The Complete Works in Philosophy, Politics and Morals of the late Dr. Benjamin Franklin, Vol. 2 [of 3]

Chapter XIII: Front Matter (13)

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I send you inclosed the song with its music at length. Read the words without the repetitions. Observe how few they are, and what a shower of notes attend them: you will then perhaps be inclined to think with me, that though the words might be the principal part of an ancient song, they are of small importance in a modern one; they are in short only _a pretence for singing_.

I am, as ever,

Your affectionate brother,

B. FRANKLIN.

P. S. I might have mentioned _inarticulation_ among the defects in common speech that are assumed as beauties in modern singing. But as that seems more the fault of the singer than of the composer, I omitted it in what related merely to the composition. The fine singer in the present mode, stifles all the hard consonants, and polishes away all the rougher parts of words that serve to distinguish them one from another; so that you hear nothing but an admirable pipe, and understand no more of the song, than you would from its tune played on any other instrument. If ever it was the ambition of musicians to make instruments that should imitate the human voice, that ambition seems now reversed, the voice aiming to be like an instrument. Thus wigs were first made to imitate a good natural head of hair;--but when they became fashionable, though in unnatural forms, we have seen natural hair dressed to look like wigs.

_Description of the Process to be observed in making large Sheets
of Paper in the Chinese Manner, with one smooth surface._[65]

In Europe to have a large surface of paper connected together and smooth on one side, the following operations are performed.

1. A number of small sheets are to be made separately.

2. These are to be couched, one by one, between blankets.

3. When a heap is formed it must be put under a strong press, to force out the water.

4. Then the blankets are to be taken away, one by one, and the sheets hung up to dry.

5. When dry they are to be again pressed, or if to be sized, they must be dipped into size made of warm water, in which glue and alum are dissolved.

6. They must then be pressed again to force out the superfluous size.

7. They must then be hung up a second time to dry, which, if the air happens to be damp, requires some days.

8. They must then be taken down, laid together, and again pressed.

9. They must be pasted together at their edges.

10. The whole must be glazed by labour, with a flint.

In China, if they would make sheets, suppose of four and a half ells long and one and a half ells wide, they have two large vats, each five ells long and two ells wide, made of brick, lined with a plaster that holds water. In these the stuff is mixed ready to work.

Between these vats is built a kiln or stove, with two inclining sides; each side something larger than the sheet of paper; they are covered with a fine stucco that takes a polish, and are so contrived as to be well heated by a small fire circulating in the walls.

The mould is made with thin but deep sides, that it may be both light and stiff: it is suspended at each end with cords that pass over pullies fastened to the cieling, their ends connected with a counterpoise nearly equal the weight of the mould.

Two men, one at each end of the mould, lifting it out of the water by the help of the counterpoise, turn it and apply it with the stuff to the smooth surface of the stove, against which they press it, to force out great part of the water through the wires. The heat of the wall soon evaporates the rest, and a boy takes off the dried sheet by rolling it up. The side next the stove receives the even polish of the stucco, and is thereby better fitted to receive the impression of fine prints. If a degree of sizing is required, a decoction of rice is mixed with the stuff in the vat.

Thus the great sheet is obtained, smooth and sized, and a number of the European operations saved.

As the stove has two polished sides, and there are two vats, the same operation is at the same time performed by two other men at the other vat; and one fire serves.

FOOTNOTE:

[65] Communicated by Dr. Franklin to the American Philosophical Society, in which it was read, June 20, 1788. _Editor._

TO NOAH WEBSTER, JUN. ESQ. AT HARTFORD[66].

_On Modern Innovations in the English Language and in Printing._

_Philadelphia, Dec_.26, 1789.

DEAR SIR,

I received, some time since, your _Dissertations on the English Language_. It is an excellent work, and will be greatly useful in turning the thoughts of our countrymen to correct writing. Please to accept my thanks for it, as well as for the great honour you have done me in its dedication. I ought to have made this acknowledgment sooner, but much indisposition prevented me.

I cannot but applaud your zeal for preserving the purity of our language both in its expression and pronunciation, and in correcting the popular errors several of our states are continually falling into with respect to both. Give me leave to mention some of them, though possibly they may already have occurred to you. I wish, however, that in some future publication of yours, you would set a discountenancing mark upon them. The first I remember, is the word _improved_. When I left New England in the year 1723, this word had never been used among us, as far as I know, but in the sense of _ameliorated_, or _made better_, except once in a very old book of Dr. Mather's, entitled _Remarkable Providences_. As that man wrote a very obscure hand, I remember that when I read that word in his book used instead of the word _employed_, I conjectured that it was an error of the printer, who had mistaken a short _l_ in the writing for an _r_, and a _y_ with too short a tail for a _v_, whereby _employed_ was converted into _improved_: but when I returned to Boston in 1733, I found this change had obtained favour, and was then become common; for I met with it often in perusing the newspapers, where it frequently made an appearance rather ridiculous. Such, for instance, as the advertisement of a country house to be sold, which had been many years _improved_ as a tavern; and in the character of a deceased country gentleman, that he had been, for more than thirty years, _improved_ as a justice of the peace. This use of the word _improve_ is peculiar to New England, and not to be met with among any other speakers of English, either on this or the other side of the water.

