Chapter III: Successors to the Mug̱ẖals

The confusion into which the coinage of India fell on the break up of the Mug̱ẖal power, when independent mints sprang up in every part of their wide dominions, may be gathered from the calculation made in the early part of the nineteenth century, that there were no less than 994 different gold and silver coins, old and new, passing as current in the country. The complexity of the subject is further accentuated by the impossibility of distinguishing at present the earlier coins of independent mints from the imperial issues. Later on, the gradual debasement, caused by the addition of special local marks and the evolution of distinctive types in certain states, makes classification easier. Few of these coinages have hitherto been treated comprehensively, and all that can be attempted here is a bare outline, according more detailed treatment only to the more considerable moneying states.

The papers of the East India Company, fortunately, have preserved for us a record of events typical of what was taking place in many parts of India. They show that, besides coining the South Indian pagodas, already noticed, and copper and silver coins in European style, the English factories were early engaged in reproducing the rupees of the Mug̱ẖal emperors. The first which can be fixed with any certainty are those from the mint of Bombay, or Mumbai, as it appears on the coins, opened in the reign of Farruḵẖ̱siyar (1713-19); and in 1742 the emperor, Muḥammad Shāh, granted the Company a _sanad_ permitting them to coin Arkāt rupees. Gradually the Company assumed control of all mints within its increasing territories. In 1765, for example, after the battle of Buxar it took over the Bengal mints. Uniformity of standard was maintained, first by engraving special marks on the coins (Fig. 9, 4), and then by fixing the regnal year.[68] Thus the gold and silver coins of the Banāras mint of the Hijrī years 1190 to 1229 all bear the same regnal date 17.[69] So also the year 19 was fixed for the Murshidābād mint, the year 45 for Farruḵẖ̱ābād. These coins, still inscribed with the Mug̱ẖal emperor’s name, became more and more European in style (Pl. XII, 9), those of Farruḵẖ̱ābād being even struck with a milled edge, until finally superseded by the British Imperial currency of 1835.

[68] This was to stop peculation on the part of money-changers, bankers and even revenue collectors, who made a rebate on all rupees not of the current year.

[69] On the Banāras coins the actual regnal date, _i.e._ of Shāh ’Ālam II, is added beneath the conventional date 17; this was not adopted for other mints.

A similar evolution, but in the direction of deterioration, can be traced in the issues of the Marāṭhās, Rājpūts, and other powers. The Marāṭhās seized the important mint of Aḥmadābād in 1752; and the coins struck there in the Mug̱ẖal style (until it was closed by the British in 1835) all bear as a characteristic mark the “Ankūs,” or elephant-goad. The Peshwa also had a mint at Pūna; and numerous private mints in Mahārāsṭhra, some striking pagodas and fanams as well as rupees, were worked with or without his permission. Other Marāṭhā mints were those of the Bhonsla Rājas at Katak in Orissa and at Nāgpūr; rupees of the latter bear the mint name Sūrat. So also the Gaikwār had a mint at Baroda, Scindia at Ujjain and later on at Gwāliār, Holkār at Indor. Jaśwant Rāo Holkār issued, in 1806, a notable rupee with Sanskrit legends on both obverse and reverse (Pl. XII, 7).

Numerous Rājpūt states copied the imperial coinage in their local mints, Jaipūr (opened about 1742), Bīkāner, Jodhpūr, and many others; but in the nineteenth century the names of the ruling chiefs were substituted for that of the titular emperor. Silver and gold were struck in the emperor’s name by the Niz̤āms of Ḥaidarābād, who were content to distinguish their several issues by the addition of their initials (Pl. XII, 4) until 1857, after which the full name of the Niz̤ām took the place of the emperor’s. The Rohillas during the period of their ascendancy had a group of mints in Rohilkhand, the chief of which were Najībābād, Murādābād, Barelī and Sahāranpūr. The copper coinage of these independent states is excessively crude, and the practice of striking to local standards, which began under the later Mug̱ẖals, now became general. The copper mints were probably entirely in private hands.

Here it will be convenient to deal with a coinage, which, though partially of Mug̱ẖal lineage in other respects, stands by itself. The reign of Tīpū Sult̤ān of Mysore, though lasting only sixteen years (1782-99), was productive of one of the most remarkable individual coinages in the history of India, comparable in many ways to that of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq. His father, Ḥaidar ’Alī, as we have already seen (Chap. VI), struck pagodas and fanams. Tīpū continued to strike both these, retaining the initial “hē” of Ḥaidar’s name, but adding a mint name on the obverse or reverse (Pl. VI, 10). In addition, he coined muhars and half muhars, in silver the double and full rupee, with its half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth and thirty-second parts, and in copper pieces of 40, 20,[70] 10, 5 and 2½ cash. The 40-cash piece weighed 340 grains. To each of these coins, following perhaps the example of Jahāngīr, he gave a special name. The pagoda, equal to the quarter of a muhar, he called, for instance, _Fārūqī_; the double rupee, _Ḥaidarī_; the rupee, _Aḥmadī_; the 20-cash piece, _Zohra_; and so on. The Persian inscriptions on gold and silver are religious in character, that on the rupee runs as follows: obverse, _The religion of Aḥmad_ (_i.e._ _Islām) is illumined in the world by the victory of Ḥaidar, struck at Nagar, the cyclic year Dalv, the Hijrī year 1200_; reverse, _He is the Sultan, the unique, the just; the third of Bahārī, the year Dalv, the regnal year 4_. For his copper coins Tīpū adopted the elephant device of the Wodeyar kings of Mysore (1578-1733), and the animal appears in various attitudes on the obverse, sometimes to right, sometimes to left, with trunk raised, and with trunk lowered. On the 40-cash pieces he carries a flag. The reverse gives the mint and, later in the reign, the distinctive name of the coin also (Pl. XII, 5).

