are perfect of their kind. Macaulay died in 1859.

P. 371, c. 2.—“Richard II.” The last of the Plantagenets. His reign was made glorious by Wickliffe, Chaucer and Piers Ploughman, though politically agitated. Charles VI. was contemporaneous with him in France and for his amusement the playing of cards was then invented.

The Swiss Cantons fought with the Austrians for their liberty, and Arnold of Winkelried showed his devotion to his country. Genoa ceased to be independent while the Ottoman Turks defeated the combined forces of Central Europe.

P. 371, c. 2.—“Richard of Bordeaux.” Richard II. was so-called from his birth-place. A city of France on the Garonne River.

P. 371, c. 2.—“Unrequited.” An unusual word meaning unpaid.

P. 371, c. 2.—“Remanding.” Sending back.

P. 371, c. 2.—“Manorial court.” Under the feudal system each baron held, at intervals, a court at which all troubles arising within his boundaries or among his vassals, were settled. This court extending only over his manor, as his land was called, was named the “manorial court.”

P. 372, c. 1.—“John Wickliffe.” The forerunner of the Reformation. He first gave the English people a complete copy of the Bible in the English tongue. The most active reformer both of politics and religion of his time.

P. 371, c. 1.—“Lollards.” A name given to the followers of Wickliffe. It is of doubtful etymology, but probably comes from a German word signifying to hum or sing psalms, and was first applied in 1300 to a religious sect. They being accused of heresy their name was afterward given to all suspected persons.

P. 372, c. 1.—“Villeins.” One who, under the feudal system, held land from a baron or lord.

P. 372, c. 1.—“Serfage.” An old word of the same meaning as serfdom.

P. 372, c. 1.—“Ep-i-gram´ma-tist.” A writer of epigrams—as short poems and couplets, enforcing some truth or idea, are called.

P. 372, c. 1.—“Piers Ploughman.” Read the chapter on Richard II. in Green’s history for a good account of William Longland, the author of “Piers Ploughman.” Two volumes of great popularity were written by Longland or Langlande. “The Vision of Piers Ploughman” and “The Plaint” were both particularly pleasing to the common people on account of their satire against the abuses of the church and despotism of the government.

P. 372, c. 1.—“Enemies.” England was literally exposed on all sides. She was carrying on the hundred years’ war with France. The latter had formed an alliance with Scotland, thus laying bare England’s only safe border. Flanders had joined the French, while John of Gaunt was squandering her revenues in a useless war with Spain.

P. 372, c. 1.—“Domiciliary,” dom i-sil´ya-ry. A law term—the visiting of a private house in order to search it.

P. 372, c. 1.—“Segregation,” seg-re-gā´tion. Separating one family from another.

P. 372, c. 2.—“Campaigner,” kam-pāin´er. A veteran.

P. 372, c. 2.—“Canterbury.” A city of England, southeast of London. It is of historical and ecclesiastical interest. The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of England.

P. 372, c. 2.—“Gutted.” To destroy the contents and interior.

P 373, c. 1.—“Duress.” Hardship, constraint.

P. 373, c. 1.—“King’s Bench Temple.” The offices of the hated lawyers are now in the four “Inns of Court,”—the Inner Temple, Middle Temple, Lincoln’s Inn, and Gray’s Inn.

P. 373, c. 1.—“Tower Hill.” It is northwest of the famous tower, and upon it stands the scaffold. The tower itself is the most famous citadel of Europe. It is said to have held all royal prisoners since the time of Julius Cæsar, and is the only fortress of London; a thing to be thought of in case of invasion.

P. 373, c. 1.—“Magna Charta.” See THE CHAUTAUQUAN for January. Also, Green’s History, chap. 3.

P. 373, c. 1.—“Plantagenets.” That house ushered in by Henry II., the son of Geoffrey, of Anjou. Plantagenet means broom-plant, a name given to the family because one of their ancestors is said to have done penance by scourging himself with that plant.