During my late absence in France, I find that several other new words have been introduced into our parliamentary language. For example, I find a verb from the substantive _notice_. _I should not have_ noticed _this, were it not that the gentleman_, &c. Also another verb, from the substantive _advocate_; _The gentleman who_ advocates, _or who has_ advocated _that motion_,&c. Another from the substantive _progress_, the most awkward and abominable of the three: _the committee having_ progressed, _resolved to adjourn_. The word _opposed_, though not a new word, I find used in a new manner, as, _the gentlemen who are_ opposed _to this measure, to which I have also myself always been_ opposed. If you should happen to be of my opinion with respect to these innovations, you will use your authority in reprobating them.

The Latin language, long the vehicle used in distributing knowledge among the different nations of Europe, is daily more and more neglected; and one of the modern tongues, viz. French, seems, in point of universality, to have supplied its place. It is spoken in all the courts of Europe; and most of the literati, those even who do not speak it, have acquired enough knowledge of it, to enable them easily to read the books, that are written in it. This gives a considerable advantage to that nation. It enables its authors to inculcate and spread through other nations, such sentiments and opinions, on important points, as are most conducive to its interests, or which may contribute to its reputation, by promoting the common interests of mankind. It is, perhaps, owing to its being written in French, that Voltaire's Treatise on Toleration has had so sudden and so great an effect on the bigotry of Europe, as almost entirely to disarm it. The general use of the French language has likewise a very advantageous effect on the profits of the bookselling branch of commerce, it being well known, that the more copies can be sold, that are struck off from one composition of types, the profits increase in a much greater proportion, than they do in making a greater number of pieces in any other kind of manufacture. And at present there is no capital town in Europe without a French bookseller's shop corresponding with Paris. Our English bids fair to obtain the second place. The great body of excellent printed sermons in our language, and the freedom of our writings on political subjects, have induced a great dumber of divines of different sects and nations, as well as gentlemen concerned in public affairs, to study it, so far at least as to read it. And if we were to endeavour the facilitating its progress, the study of our tongue might become much more general. Those, who have employed some part of their time in learning a new language, must have frequently observed, that while their acquaintance with it was imperfect, difficulties, small in themselves, operated as great ones in obstructing their progress. A book, for example, ill printed, or a pronunciation in speaking, not well articulated, would render a sentence unintelligible, which, from a clear print, or a distinct speaker, would have been immediately comprehended. If, therefore, we would have the benefit of seeing our language more generally known among mankind, we should endeavour to remove all the difficulties, however small, that discourage the learning of it. But I am sorry to observe, that, of late years, those difficulties, instead of being diminished, have been augmented.

In examining the English books, that were printed between the restoration and the accession of George the Second, we may observe, that all the substantives were begun with a capital, in which we imitated our mother tongue, the German. This was more particularly useful to those, who were not well acquainted with the English, there being such a prodigious number of our words, that are both verbs and substantives, and spelt in the same manner, though often accented differently in pronunciation. This method has, by the fancy of printers, of late years been entirely laid aside; from an idea, that suppressing the capitals shows the character to greater advantage; those letters prominent above the line, disturbing its even, regular appearance. The effect of this change is so considerable, that a learned man of France, who used to read our books, though not perfectly acquainted with our language, in conversation with me on the subject of our authors, attributed the greater obscurity he found in our modern books, compared with those of the period above mentioned, to a change of style for the worse in our writers: of which mistake I convinced him, by marking for him each substantive with a capital, in a paragraph, which he then easily understood, though before he could not comprehend it. This shows the inconvenience of that pretended improvement.

From the same fondness for an uniform and even appearance of characters in the line, the printers have of late banished also the Italic types, in which words, of importance to be attended to in the sense of the sentence, and words, on which an emphasis should be put in reading, used to be printed. And lately, another fancy has induced other printers to use the round _s_ instead of the long one, which formerly served well to distinguish a word readily by its varied appearance. Certainly the omitting this prominent letter makes a line appear more even, but renders it less immediately legible; as the paring of all men's noses might smooth and level their faces, but would render their physiognomies less distinguishable. Add to all these improvements backwards, another modern fancy, that _grey_ printing is more beautiful than black. Hence the English new books are printed in so dim a character, as to be read with difficulty by old eyes; unless in a very strong light and with good glasses. Whoever compares a volume of the Gentleman's Magazine, printed between the years 1731 and 1740, with one of those printed in the last ten years, will be convinced of the much greater degree of perspicuity given by black than by the grey. Lord Chesterfield pleasantly remarked this difference to Faulkener, the printer of the Dublin Journal, who was vainly making encomiums on his own paper, as the most complete of any in the world. "But Mr. Faulkener," says my lord, "don't you think it might be still farther improved, by using paper and ink not quite so near of a colour?"--For all these reasons, I cannot but wish, that our American printers would, in their editions, avoid these fancied improvements, and thereby render their works more agreeable to foreigners in Europe, to the great advantage of our bookselling commerce.