[70] The 20-cash piece had been struck by Ḥaidar ’Alī in the last two years of his reign, A.H. 1195-96. Cf. J. R. Henderson, _The Coins of Ḥaidar ’Alī and Tīpū Sultān_, Madras, 1921, p. 5.

At least thirteen mints were working under Tīpū, the most important being Pattan (Seringapatam), Nagar (Bednūr), and Bangalūr; for some mints merely honorific titles appear, thus _Naz̤arbār_, “scattering favour,” for Mysore.

The most remarkable and perplexing of Tīpū’s innovations was his method of dating the coins. For this purpose he used the Jovian cycle of sixty years, according to the Telugū reckoning, inventing special names for each of the sixteen years of his reign, in accordance with their correspondence with that cycle, and composing the names at different periods from the letters supplied by the two systems of numeration known as _abjad_ and _abtas̤_. For the first four years of his reign, when he employed the _abjad_ system, he also dated his coins in the Hijrī era; in the fifth year he invented a new era, the Maulūdī, reckoned from the date of Muḥammad’s birth in A.D. 571; dates in this era appear written from right to left. The execution of most of Tīpū’s coins is exceptionally good.

Kṛishṇa Rāja Udayar (1799-1868), the restored Rāja of Mysore, for a time continued the elephant copper pieces of Tīpū, but later changed the device for a lion. Kanarese inscriptions (Fig. 6) were, however, at once substituted for Persian.

We must now turn to Hindustān proper. Both Nādir Shāh, in 1739, and Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī (1748-67) and his successors struck rupees and muhars to the Mug̱ẖal standard for the districts they temporarily occupied. Nādir’s issues are Persian in fabric, but the Durrānī coins, struck at Shāhjahānābād (Pl. XII, 2), Farruḵẖ̱ābād, Lāhor, Multān, Kābul, and several other mints, are largely Mug̱ẖal in style. On the whole, the issues of these princes, especially those of Qandahār and Peshāwar and the rare pieces of the pretenders, Sulaimān and Humāyūn, reach a much higher artistic level than the contemporary Mug̱ẖal coins.

One of the most important results of Aḥmad Shāh’s repeated invasions of the Panjāb was the formation of the Sikh League, known as the Ḵẖ̱ālsā. After the seventh invasion, in 1764, the League assumed the right of coinage; and from that date till 1777, with a gap of two years, 1766-67, for Aḥmad Shāh’s last invasion, “Gobindshāhī” rupees were struck at Lāhor, so-called from the name of the Gūrū Gobind being included in the Persian couplet, which formed the inscription. Amritsar, _Ambratsar_ on the coins, became a mint in 1777. Its earliest rupees, known as “Nānakshāhī,” bore a different couplet (Pl. XII, 10). A few coins were also struck at Anandgarh. All Sikh coins are dated in the Samvat era.[71] The coins of Rañjīt Siṅgh (1799-1839) are of two distinct kinds, those with Persian (often very faulty) and those with Gurmukhī[72] inscriptions. Rupees of the Persian couplet type appear regularly from the mints of Lāhor and Amritsar throughout his reign, from Multān after 1818, from Kashmīr after 1819; and a few rupees are known from Peshāwar, Jhaṅg and Pind Dādan Khān. The king’s name was never inscribed on the coinage; but the characteristic Sikh “leaf” mark makes its appearance upon his earliest rupee, dated S. 1857 (= A.D. 1800). During the Samvat years 1861-63, first a peacock’s tail and then a thumb-mirror appears on the Amritsar rupees; these are said to bear reference to Rañjīt’s favourite dancing girl, Mora. A curious rupee of Lāhor of S. 1885 displays the figures of Gūrū Nānak and his Muhammadan follower, Mardānā. Rañjīt Siṅgh also coined muhars similar in style to the rupees.

[71] The Samvat, which corresponds with the Vikrama era, begins in 58 B.C.

[72] Gurmukhī is a Panjāb provincial form of the Nāgarī script (cf. Fig. 10).

About the year S. 1885, apparently, the Gurmukhī coins were introduced. A few gold and silver coins are known, but most are copper, some weighing as much as 600 grains. The inscriptions are generally religious in character; the commonest is _Akāl Sahāī, Gūrū Nānakjī_, “O, Eternal one help us! Guru Nānakjī!”[73] The reverse gives the date and mint, generally Ambratsar. The script is usually very crude, and the “leaf” mark is almost invariably present. Some coins, like those of Kashmīr, have bilingual legends in Persian and Gurmukhī. Rupees of the Persian couplet type continued to be struck after Rañjīt’s death, in S. 1896, till S. 1905 (= A.D. 1848). The chiefs of the Sikh states, Patiāla, Jhind, Nābha and Kaital, and the Dogra Rājas of Kashmīr, after A.D. 1846, also coined rupees of this type. On some of these last was inscribed, on account of its supposed talismanic power, the Christian monogram I.H.S.

[73] The two parts of this legend are quite separate in sense.

In conclusion, we must consider the coins of the Nawāb-wazīrs and kings of Oudh or Awadh. The existence of this province as a separate principality began in 1720, when the wazīr, Sa’ādat Ḵẖ̱ān, was created Ṣūbahdār. From 1754 to 1775 the Mug̱ẖal mint of Muḥammadābād-Banāras was under the control of the third Nawāb-wazīr Shujā’u-d-daula. From 1784 till 1818 succeeding nawābs continued to mint in Lakhnau (Lucknow) the famous “Machhlīdār” rupees, so called from the fish (Fig. 9, 5), the royal badge of Awadh, appearing on the reverse. All of these bear the regnal date 26, and continue the mint name Banāras. Other mints worked by the nawābs from time to time were Barelī, after 1784, Ilahābād, 1776-1780, and Āṣafnagar.