P. 373, c. 2.—“Toussaint l’Ouverteur,” tos-sang´ lou-vĕrtür´. A negro and native of Hayti, born in 1743. When he was forty-eight years of age, war broke out in the island between the negroes and mulattoes, in which Toussaint was made general of the former. An invasion of the English occurring, the blacks joined the Spanish against them, Toussaint being the leader; but in the midst of hostilities, France offered to free the slaves with the understanding that the island be under her control. Toussaint, favoring this, brought all parties so speedily to his opinion, that the French leader exclaimed: “This man makes an opening (l’ouverteur) everywhere:” whence this surname of “l’Ouverteur.” Afterward he became the ruler of the island. Having sent a constitution to Bonaparte, the latter was incensed, and sent an army against him. Toussaint defeated them; but having made peace, he was seized in an interview with the French leader, and carried to France, where he died of hunger and cold in the dungeon of Joux.

P. 374, c. 1.—“Manumission.” To enfranchise or free, as a slave.

“PHYSIOLOGY.”

P. 374, c. 2.—The article on physiology is intended not simply to be read but to be studied. Few or no notes of definition or explanation are needed, for the article is very clear. There is, however, a possibility of making the subject of much more value by a few simple observations and experiments, such as are in the reach of every local circle and student. We give a few hints which may be extended indefinitely.

P. 375, c. 1.—“Tissues.” To study the tissues a microscope should be used. A circle might, with little expense, buy a small microscope, it would be of infinite value in their future studies. If this is out of the question, borrow one of a physician or, at least, furnish yourselves with lenses, also a set of scalpels. Specimens can easily be obtained to illustrate the structure of the tissues. By a skillful use of the microscope and knives the subject will cease to be hard and uninteresting. A fowl carefully dissected illustrates the tendons, ligaments of the fibrous tissue. Muscular tissue is well seen in a piece of beef. The structure of nervous tissue and course of the nerves may be studied in any small animal. Adipose tissue, or fat, is easily obtained.

P. 375, c. 1.—“Skeleton.” To thoroughly understand the human skeleton, one should, if possible, be obtained for study; if this be impossible, there are excellent charts printed which are good substitutes. Both failing, we would advise a visit to the butcher, who can easily obtain for you the spinal column and other bones of a vertebrate animal. Thus can be seen the strength, elasticity, and general motion of the back-bone, also the shape of the vertebræ, how they fit together and the distribution of nerves. The femur, leg bones, etc., will also be found, it is true, in a modified form, but yet so that they can be easily recognized from the descriptions. It is well in studying the joints to obtain fresh specimens, for then the ligaments and tendons are also well illustrated.

P. 375, c. 1.—“Muscular action.” A frog is a convenient subject for observing the motion of muscles. If a small battery is used, the results are interesting.

P. 376, c. 1.—“Sebaceous,” se-bā´shus.

P. 376, c. 1.—“Æsophagus,” æ-soph´a-gus.

P. 376, c. 1.—“Pepsin,” pĕp-sin. It is prepared artificially from rennet.

P. 376, c. 2.—“Emŭlsion.” A soft liquid resembling milk.

P. 376, c. 2.—“Stomach;” “intestine.” In all mammals the alimentary canal has the same general structure and arrangement as in man. If it is possible to obtain a large specimen it will illustrate very clearly. The structure of heart and lungs must be studied in the same way.

P. 377, c. 1.—“Cerebrum.” If the upper part of the brain is removed from a pigeon, it at once sinks into a dull, stupid state, showing that its faculties are taken from it.

P. 377, c. 1.—“Cerebellum.” The lower part of the brain. If removed from a pigeon, it loses all control of the nerves, sprawling and fluttering as if crazy. These experiments and observations may be extended indefinitely. The more the better, for original work is of more value in science than much reading.

“SUNDAY READINGS.”