Farther, to be more sensible of the advantage of clear and distinct printing, let us consider the assistance it affords in reading well aloud to an auditory. In so doing, the eye generally slides forward three or four words before the voice. If the sight clearly distinguishes what the coming words are, it gives time to order the modulation of the voice to express them properly. But if they are obscurely printed or disguised, by omitting the capitals and long _ʃ_'s, or otherwise, the reader is apt to modulate wrong; and finding he has done so, he is obliged to go back and begin the sentence again; which lessens the pleasure of the hearers. This leads me to mention an old error in our mode of printing. We are sensible, that when a question is met with in the reading, there is a proper variation to be used in the management of the voice. We have therefore a point, called an interrogation, affixed to the question, in order to distinguish it. But this is absurdly placed at its end, so that the reader does not discover it till he finds, that he has wrongly modulated his voice, and is therefore obliged to begin again the sentence. To prevent this, the Spanish printers, more sensibly, place an interrogation at the beginning as well as at the end of the question. We have another error of the same kind in printing plays, where something often occurs, that is marked as spoken _aside_. But the word _aside_ is placed at the end of the speech, when it ought to precede it, as a direction to the reader, that he may govern his voice accordingly. The practice of our ladies in meeting five or six together, to form little busy parties, where each is employed in some useful work, while one reads to them, is so commendable in itself, that it deserves the attention of authors and printers to make it as pleasing as possible, both to the reader and hearers.

My best wishes attend you, being, with sincere esteem,

Sir,

Your most obedient and very humble servant,

B. FRANKLIN.

FOOTNOTE:

[66] This letter is taken from an American periodical publication entitled the Columbian Magazine. _Editor._

_A Scheme for a New Alphabet and reformed Mode of Spelling; with
Remarks and Examples concerning the same; and an Enquiry into its
Uses, in a Correspondence between Miss S----[67] and Dr. Franklin,
written in the Characters of the Alphabet[68]._

TABLE OF THE REFORMED ALPHABET

To face page 357,
Vol. II.

* _N. B._ The six new letters are marked with an asterisk (*) to
distinguish them, and show how few new characters are proposed. B. V.

[Transcriber Note: The original text used italic styling on each
character in columns 1 and 3 above, and column 1 below. This
styling (underscores) has been removed from the tables for clarity.]

REMARKS [_on the Alphabetical Table_.]

{ It is endeavoured to give the alphabet
o { a _more natural order_; beginning first with
{ the simple sounds formed by the breath,
to { with none or very little help of tongue,
{ teeth, and lips, and produced chiefly in
huh { the windpipe.

{ Then coming forward to those, formed
g k { by the roof of the tongue next to the
{ windpipe.

r n { Then to those, formed more forward,
t d { the forepart of the tongue against the
{ roof of the mouth.

{ Then those, formed still more forward
l { in the mouth, by the tip of the tongue
s z { applied first to the roots of the upper
{ teeth.

ɧ { Then to those, formed by the tip of the
ƕ { tongue applied to the ends or edges of
{ the upper teeth.

f { Then to those, formed still more forward,
v { by the under lip applied to the upper
{ teeth.

b { Then to those, formed yet more forward
p { by the upper and under lip opening
{ to let out the sounding breath.

{ And lastly, ending with the shutting
m { up of the mouth, or closing the lips while
{ any vowel is sounding.

In this alphabet _c_ is _omitted_ as unnecessary; _k_ supplying its hard sound, and _s_ the soft; _k_ also supplies well the place of _q_, and with an _s_ added the place of _x_: _q_ and _x_ are therefore omitted. The vowel _u_ being sounded as _oo_ makes the _w_ unnecessary. The _y_, where used simply, is supplied by _i_, and where as a dipthong, by two vowels: that letter is therefore omitted as useless. The jod _j_ is also omitted, its sound being supplied by the new letter _Ի_, _ish_, which serves other purposes, assisting in the formation of other sounds;--thus the _Ի_ with a _d_ before it gives the sound of the jod _j_ and soft _g_, as in "James, January, giant, gentle," "_dԻeems_, _dԻhanueri_, _dԻųiant_, _dԻentel_;" with a _t_ before it, it gives the sound of _ch_, as in "cherry, chip," "_tԻeri_, _tԻip_;" and with a _z_ before it, the French sound of the jod _j_, as in "jamais," "_zԻame_."

Thus the _g_ has no longer _two different_ sounds, which occasioned confusion, but is, as every letter ought to be, confined to one. The same is to be observed in _all_ the letters, vowels, and consonants, that wherever they are met with, or in whatever company, their sound is always the same. It is also intended, that there be _no superfluous_ letters used in spelling; i. e. no letter that is not sounded; and this alphabet, by six new letters, provides, that, there be no distinct sounds in the language, _without letters_ to express them. As to the difference between _short and long vowels_, it is naturally expressed by a single vowel where short, a double one where long; as for "mend," write "mend," but for "remain'd," write "remeen'd;" for "did" write "did," but for "deed" write "diid," &c.

What in our common alphabet is supposed the third vowel, _i_, as we sound it, is as a _dipthong_, consisting of two of our vowels joined; [viz.] _ų_ as sounded in "unto," and _i_ in its true sound. Any one will be sensible of this who sounds those two vowels _ų i_ quick after each other; the sounds begins _ų_ and ends _ii_. The true sound of the _i_ is that we now give to _e_ in the words "deed, keep--[69]."