In 1818 Lord Hastings persuaded G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar to assume the title of king, and from that time the regal series of coins begins. The royal arms of Awadh, in various forms, appear on the obverse of gold, silver and copper of G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn and his four successors, until the forced abdication of the last king, Wājid ’Alī Shāh, in 1856. On the reverse, the inscription, following the Mug̱ẖal example, takes the form of a couplet; and silver and gold are struck to the Mug̱ẖal standard (Pl. XII, 3). Fractional pieces of the rupee and muhar were struck in all reigns. Though better executed and finer in metal than those of most other successors of the Mug̱ẖals, these coins display a certain monotony, all denominations in the three metals following the prescribed pattern for the reign. Certain modifications in the inscription, however, take place from time to time. The coins of Wājid ’Alī Shāh’s seventh and eighth years, of which five denominations in each metal are known, are probably the finest of the series.

Two large silver medals are associated with the Awadh dynasty, the first commemorating Shujā’u-d-daula’s victory over the Rohillas at Mirān Katra, in 1774, the second struck by G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar, in honour of his coronation on 1st Muḥarram A.H. 1235. On the obverse of the latter is an ornate and very realistic portrait of the king, and on the reverse the arms of Awadh. Certain “Machhlīdār” rupees and muhars, bearing the date A.H. 1229, on which the mint name _Ṣūbah Awadh_ occurs, are believed to have been minted by the Lucknow mutineers. It is not unfitting that this short history of Indian coins should close with a description of the money of the Awadh kings; for this latest scion of the great Mug̱ẖal currency not only received its sanction from an English Governor-General, but manifested, in the adoption of armorial bearings of a Western type for its obverse, the beginning of that European influence, which, later on in the nineteenth century, was to revolutionise the coin types of the few Indian states, Ḥaidarābād, Travancore, Gwāliār, Alwar, Baroda, etc., which retained the right of minting after the introduction of the British Imperial currency.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL

J. PRINSEP: _Essays in Indian Antiquities_, Ed. E. THOMAS, London, 1858; E. J. RAPSON: _Indian Coins_ (_Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde_), Strassburg, 1897; C. J. RODGERS: _Coin Collecting in Northern India_, Allahabad, 1894; V. A. SMITH: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum_, Calcutta, Vol. I, Oxford, 1906 (for Chaps. I-VI and X); E. THOMAS: “Ancient Indian Weights” (= _International Numismata Orientalia_, I, Part i), 1865.

SPECIAL

CHAP. I.—A. CUNNINGHAM: Coins of Ancient India, 1891; E. J. RAPSON: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the Western Kṣatrapas, etc., in the British Museum_, London, 1908; W. THEOBALD: “Notes on Some of the Symbols found on the Punch-marked Coins of Hindustan,” _J.A.S.B._, 1890, p. 181; E. H. WALSH: “An Examination of a Find of Punch-marked Coins in Patna City,” _Journal of the Bihār and Orissa Research Society_, 1919, p. 16, p. 463.

CHAPS. II-III.—A. CUNNINGHAM: “Coins of Alexander’s Successors in the East,” 1873 (= _Num. Chron._, 1868-1873); id.: “Coins of the Indo-Scythians,” 1892 (= _Num. Chron._, 1888-1892); P. GARDNER: _Catalogue of Indian Coins in the British Museum: Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India_, London, 1886; E. J. RAPSON: _Cambridge History of India_, Vol. I, Chaps. XXII, XXIII; R. B. WHITEHEAD: _Catalogue of Coins in the Panjāb Museum, Lahore_, Vol. I, Oxford, 1914.

CHAP. IV.—J. ALLAN: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta Dynasties in the British Museum_, London, 1914.

CHAP. V.—R. BURN: “Some Coins of the Maukharīs and of the Thanesar Line,” _J.R.A.S._, 1906, p. 843; A. CUNNINGHAM: “Coins of the Later Indo-Scythians,” 1894 (= _Num. Chron._, 1893-1894); id.: “Coins of Mediæval India,” 1894; C. J. RODGERS: “Coins of the Mahārājahs of Kashmir,” _J.A.S.B._, 1897, p. 277; id.: “Coins of the Mahārājahs of Kāngra,” _J.A.S.B._, 1880, p. 10.

CHAP. VI.—G. BIDIE: “The Pagoda or Varāha Coins of Southern India,” _J.A.S.B._, 1883, p. 33; W. ELLIOT: “Coins of Southern India,” 1886 (= _International Numismata Orientalia_ III, Part 2); E. HULTZCH: “The Coins of the Kings of Vijayanagar,” _I.A._, 1891, p. 301; id.: “South Indian Copper Coins,” _I.A._, 1892, p. 321; id.: “Miscellaneous South Indian Coins,” _I.A._, 1896, p. 317; R. P. JACKSON: “The Dominions, Emblems and Coins of the South Indian Dynasties,” 1913 (= _British Numismatic Journal_, 1913); E. LOVENTHAL: _The Coins of Tinnevelly_, Madras, 1888; T. W. RHYS-DAVIDS: “Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon,” 1877 (= _International Numismatia Orientalia_, I, Part 6); R. H. C. TUFNELL: _Hints to Coin Collectors in Southern India_, Madras, 1889.

CHAP. VII.—S. LANE POOLE: _Catalogue of Coins in the British Museum, Sultans of Dehli_, London, 1884; E. THOMAS: _Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Dehli_, London, 1871; C. J. RODGERS: “Coins Supplementary to Thomas, Chronicles of the Pathan Kings,” Nos. I-VI., _J.A.S.B._, 1880-1896; H. N. WRIGHT: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta_, Vol. II, Oxford, 1907; id.: “Addenda to the Series of Coins of the Pathān Sultāns of Dehlī,” _J.R.A.S._, p. 481, p. 769.