FOOTNOTES:

[67] Stephenson. Editor.

[68] For the nature and intention of this alphabet, &c. I must refer to what Dr. Franklin has himself said upon the subject, in answer to Miss S----n's objections; as the reader may understand the whole in an hour or two.--It is necessary to add, that the new letters; used in the course of printing this paper, are exactly copied from the _manuscript_ in my possession; there being no provision for a distinction in the character as _written_ or _printed_. I have no other way therefore of marking the scored parts of the manuscript (answering to _italics_) than by placing such passages between inverted commas.--As to _capitals_, I should have provided for them by means of larger types, but the form of some of them would have made them too large for the page: however, were the author's general system ever adopted, nothing would be easier than to remedy this particular. B. V.

[69] The copy, from which this is printed, ends in the same abrupt way with the above, followed by a considerable blank space; so that more perhaps was intended to be added by our author. B. V.

EXAMPLES [_of writing in this Character_.]

_So huen sųm EndԻel, bųi divųin kϖmand, Uiƕ rųiziŋ tempests Իeeks e gilti Land; (SųtԻ az ϖv leet or peel Britania past,) Kalm and siriin hi drųivs ƕi fiuriųs blast; And, pliiz'd ƕ' ϖlmųitis ϖrdųrs tu pųrfϖrm, Rųids in ƕi Huųrluind and dųirekts ƕi Stϖrm._

_So ƕi piur limpid striim, huen fϖul uiɧ steens ϖv rųԻiŋ Tϖrents and disendiŋ Reens, Uųrks itself kliir; and az it rųns rifųins; Til bųi digriis, ƕe flotiŋ mirųr Իųins, Riflekts iitԻ flϖur ƕat ϖn its bϖrdųr groz, And e nu hev'n in its feer Bųzųm Իoz._

_Kensiŋtųn, Septembųr_ 26, 1768.

_Diir Sųr_,

_ųi hav transkrųb'd iur alfabet, &c. huitԻ ųi ƕink mųit bi ϖv sųrvis tu ƕoz, hu uiԻ ta akuųir an akiuret pronųnsieԻųn, if ƕat kuld bi fiks'd; bųt ųi si meni inkϖnviiniensis, az uel oz difikųltis, ƕat uuld atend ƕi briŋiŋ iur letųrs and ϖrɧϖgrafi intu kϖmųn ias. ϖϖl ϖur etimϖlodԻiz uuld be lϖst, kϖnsikuentli ui kuld nϖt asųrteen ƕi miiniŋ ϖv meni uųrds; ƕi distinkԻųn tu, bituiin uųrds ϖv difųrent miiniŋ and similar sϖund uuld bi iusles, ųnles ui liviŋ rųiters pųbliԻ nu iidiԻųns. In Իϖrt ųi biliiv ui mųst let piipil spel ϖn in ƕeer old ue, (az ui fųind it iisiiest) du ƕi seem ϖurselves._ With ease and with sincerity I can, in the old way, subscribe myself,

Dear Sir,

Your faithful and affectionate Servant,

M. S.

Dr. Franklin.

ANSWER TO MISS S****.

_Diir Madam,_ _ƕi ϖbdԻekԻyn iu meek to rektifųiiŋ ϖur alfabet, "ƕat it uil bi atended uiƕ inkϖviniensiz and difikųltiz," iz e natural uųn; fϖr it ϖluaz ϖkųrz huen eni refϖrmeԻųn iz propozed; hueƕųr in rilidԻųn, gųvernment, lϖz, and iven dϖun az lo az rods and huil karidԻiz. ƕi tru kuestԻųn ƕen, is nϖt hueƕhųr ƕaer uil bi no difikųltiz ϖr inkϖnviniensiz, bųt hueƕer ƕi difikųltiz mê nϖt bi sųrmϖunted; and hueƕeųr ƕi kϖnviniensiz uil nϖt, ϖn ƕi huol, bi gretųr ƕan ƕi inkϖnviniensiz. In ƕis kes, ƕi difikųltiz er onli in ƕi biginiŋ ϖv ƕi praktis: huen ƕê er uųns ovųrkųm, ƕi advantedԻez er lastiŋ.--To ųiƕųr iu ϖr mi, hu spel uel in ƕi prezent mod, ųi imadԻin ƕi difikųlti ϖv tԻendiŋ ƕat mod fϖr ƕi nu, iz nϖt so grêt, bųt ƕat ui mųit pųrfektli git ovųr it in a uiiks rųitiŋ.--Az to ƕoz hu du nϖt spel uel, if ƕi tu difikųltiz er kųmpêrd, viz. ƕat ϖv titԻiŋ ƕem tru speliŋ in ƕi prezent mod, and ƕat ϖv titԻing ƕem ƕi nu alfabet and ƕi nu speliŋ akϖrdiŋ to it, ųi am kϖnfident ƕat ƕi latųr uuld bi byi far ƕi liist. ƕê natųrali fϖl into ƕi nu meɧųd alreadi, az mųtԻ az ƕi imperfekԻųn ϖv ƕer alfabet uil admit ϖv; ƕêr prezent bad speliŋ iz onli bad, bikϖz kϖntreri to ƕi prezent bad ruls: ųndųr ƕi nu ruls it uuld bi gud.--ƕi difikųlti ϖv lųrniŋ to spel uel in ƕi old uê iz so grêt, ƕat fiu atên it; ɧϖuzands and ɧϖuzands rųitiŋ ϖn to old edԻ, uiƕϖut ever biiŋ ebil to akuųir it. 'Tiz, bisųidz, e difikųlti kϖntinuali inkriisiŋ az ƕi sϖund graduali veriz mor and mor frϖm ƕi speliŋ; and to fϖrenųrs[70] it mêks ƕi lųrniŋ to pronϖns ϖur laŋuedԻ, az riten in ϖur buks, almost impϖsibil._

_Nϖu az to "ƕi inkϖnviniensiz" iu menԻųn.--ƕi fųrst iz, ƕat "ϖϖl ϖur etimϖlodԻiz uuld bi lϖst, kϖnsikuentli ui kuld nϖt asųrteen ƕi miiniŋ ϖv meni uųrds."--etimϖlodԻiz er at present veri ųnsųrteen; bųt sųtԻ az ƕê er, ƕi old buks uuld stil prizųrv ƕem, and etimolodԻiz uuld ƕêr fųind ƕem. Uųrds in ƕi kors ϖv tyim, tԻendԻ ƕer miiniŋs, az uel az ƕer speliŋ and pronųnsieԻųn; and ui du nϖt luk to etimϖlodԻi fϖr ƕer prezent miiniŋs. If ųi Իuld kϖl e man e Neev and e Vilen, hi uuld hardli bi satisfųid wiɧ mųi teliŋ him, ƕat uųn ϖv ƕi uųrds oridԻinali signifųid onli e lad ϖr sųrvant; and ƕi ųƕųr, an ųndųr plϖuman, ϖr ƕi inhabitant ϖv e viledԻ. It iz frϖm prezent iusedԻ onli, ƕi miiniŋ ϖv uųrds iz to bi ditųrmined._

_Iur sekųnd inkϖnviniens iz, ƕat "ƕi distinkԻųn bituiin uųrds ϖv difųrent miiniŋ and similar sϖund uuld bi distrϖųid."--ƕat distinkԻųn iz ϖlreadi distrϖųid in pronϖunsiŋ ƕem; and ui rilųi ϖn ƕi sens alon ϖv ƕi sentens to asųrteen, huitԻ ϖv ƕi several uųrds, similar in sϖund, ui intend. If ƕis iz sųfiԻent in ƕi rapiditi ϖv diskors, it uil bi mutԻ mor so in riten sentenses, huitԻ mê bi red lezԻurli, and atended to mor partikularli in kes ϖv difikųlti, ƕan ui kan atend to e past sentens, huųil e spikųr iz hųryiŋ ųs alϖng uiɧ nu uųns._

_Iur ɧųrd inkϖnviniens iz, ƕat "ϖϖl ƕi buks alredi riten uuld bi iusles."--ƕis inkϖnviniens uuld onli kųm ϖn graduali, in e kors ϖv edԻes. Iu and ųi, and ųƕųr nϖu liviŋ ridųrs, uuld hardli fϖrget ƕi ius ϖv ƕem. Piipil uuld long lųrn to riid ƕi old rųiting, ƕo ƕê praktist ƕi nu.--And ƕi inkϖnvinens iz nϖt greter, ƕan huat hes aktuali hapend in a similar kes, in Iteli, Fϖrmerli its inhabitants ϖϖl spok and rot Latin: az ƕi laŋuedԻ tԻendԻd, ƕi speliŋ fϖlo'd it. It iz tru ƕat at prezent, e miir ųnlarn'd Italien knϖt riid ƕi Latin buks; ƕo ƕe er stil red and ųndųrstud bųi meni. Bųt, if ƕi speliŋ had nevųr bin tԻendԻed, hi uuld nϖu hev fϖund it mųtԻ mor difikųlt to riid and ryit hiz on laŋuadԻ; fϖr riten uųrds uuld hev had no rilêԻųn to sϖunds, ƕe uuld onli hev stud fϖr ƕiŋs; so ƕat if hi uuld ekspres in rųitiŋ ƕi ųidia hi hez, huen hi sϖunds ƕi uųrd_ Vescovo, _hi mųst iuz ƕi leterz_ Episcopus.--_In Իϖrt, huatever ƕi difikųltiz and inkϖnviniensiz nϖu er, ƕe uil bi mor iizili sųrmϖunted nϖu, ƕan hiraftųr; and sųm tųim ϖr ųƕųr, it mųst bi dųn; ϖr ϖur rųitiŋ uil bikųm ƕi sêm uiƕ ƕi TԻųiniiz[71], az to ƕi difikųlti ϖv lųrniŋ and iuzing it. And it uuld alredi hev bin sųtԻ, if ui had kϖntinud ƕi Saksųn speliŋ and rųitiŋ, iuzed bųi our forfaƕers._

_ųi am, mųi diir frind,_

_iurs afekԻųnetli,_

B. FRANKLIN.

_Lųndųn_,

_Kreven-striit, Sept. 28, 1768._

FOOTNOTES:

[70] Dr. Franklin used to lay some little stress on this circumstance, when he occasionally spoke on the subject. "A dictionary, formed on this model, would have been serviceable to him, he said, even as an American;" because, from the want of public examples of pronunciation in his own country, it was often difficult to learn the proper sound of certain words, which occurred very frequently in our English writings, and which of course every American very well understood as to their meaning. B. V.