CHAP. VIII.—S. LANE POOLE: _Catalogue of Coins of the Muhammadan States of India in the British Museum_, London, 1885; H. N. WRIGHT: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta_, Vol. II, Oxford, 1907. =Bengal.=—E. THOMAS: “The Initial Coinage of Bengal,” _J.A.S.B._, 1867, p. 1, 1873, p. 343; A. F. R. HOERNLE: “A New Find of Muhammadan Coins of Bengal” (2 papers), _J.A.S.B._, 1881, p. 53, 1883, p. 211. =Kashmir.=—C. J. RODGERS: “The Square Coins of the Muhammadan Kings of Kashmir,” _J.A.S.B._, 1885, p. 92. =Bahmanīs.=—O. CODRINGTON: “Coins of the Bahmanī Dynasty,” _Num. Chron._, 1898, p. 259; J. GIBBS: “Gold and Silver Coins of the Bahmanī Dynasty,” _Num. Chron._, 1881. =Gujarat.=—G. P. TAYLOR: “Coins of the Gujarāt Saltanat,” _J.B.B.R.A.S._, 1904, p. 278. =Malwa.=—L. WHITE KING: “History and Coinage of Mālwā,” _Num. Chron._, 1903, p. 356, 1904, p. 62. =Ma’bar.=—E. HULTZCH: “Coinage of the Sultans of Madura,” _J.R.A.S._, 1909, p. 667.

CHAP. IX.—C. J. BROWN: _Catalogue of the Mug̱ẖal Coins in the Provincial Museum, Lucknow_, 2 Vols., Oxford, 1920; S. LANE POOLE: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Moghul Emperors in the British Museum_, London, 1892; R. B. WHITEHEAD: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Mug̱ẖal Emperors in the Panjāb Museum, Lahore_, Oxford, 1914; id.: “The Mint Towns of the Mug̱ẖal Emperors of India,” _J.A.S.B._, 1912, p. 425; H. N. WRIGHT: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta_, Vol. III, Oxford, 1908. [Also a large number of articles scattered through the _J.R.A.S._, _I.A._, _J.A.S.B._, especially the Numismatic Supplements to the last, starting from 1904.]

CHAP. X.—J. ALLAN: “The Coinage of Assam,” _Num. Chron._, 1909, p. 300; C. J. BROWN: “The Coins of the Kings of Awadh,” _Num. Supp._, XVIII, _J.A.S.B._, 1912; M. LONGWORTH DAMES: “Coins of the Durrānīs,” _Num. Chron._, Vol. VIII, 3rd series, p. 325; C. J. RODGERS: “On the Coins of the Sikhs,” _J.A.S.B._, 1881, p. 71. =East India Company.=—E. THURSTON: “History of the East India Company Coinage,” _J.A.S.B._, 1893, p. 52; id.: _History of the Coinage of the Territories of the E.I.C. in the Indian Peninsula and Catalogue of the Coins in the Madras Museum_, Madras, 1890. =Marathas.=—A. MASTER: “The Post-Mug̱ẖal Coins of Aḥmadābād”, _Num. Supp._, XXII, _J.A.S.B._, 1914; M. G. RANADE: “Currencies and Mints Under Mahratta Rule”, _J.B.B.R.A.S._, 1902, p. 191; G. P. TAYLOR: “On the Baroda Coins of the Last Six Gaikwars,” _Num. Supp._, XVIII, _J.A.S.B._, 1912. =Rajputana.=—A. F. R. HOERNLE: “Notes on Coins of Native States”, _J.A.S.B._, 1897, p. 261; W. W. WEBB: _The Currencies of the Hindu States of Rajputana_, London, 1893. =Tipu Sultan.=—R. P. JACKSON: “Coin Collecting in Mysore,” _British Numismatic Journal_, 1909; G. P. TAYLOR: “The Coins of Tīpū Sult̤ān”, (_Occasional Memoirs of the Numismatic Society of India_), 1914.

CHAP. VII-X.—W. H. VALENTINE: _The Copper Coins of India_, I, II, London, 1914.

PRINCIPAL COLLECTIONS OF INDIAN COINS

=India.=—Indian Museum, Calcutta (all classes); Dehlī Museum of Archæology (Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals); Panjāb Museum, Lahore (Indo-Greeks, Śakas, Pahlavas, Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals, Sikhs); Provincial Museum, Lucknow (Ancient Indian, Guptas, Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals, Awadh); Government Central Museum, Madras (South Indian, Ceylon, Mysore, East India Company, Mug̱ẖals, Sultans of Dehlī, Indo-Portuguese); Prince of Wales’ Museum, Bombay (Gujarāt, Mug̱ẖals, Marāṭhas); Provincial Museum, Shillong (Sultans of Bengal, Assam, Koch, Jaintia); Central Museum, Nagpur (Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals, Marāṭhas, Bahmanīs); Dacca Museum (Sultans of Bengal); Patna Museum (Punch-marked series, Mug̱ẖals, Sultans of Dehlī, Bengal Sultans); Peshawar Museum (Indo-Greeks, Śakas, Pahlavas, Mug̱ẖals, Durrānīs), Macmahon Museum, Quetta (Durrānīs, Mug̱ẖals, Bārakzāīs).

=London.=—British Museum (all classes).

=Continent.=—Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin.

=America.=—American Numismatic Society’s Collection, New York.