[71] Chinese.

_Rules for a Club formerly established in Philadelphia[72]._

Previous question, to be answered at every meeting.

Have you read over these queries this morning, in order to consider what you might have to offer the Junto [touching] any one of them? viz.

1. Have you met with any thing, in the author you last read, remarkable, or suitable to be communicated to the Junto? particularly in history, morality, poetry, physic, travels, mechanic arts, or other parts of knowledge.

2. What new story have you lately heard agreeable for telling in conversation?

3. Hath any citizen in your knowledge failed in his business lately, and what have you heard of the cause?

4. Have you lately heard of any citizen's thriving well, and by what means?

5. Have you lately heard how any present rich man, here or elsewhere, got his estate?

6. Do you know of any fellow citizen, who has lately done a worthy action, deserving praise and imitation? or who has lately committed an error, proper for us to be warned against and avoid?

[7. What unhappy effects of intemperance have you lately observed or heard? of imprudence? of passion? or of any other vice or folly?

8. What happy effects of temperance? of prudence? of moderation? or of any other virtue?]

9. Have you or any of your acquaintance been lately sick or wounded? If so, what remedies were used, and what were their effects?

10. Who do you know that are shortly going voyages or journies, if one should have occasion to send by them?

11. Do you think of any thing at present, in which the Junto may be serviceable to _mankind_? to their country, to their friends, or to themselves?

12. Hath any deserving stranger arrived in town since last meeting, that you heard of? and what have you heard or observed of his character or merits? and whether think you, it lies in the power of the Junto to oblige him, or encourage him as he deserves?

13. Do you know of any deserving young beginner lately set up, whom it lies in the power of the Junto any way to encourage?

14. Have you lately observed any defect in the laws of your _country_, [of] which it would be proper to move the legislature for an amendment? or do you know of any beneficial law that is wanting?

15. Have you lately observed any encroachment on the just liberties of the people?

16. Hath any body attacked your reputation lately? and what can the Junto do towards securing it?

17. Is their any man whose friendship you want, and which the Junto, or any of them, can procure for you?

18. Have you lately heard any member's character attacked, and how have you defended it?

19. Hath any man injured you, from whom it is in the power of the Junto to procure redress?

20. In what manner can the Junto, or any of them, assist you in any of your honourable designs?

21. Have you any weighty affair in hand, in which you think the advice of the Junto may be of service[73]?

22. What benefits have you lately received from any man not present?

23. Is there any difficulty in matters of opinion, of justice, and injustice, which you would gladly have discussed at this time?

24. Do you see any thing amiss in the present customs or proceedings of the Junto, which might be amended?

Any person to be qualified, to stand up, and lay his hand on his breast, and be asked these questions; viz.

1. Have you any particular disrespect to any present members?--_Answer._ I have not.

2. Do you sincerely declare, that you love mankind in general; of what profession or religion soever? _Ans._ I do.

3. Do you think any person ought to be harmed in his body, name or goods, for mere speculative opinions, or his external way of worship?--_Ans._ No.

4. Do you love truth for truth's sake, and will you endeavour impartially to find and receive it yourself and communicate it to others?--_Ans._ Yes.

FOOTNOTES:

[72] This was an early performance, and carries along with it an air of singularity, accompanied with such operative good sense and philanthropy, as characterizes it for Dr. Franklin's. The club, for which it was written, was held at Philadelphia; and, if I am well informed, was composed of men considerable for their influence and discretion; for though the chief measures of Pensylvania usually received their first formation in this club, it existed for thirty years without the nature of its institution being publicly known. B. V.

[73] Queries No. 7 and 8 follow here, in the original. B. V.

_Questions discussed by the Junto forming the preceding Club[74]._

Is _sound_ an entity or body?

How may the phenomena of vapours be explained?

Is self-interest the rudder that steers mankind, the universal monarch to whom all are tributaries?

Which is the best form of government, and what was that form which first prevailed among mankind?

Can any one particular form of government suit all mankind?

What is the reason that the tides rise higher in the Bay of Fundy than the Bay of Delaware?

Is the emission of paper-money safe?

What is the reason that men of the greatest knowledge not the most happy?

How may the possession of the Lakes be improved to our advantage?

Why are tumultuous, uneasy sensations, united with our desires?

Whether it ought to be the aim of philosophy to eradicate the passions?

How may smoaky chimneys be best cured?

Why does the flame of a candle tend upwards in a spire?

Which is least criminal, a _bad_ action joined with a _good_ intention, or a _good_ action with a _bad_ intention?

Is it consistent with the principles of liberty in a free government, to punish a man as a libeller, when he speaks the truth?

FOOTNOTE:

[74] These questions are from the Eulogium of Dr. Franklin, delivered before the American Philosophical Society, in 1791, of which the Junto was the foundation. On the formation of that society, a book, containing many of the questions discussed by the Junto, was delivered into Dr. Smith's hands, for the purpose of being digested, and in due time published among the transactions of that body. Many of the questions Dr. Smith observes are curious and curiously handled, and he selects the above as answering the description. _Editor._

_Sketch of an English School; for the Consideration of the Trustees
of the Philadelphia Academy[75]._

It is expected that every scholar, to be admitted into this school, be at least able to pronounce and divide the syllables in reading, and to write a legible hand. None to be received, that are under [___]years of age.

_First, or lowest Class._

Let the first class learn the English Grammar rules, and at the same time let particular care be taken to improve them in orthography. Perhaps the latter is best done by pairing the scholars; two of those nearest equal in their spelling to be put together. Let these strive for victory; each propounding ten words every day to the other to be spelled. He that spells truly most of the other's words is victor for that day; he that is victor most days in a month, to obtain a prize, a pretty neat book of some kind, useful in their future studies. This method fixes the attention of children extremely to the orthography of words, and makes them good spellers very early. It is a shame for a man to be so ignorant of this little art, in his own language, as to be perpetually confounding words of like sound and different significations; the consciousness of which defect makes some men, otherwise of good learning and understanding, averse to writing even a common letter.

Let the pieces read by the scholars in this class be short; such as Croxal's fables, and little stories. In giving the lesson, let it be read to them; let the meaning of the difficult words in it be explained to them; and let them con over by themselves before they are called to read to the master or usher, who is to take particular care, that they do not read too fast, and that they duly observe the stops and pauses. A vocabulary of the most usual difficult words might be formed for their use, with explanations; and they might daily get a few of those words and explanations by heart, which would a little exercise their memories; or at least they might write a number of them in a small book for the purpose, which would help to fix the meaning of those words in their minds, and at the same time furnish every one with a little dictionary for his future use.

_The Second Class_

To be taught, reading with attention, and with proper modulations of the voice, according to the sentiment and the subject.

Some short pieces, not exceeding the length of a Spectator, to be given this class for lessons (and some of the easier Spectators would be very suitable for the purpose). These lessons might be given every night as tasks; the scholars to study them against the morning. Let it then be required of them to give an account, first of the parts of speech, and construction of one or two sentences. This will oblige them to recur frequently to their grammar, and fix its principal rules in their memory. Next, of the intention of the writer, or the scope of the piece, the meaning of each sentence, and of every uncommon word. This would early acquaint them with the meaning and force of words, and give them that most necessary habit, of reading with attention.

The master then to read the piece with the proper modulations of voice, due emphasis, and suitable action, where action is required; and put the youth on imitating his manner.

Where the author has used an expression not the best, let it be pointed out; and let his beauties be particularly remarked to the youth.

Let the lessons for reading be varied, that the youth may be made acquainted with good styles of all kinds, in prose and verse, and the proper manner of reading each kind--sometimes a well-told story, a piece of a sermon, a general's speech to his soldiers, a speech in a tragedy, some part of a comedy, an ode, a satire, a letter, blank verse, Hudibrastic, heroic, &c. But let such lessons be chosen for reading, as contain some useful instruction, whereby the understanding or morals of the youth may at the same time be improved.

It is required that they should first study and understand the lessons, before they are put upon reading them properly; to which end each boy should have an English dictionary, to help him over difficulties. When our boys read English to us, we are apt to imagine they understand what they read, because we do, and because it is their mother tongue. But they often read, as parrots speak, knowing little or nothing of the meaning. And it is impossible a reader should give the due modulation to his voice, and pronounce properly, unless his understanding goes before his tongue, and makes him master of the sentiment. Accustoming boys to read aloud what they do not first understand, is the cause of those even set tones, so common among readers, which, when they have once got a habit of using, they find so difficult to correct; by which means, among fifty readers we scarcely find a good one. For want of good reading, pieces published with a view to influence the minds of men, for their own or the public benefit, lose half their force. Were there but one good reader in a neighbourhood, a public orator might be heard throughout a nation with the same advantages, and have the same effect upon his audience, as if they stood within the reach of his voice.

_The Third Class_

To be taught speaking properly and gracefully; which is near a-kin to good reading, and naturally follows it in the studies of youth. Let the scholars of this class begin with learning the elements of rhetoric from some short system, so as to be able to give an account of the most useful tropes and figures. Let all their bad habits of speaking, all offences against good grammar, all corrupt or foreign accents, and all improper phrases, be pointed out to them. Short speeches from the Romans, or other history, or from the parliamentary debates, might be got by heart, and delivered with the proper action, &c. Speeches and scenes in our best tragedies and comedies (avoiding every thing, that could injure the morals of youth) might likewise be got by rote, and the boys exercised in delivering or acting them: great care being taken to form their manner after the truest models.