INDEX

Abdagases, 29
’Abdullah, (1) of Cairo, 76;
(2) of Gulkanda, 84
Abū-l-faẓl, 91, 92
Abū-l-Ḥasan of Gulkanda, 84
’Ādil Shāhī kings, 84
_’Adl_, 72
_’Adlī_, 73
Agathokleia, 27
Agathokles, 20, 24, 26
Āgra (Akbarābād), 89, 93ff
Ahichhatra, 20
Aḥmadābād, 87, 88, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98
Aḥmadnagar, 84, 87, 88
Aḥmad Shāh I, (1) Bahmanī, 83;
(2) of Gujarāt, 87, 88
Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī, 106
Ahom language, 101
Ahoms, 100, 101
Aḥsanābād (Kulbarga), 83
Ajmer, 53, 96, 98
Akbar, 81, 86, 89ff, 100, 102
Akbar II, 98
Akbarnagar, 95, 98
’Ālamgīr II, 65
’Ālam Shāh of Dehlī, 76
’Alāu-d-dīn Aḥmad II (Bahmanī), 83, 84
’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥasan Bahmanī, 83
’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain Shāh of Bengal, 79, 80
’Alāu-d-dīn Mas’ūd, 70, 71
’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad, 62, 70, 72, 83
’Alāu-d-dīn Sikandar Shāh of Ma’bar, 82
Alexander, 23
’Alī II of Bījāpūr, 84
’Alī Rāja, 66
Altamsh, 70
Amīr Barīd of Bīdar, 84
Amṛitapāla of Budāyūn, 53
Amritsar, 107
Anandgarh, 107
Anantavarman Choḍaganga, 60
Andhras, 21, 58, 62
Aṅśuvarman, 38
Antialkidas, 24, 27
Antimachos, 24
Apollodotos, 24, 26, 27, 29, 31
Apollophanes, 27
Arabic, 69, 70, 72, 80, 82
Arachosia, 24
Arcot (Arkāt), 58, 103
Ardokhsho, 36, 41
Ariāna, 24
Arsakes, 23
Āṣafnagar, 108
Asalla-deva of Narwar, 54
Asīrgarh, 95
Aśoka, 17, 19
Asparvarma, 24, 29
Assam, 80, 100, 101
Aśvamedha, 41, 42, 44
Athro, 36
Augustus, 17, 34, 58n
Aurangābād, 99
Aurangzeb, 92ff
_Aureus_, 34, 58n
Awadh (Oudh), 108, 109
Ayodhyā, 19, 20, 43
Azes I, 24, 28, 29;
II, 29
Azilises, 28
’Az̤īmu-sh-shān, 97

Bābur, 77
Bacchanalian Muhars, 96
Bactria, 23ff
Bādāmī, 59
Bag̱ẖdād, khalifs of, 70, 79
Bahādur Shāh, (1) of Gujarāt, 86, 87, 88;
(2) Mug̱ẖal, 98
Bahāwalpūr, 16, 37
Bahmanī dynasty, 83ff, 87
_Bahlolī_, 77
Bahlol Lodī, 76, 77, 85
Bairāt, 93
Baḵẖ̱tiyār, Ḵẖ̱iljī, 78
Bālāpūr, 65
Ballāḷa II, 60
Banāras (Benares), 103n, 108
Bangalūr, 105
Bārbak Shāh, 85
Barelī, 99, 104, 108
Baroda, 104, 109
Barter, 13
Bāz Bahādur, 86
Bedār Baḵẖ̱t, 97
Bednūr, 65
Bengal, 48, 52, 78ff, 92, 100, 103
Bengālī script, 101
Berār, 83
Bhatgāon, 102
Bhoja-deva of Kanauj, 52
Bhonsla rājas, 104
Bihār, 49, 85, 90, 92
Bījāpūr, 84
Bīkāner, 104
Billon, 21n, 55, 68, 71
Bombay, 103
Brahmī, 19n
British Museum, 82n, 85, 95
Buddha, 36, 38, 39
Budhagupta, 47
Bull and Horseman type, 50, 53, 72
Bundelkhand, 53
Burhānābād, 84
Burma, 100
Buxar, battle of, 103

Cash, 105
Cast coins, 18
Central Asia, 55, 67
Ceylon, 61f
Chāhada-deva of Narwar, 71
Chak dynasty, 81
_Chakram_, 57
Chālukyas, 57n, 59ff
Chandel dynasty, 53
Chandragiri, 63, 64
Chandragupta, I, 41;
II, 43f, 51;
III, 45;
Maurya, 17, 45n
Chashṭana, 31
Chera (Keraḷa), 58, 60, 61, 63, 65
Chitaldrūg, 65
Choḷas, 58ff
Cochin, 61, 66
Coimbatore, 15, 60
Cowrie, 13
Cufic Script, 69

Ḍahāla, 52
_Dām_, 90, 93
_Damrā_, 93
_Damrī_, 93
_Daric_, 13
Dāru-l-islām, 73, 74
Daulat ḵẖ̱ān Lodī, 77
Dāwar Baḵẖ̱sh, 97
Deccan, 58, 73, 83, 98
Dehlī, 53, 69ff, 78, 79, 82, 83, 85, 86, 89, 93, 97, 98, 99, 102
_Dehlīwāla_, 71
Demetrios, 23, 28
_Denarius_, 17, 34
Deogīr (Daulatābād), 72, 73, 74, 75, 84
Devarāya, 64
Dhār, 74
Diddā, 54
Dilāwar Ḵẖ̱ān G̱ẖ̱orī, 86
_Dīnār_, 73
_Dināra_, 35, 45
Diodotos of Bactria, 16, 23
_Dirham Shar’ī_, 93
Divine Era, 98
Dogra rājas of Kashmīr, 108
_Dramma_, 52
Drangiāna, 24

East India Company, 65, 103
Eraṇ, 20
Eukratides, 23, 24, 30
Euthydemos, 23, 24
Faḵẖ̱ru-d-dīn Mubārak, 79
_Fanam_, 57, 104, 105
Farruḵẖ̱ābād, 104, 106
Farruḵẖ̱siyar, 92, 93, 99, 103
Fatḥābād, 80
Fatḥ ḵẖ̱ān, 76
Fatḥpūr, 94, 96
Fīrozābād, 80
Fīroz Shāh, (1) of Dehlī, 69, 75ff;
(2) Bahmanī, 83
Forced Currency, 74

Gadhiya Paisa, 52
Gaikwār, 104
Gajapati dynasty, 56, 60
Gaṇapati-deva, 54
Gaṇapati dynasty, 60
Gandhāra, 19, 24, 38, 53
Ganesh, 64;
Hindu rāja, 79
Gāṅgeya-deva, 52
Garuḍa, 42, 47, 48, 60
Gauḍa, 48
Ghaṭotkaca, 41
G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar, 108
G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh of Mālwā, 86, 87
G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn, (1) Bahādur of Bengal, 79;
(2) Balban, 70, 72;
(3) Tug̱ẖlaq, 69, 71
Gigantic coins, 91, 92
Gilds, 15, 16, 19
Gīrvāṇ Yuddha Vikrama, 102
Goa, 61
Gondopharnes, 24, 29, 32
Gorakhpūr, 85
Gotamīputra, Śrī Yajña, 31
Gujarāt, 52, 86ff
Gulkanda, 84
Gunāṅka, 38
Gupta dynasty, 31, 37, 40ff
Gurmukhī, 107n, 108
Gūtī, 65
Gwāliār, 104, 109

Habshī dynasty, 79
Ḥaidarābād, 65, 109
Ḥaidar ’Alī, 65, 70, 105n
Hanumān, 53, 64
Harihara I, 64
Harsha-deva of Kashmīr, 55, 56, 60
Harshavardhana, 48, 49
Ḥasan Shāh of Kashmīr, 82
Heliokles, 24, 30
Helios, 36
Herakles, 26, 28, 36
Hermaios, 24, 27, 34
Hijrī era, 67, 98, 106
Hippostratos, 24, 29
Honorific titles, 99
Hoshang Shāh, 86
Hoysaḷas, 60
Humāyūn, (1) Mug̱ẖal, 81, 86, 89, 90;
(2) Durrānī, 106
_Hūn_, 57
_Hundī_, 15, 55
Huns, 22, 31, 44, 48ff, 55
Ḥusainābād, 80
Ḥusain Shāh of Jaunpūr, 85
Huvishka, 33, 36, 38
Hyrcordes, 30

Ibrāhīm Lodī, 69, 77
Ibrāhīm Shāh, (1) of Jaunpūr, 85;
(2) of Kashmīr, 81
Ibrāhīm Sūrī, 91
Ikkeri, 65
Ilahābād (Allahabad), 95, 98, 108
Ilāhī coins, 94, 97
Ilyās Shāh, 79
Indo-Greeks, 22ff
Indor, 104
Iśānavarman, 49
Islām Shāh Sūrī, 81, 90
Itāwah, 98

Jagadekamalla, 59
Jagajjaya Malla, 102
Jahāndār, 93
Jahāngīr, 91ff, 101, 102, 105
Jahāngīrnagar, 97, 98
Jaintia, rājas of, 101
Jaipūr, 104
_Jaitil_, 74
Jalālu-d-dīn, (1) Aḥsan Shāh of Ma’bar, 82;
(2) Ḵẖ̱iljī, 70;
(3) Mang-barnī of Ḵẖ̱wārizm, 72;
(4) Muḥammad of Bengal, 79, 80, 85
Jaśwant Rāo Holkār, 104
Jaunpūr, 77, 85, 89
Jayakeśin III, 61
Jayasiṁha, 59
Jayavarma of Mahoba, 53
Jhaṅg, 107
Jhind, 108
Jishṇugupta, 38
Jīvadāman, 31
Jodhpūr, 104
Jovian Cycle, 101, 106
Jūnagaḍh, 88, 97

Kābul, 24, 35n, 37, 89, 92, 93, 97, 106
Kadambas, 59, 61
Kadaphes, 34
Kaital, 108
Kalachuris, 52, 53;
of Kalyāṇa, 60
_Kaḷanju_ seed, 57
Kalikat (Calicut), 58, 66
Kalima, 68, 73, 79, 81, 89, 94ff
Kalīmullah, 84
Kaliṅga (Orissa), 60
Kalliope, 27
Kalyāṇī, 59
Kamāra, 53
Kāmarūpa (Assam), 100
Kanara, 59
Kanarese, 58, 60, 64, 106
Kanauj, 49, 52, 53, 70
Kāñchī (Conjeeveram), 61
Kandahār (Qandahār), 24, 95, 106
Kāngra, 53
Kanishka, 33, 35ff
Kannanūr, 66
Kāpiśī, 26
Kararānī dynasty, 79
Karnatic, nawābs of, 65
Kārttikeya, 44, 47
Kashmīr, 16, 22, 50, 51, 54, 56, 78, 81, 82, 96, 107, 108
Katak, 104
Kathiawār, 47
Kāthmāṇḍū, 102
Kauśāmbī, 19, 20
Khalifs, four orthodox, 74, 89
Kharoshṭhī, 19n, 46n
Khiṅgila, 54
Ḵẖ̱iẓr Ḵẖ̱ān, 77
Khotān, 46n
Khotanese, 36
Ḵẖ̱usrū Parvīz, 51
Ḵẖ̱wāja-i-Jahān, 85
Kidāra, 37, 54
Kodur, 60
Koṅgu-Chera kingdom, 60
Koṅgudeśa, 55, 60
_Korīs_, 88
Kṛishṇarāja, (1) Udayar, 106;
(2) of Valabhī, 49
Kṛishṇarāya, 64
Kujūla Kadphises, 27, 32, 33ff
Kumāradevi, 41
Kumāragupta I, 44, 48;
II, 45
Kuṇindas, 32
Kurumbas, 58, 61, 62
Kushāṇa, 23, 27, 33ff, 41, 42, 45, 46, 51, 67