For their farther improvement, and a little to vary their studies, let them now begin to read history, after having got by heart a short table of the principal epochs in chronology. They may begin with Rollin's ancient and Roman histories, and proceed at proper hours, as they go through the subsequent classes, with the best histories of our own nation and colonies. Let emulation be excited among the boys, by giving, weekly, little prizes, or other small encouragements to those, who are able to give the best account of what they have read, as to time, places, names of persons, &c. This will make them read with attention, and imprint the history well in their memories. In remarking on the history, the master will have fine opportunities of instilling instruction of various kinds, and improving the morals, as well as the understandings, of youth.

The natural and mechanic history, contained in the Spectacle de la Nature, might also be begun in this class, and continued through the subsequent classes, by other books of the same kind; for, next to the knowledge of duty, this kind of knowledge is certainly the most useful, as well as the most entertaining. The merchant may thereby be enabled better to understand many commodities in trade; the handicraftsman, to improve his business by new instruments, mixtures and materials; and frequently hints are given for new manufactures, or new methods of improving land, that may be set on foot greatly to the advantage of a country.

_The Fourth Class_

To be taught composition. Writing one's own language well, is the next necessary accomplishment after good speaking. It is the writing-master's business, to take care that the boys make fair characters, and place them straight and even in the lines: but to form their style, and even to take care that the stops and capitals are properly disposed, is the part of the English master. The boys should be put on writing letters to each other on any common occurrences, and on various subjects, imaginary business, &c. containing little stories, accounts of their late reading, what parts of authors please them, and why; letters of congratulation, of compliment, of request, of thanks, of recommendation, of admonition, of consolation, of expostulation, excuse, &c. In these, they should be taught to express themselves clearly, concisely, and naturally, without affected words or high-flown phrases. All their letters to pass through the master's hand, who is to point out the faults, advise the corrections, and commend what he finds right. Some of the best letters published in our own language, as sir William Temple's, those of Pope and his friends, and some others, might be set before the youth as models, their beauties pointed out and explained by the master, the letters themselves transcribed by the scholar.

Dr. Johnson's Ethices Elementa, or First Principles of Morality, may now be read by the scholars, and explained by the master, to lay a solid foundation of virtue and piety in their minds. And as this class continues the reading of history, let them now, at proper hours, receive some farther instruction in chronology, and in that part of geography (from the mathematical master) which is necessary to understand the maps and globes. They should also be acquainted with the modern names of the places they find mentioned in ancient writers. The exercises of good reading, and proper speaking, still continued at suitable times.

_Fifth Class_

To improve the youth in composition, they may now, besides continuing to write letters, begin to write little essays in prose, and sometimes in verse; not to make them poets, but for this reason, that nothing acquaints a lad so speedily with variety of expression, as the necessity of finding such words and phrases as will suit the measure, sound and rhyme of verse, and at the same time well express the sentiment. These essays should all pass under the master's eye, who will point out their faults, and put the writer on correcting them. Where the judgment is not ripe enough for forming new essays, let the sentiments of a Spectator be given, and required to be clothed in the scholar's own words; or the circumstances of some good story, the scholar to find expression. Let them be put sometimes on abridging a paragraph of a diffuse author: sometimes on dilating or amplifying what is wrote more closely. And now let Dr. Johnson's Noetica, or First Principles of Human Knowledge, containing a logic, or art of reasoning, &c. be read by the youth, and the difficulties, that may occur to them, be explained by the master. The reading of history, and the exercises of good reading and just speaking still continued.

_Sixth Class_

In this class, besides continuing the studies of the preceding in history, rhetoric, logic, moral and natural philosophy, the best English authors may be read and explained; as Tillotson, Milton, Locke, Addison, Pope, Swift, the higher papers in the Spectator and Guardian, the best translations of Homer, Virgil and Horace, of Telemachus, travels of Cyrus, &c.

Once a year, let there be public exercises in the hall; the trustees and citizens present. Then let fine gilt books be given as prizes to such boys, as distinguish themselves, and excel the others in any branch of learning, making three degrees of comparison: giving the best prize to him, that performs best; a less valuable one to him, that comes up next to the best, and another to the third. Commendations, encouragement, and advice to the rest; keeping up their hopes, that, by industry, they may excel another time. The names of those, that obtain the prize, to be yearly printed in a list.

The hours of each day are to be divided and disposed in such a manner, as that some classes may be with the writing-master, improving their hands; others with the mathematical master, learning arithmetic, accounts, geography, use of the globes, drawing, mechanics, &c. while the rest are in the English school, under the English master's care.

Thus instructed, youth will come out of this school fitted for learning any business, calling, or profession, except such wherein languages are required: and, though unacquainted with any ancient or foreign tongue, they will be masters of their own, which is of more immediate and general use, and withal will have attained many other valuable accomplishments: the time usually spent in acquiring those languages, often without success, being here employed in laying such a foundation of knowledge and ability, as, properly improved, may qualify them to pass through and execute the several offices of civil life, with advantage and reputation to themselves and country.

FOOTNOTE:

[75] This piece, which we believe to be an early production of our author, is taken from the American Museum, Vol. V. p. 473. _Editor._

TO MISS S----N[76], AT WANSTEAD.

_Advice to Youth in Reading._

_Craven-street, May 17, 1760._

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