Lāhor, 69, 89, 93ff, 106, 107
Lakshmana, 64
Lakshmī, 37, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 52, 70
Lakshmī Narasiṁha, 102
Lakhnau (Lucknow), 108, 109
Lakhnautī (Gaur), 72, 74, 78, 80
_Lārīns_, 84n
Lichchavi, 41
Lucknow Museum, 43

Ma’bar, 82
Madras, 65
Madura, 61ff, 82
Mahākośala, 53
Mahārāsṭhra, 104
Mahendra Malla, 102
Maḥmūd of G̱ẖ̱az̤nī, 69
Maḥmūd Shāh, (1) Bahmanī, 83, 84;
(2) I, of Dehlī, 76, 77;
(3) II, of Dehlī, 87;
(4) I, of Gujarāt, 87, 88;
(5) II, of Gujarāt, 88;
(6) III, of Gujarāt, 88;
(7) of Jaunpūr, 85;
(8) I, of Mālwā, 86, 87;
(9) II, of Mālwā, 86
Mahoba, 53
Maitraka, 49
Malabar, 61
Maldive Islands, 84
Malla dynasty, 101
Mālwā, 16, 20, 21, 47, 51, 75, 86f
Mānāṅka, 38
Mandū, 86, 96
_Mañjāḍi_ seed, 57
Marāṭhās, 104
Mathurā, 19, 20, 30
Maues, 24, 28
Maukharīs, 31, 49, 51
Maulūdī era, 106
Maurya Empire, 17, 18
Medals, silver, 109
Menander, 24, 27
Miaos, 30
Mihiragula, 49, 51, 54
Mints, 80, 98, 99
Mirzā Ḥaidar, 81
Mubārak Shāh II, 76
Mug̱ẖal, 16, 89ff, 101ff, 109
Muḥammad, (1) ’Ādil Shāh, 90, 91;
(2) bin Farīd, 76;
(3) bin Fīroz, 76;
(4) bin Tug̱ẖlaq, 69, 73ff, 80, 82, 91, 105;
(5) G̱ẖ̱orī, 53, 67, 69, 70, 71
Muḥammadābād, (1) (Banāras), 108;
(2) (Bīdar), 83;
(3) (Champānīr), 87
Muḥammad Shāh, (1) I Bahmanī, 84;
(2) III Bahmanī, 83;
(3) of Bījāpūr, 84;
(4) of Kashmīr, 81;
(5) II of Mālwā, 86;
(6) Mug̱ẖal, 65, 103
Muhar, 92, 94, 105, 107
Mulk-i-Tilang, 74
Multān, 98, 106, 107
Murādābād, 104
Murād Baḵẖ̱sh, 96
Murshidābād, 97, 104
Muṣt̤afaʾābād, 87, 88
Muz̤affar III of Gujarāt, 87, 88
Mysore, 58, 59, 65, 66, 83, 105, 106

Nābha, 108
Nādir Shāh, 106
Nāga dynasty, (1) of Narwar, 49;
(2) of Kashmīr, 54
Nagar (Bednūr), 105
Nāgarī, 31n, 51, 52, 53, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 67, 71, 72, 75, 107n
Nāgpūr, 104
Nahapāna, 21, 30, 31
Najībābād, 104
Nāna, 36
Nandi, 47, 48
Narasiṅhagupta, 45
Narwar, 49, 53, 54
Nāṣir Shāh of Mālwā, 86
Nāṣiru-d-dīn, (1) Isma’īl, 83;
(2) Maḥmūd I of Bengal, 80;
(3) Maḥmūd of Dehlī, 70, 72
Naṣratābād, 80
Navānagar, 88
Nāyakas, 63, 64, 65
Nepāl, 38, 100ff
Nepālī Samvat, 102n
Nike, 29
_Nis̤ār_, 92
Niz̤ām Shāhī dynasty, 84
Niz̤āms of Ḥaidarābād, 104
Nūr Jahān, 95, 101

Oado, 36
Odumbara, 31
Ohind, 53
Ooscotta, 65
Orissa, 60, 80, 104
Orthagnes, 29

_Padma-Ṭaṅka_, 57, 59
_Pagoda_, 57, 64, 65, 103, 104, 105
Pahlava, 23, 24, 27ff, 51, 67
Pakores, 29, 33
Pallas, 28, 29
Pallava, 58, 61, 62
Pañchāla, 19, 20
Pāṇḍya, 56, 58, 61, 62, 63
Pānīpat, battle of, 77, 89
Pantaleon, 19, 24, 26
Paravāṇi, 44
Pāṭaliputra, 41, 43
Pātan, 102
Patiāla, 108
Patna, 94, 95
Pattan (Seringapatan), 105
Persia, 51
Persian, 66, 101, 105, 106, 107
Persian couplets, 88, 95, 106, 107
Persian months, 94
Peshāwar, 106
Peshwa, 104
Philoxenos, 26
Pind Dādan Ḵẖ̱ān, 107
Polyxenos, 27
Poseidon, 28
Potin, 21n
Pramatheśvari of Assam, 101
Pramatta Siṁha, 101
Pratāpa Malla, 102
Pṛithvirāj, 69
Pulakeśin I, 59; II, 59
Pulumāvi, Vasishṭhīputra Srī, 21
Pūna (Poona), 104
“Punch-marked” coins, 14, 15, 58
Puragupta, 45, 48
Purbandar, 88
Pushkalāvati, 24
_Puttan_, 66

Qādir Shāh, 86
Qolār (Kolār), 65
Qut̤bābād, 72
Qut̤b Shāhī dynasty, 84
Qut̤bu-d-dīn, (1) Aibak, 69;
(2) Mubārak, 71, 72, 81

Rājarāja, (1) Chālukya, 59;
(2) the Great, Choḷa, 62
Rājendra Kulottuṅga, 63
Rājeśvara Siṁha, 101
Rājputāna, 49, 52
Rājpūt states, 104
Rājuvula, 30
Rāma, 64, 95
Rāmarāya, 64
Rañjīt Siṅgh, 107, 108
Rāshṭrakūṭas, 59
Rāṭhor, 53
Roman coins, 58
Roman influence, 34, 44
Rohillas, 104, 109
Rudra Siṁha, 100
Ruknu-d-dīn Bārbak, 80
Rupee, 69, 90ff, 99, 103, 104, 105, 108

Sa’ādat Ḵẖ̱ān of Awadh, 108
Ṣafavī, 100
Ṣafdar ’Alī, 65
Sahāranpūr, 104
Śaka era, 31n, 33, 47, 101
Śākala (Siālkot), 51
Śakas, 23, 24, 26, 27ff, 43
Śaktivarman, 59
Salem, 60
Samanta-deva, 53
Samudragupta, 41ff
Samvat era, 107n
Saṅgrāma Siṁha, 87
Śaṅkara Varma of Kashmīr, 54
Sanskrit, 40, 66, 69, 100, 101, 104
Saptakoṭīsa (Śiva), 61
Śaśāṅka, 48
Sasas, 24
Sassanian type, coins of, 49, 51, 52
Sātakarṇī, Śrī Yajña, 21
Satgāon, 74, 80
Satrap, 30, 31
Scindia, 104
Seated goddess type, 37, 41, 44
Selene, 36
Seleucos of Syria, 23
Setupatis of Rāmnāḍ, 64
Shādīābād (Mandū), 86
Shāh ’Ālam II, 93, 97, 98, 103n
Shāh ’Ālam Bahādur, 92, 93, 97
Shāhī Tigin, 51
Shāh Jahān I, 87, 91ff
Shāhjahānābād (Dehlī), 98, 99
Shāh Mirzā, 81
_Shāhruḵẖ̱ī_, 89
Shāh Shujā’, 96, 97
Shamsu-d-dīn Kaiyumars̤, 71
Sharqī dynasty, 85
Sher Shāh Sūrī, 68, 79, 80, 90
Shihābu-d-dīn ’Umar, 71
Shujā’ Ḵẖ̱ān, 86
Shujā’u-d-daula, 108, 109
Siddhi Narasiṁha, 102
Sikandar, (1) bin Ilyās Shāh of Bengal, 80;
(2) Lodī, 77;
(3) Shāh of Kashmīr, 81;
(4) Sūrī, 91
Sikhs, 106, 107, 108
Śilāditya, 49
Silver, 55, 68
Sind (Śakadvīpa), 24
Sītā, 64, 95
Śiva, 29, 36, 37, 42, 47, 48
Śivajī, 65
Śiva Siṁha, 101
Skandagupta, 44, 45, 47ff
Solar era, Jahāngīr’s, 96n, 98
Sophytes (Saubhūti), 23
Sotēr Megas, 30n, 35
Spalagadames, 29
Spalahores, 24, 29
Spalapati-deva, 53
Spalirises, 24, 29
Square coins, 16, 71, 86, 94, 95
Standards of weight, 25n
_Stater_, 13, 26
Strato I, 24, 27;
II, 30
Sugandhā, 54
Śuklenming, 100, 101
Sulaimān Durrānī, 106
Sult̤ānpūr, 72;
(Warangal), 74
Surashṭra, 47n
Sūrat, 95, 98, 104
Surendra Vikrama, 102
Sūrya Nārāyana, 101
_Suvarṇa_, 13, 45

Tailapa, 59
Tālikota, battle of, 63
Tamil, 58, 61, 62, 64, 66
Tānda, 80
_Tang-ka_, 102
Tanjore, 64
_Tankah_, 69n, 70ff, 93, 97
_Tānkī_, 93, 97
Tara, 100
_Tārē_, 58, 66
Tatta, 96, 97
Taxila, 16, 17, 19, 24, 33
Telugu, 58, 59, 61, 64, 106
Telugu-Choḷa dynasty, 60
Tetradrachm, Attic, 55
Thāṇeśar, 49;
battle of, 69
Theophilos, 27
Tibet, 102
Tīmūr, 76, 97
Tinnevelly, 61, 63, 64
Tipperah, 101
Tīpū Sult̤ān, 105
Tirhut (Tug̱ẖlaqpūr), 74, 85
Tirumalarāya, 64
Tomara dynasty, 53
Toramāṇa, 49, 50, 51, 54
Trailokyamalla, 59
Travancore, 61, 66, 109
_Tughra_, 80
Type, 25;
Horseman, 28, 43ff
Types, various Gupta, 41ff

Ujjain (Avanti), 20;
city of, 87, 104
Upagīti metre, 45
Urdū mint, 89, 96

Vaiśālī, 41
Valabhī, 47, 49
_Varāha_, 57
Vāsudeva, 33, 36, 37, 51
_Velli_, 64
Veṅgī, 59, 63
Venkaṭeśvara, 64
Vigrahapāla, 52
Vijayanagar, 57, 62, 63ff, 82
Vikrama era, 24, 53, 107n
Vima Kadphises, 33, 35, 38
Vīrasena, 49
Vishṇu, 42, 52, 64;
Chittadeva, 61
Vishṇugupta, 45
Vishṇuvardhana, 59
Vonones, 24, 29

Wājid ’Alī Shāh, 108
Warangal, 60
Wodyar dynasty, 105

Yādavas of Devagiri, 60
Yama, 45
Yasodharman, 51
Yaudheyas, 37
Yueh-chi, 24, 33;
Little, 37, 54
Yūsuf Shāh of Kashmir, 81

Z̤afar Ḵẖ̱ān, 87
Zainu-l-ābidīn of Kashmīr, 81, 82
Zeionises, 30
Zeus, 28
Zodiac coins, 95
Zoilos, 24, 27

PRINTED AT THE WESLEYAN MISSION PRESS, MYSORE CITY.