Chapter XXIX: Conclusion: The Creator

The magnificent work of creation, whose course we have been tracing in some of its primordial arrangements, in the geological phenomena of the earth’s crust, and in its relations to the vast planetary system of which it is a member, is the result over all of design and intelligence. The changes wrought in the earth’s structure and framework, from period to period, have not been brought about by merely mechanical changes of physical conditions. There are order and method in the inorganic, no less than in the organic forms, into which matter in any of the earth’s revolutions has been cast. There is prospective contrivance each for each. The alterations made in the outward surface, whether of sea or land, have been always such as were best adapted to the habits and requirements of successive living tribes. And the whole amount of change, in both departments of nature, has ever been in such measure and degree as to show, from the beginning, a persistent principle of stability in the system, and a wise, all-controlling arm to be regulating and directing everything. The invisible things of God, from the creation of the world, are clearly seen; and we cannot, if we would, rid ourselves of the thought, that somewhere and beyond, there is, not a “primitive cause”[18] only, but a Divine Being, the master of the universe, potentially in and present through all things.

Aristotle concludes his treatise “De Mundo,” with observing, that to treat of the world without saying anything of its Author would be impious, and he proceeds to show, on various grounds, the traces of an all-governing Deity. Newton concludes his great work, the “Principia,” by some reflections on the nature of the Supreme Cause, and infers from the structure of the visible world, “that it is governed by one almighty and all-wise Being, who rules the world, not as its soul, but as its Lord, exercising an absolute sovereignty over the universe, not as over his own body, but as over his work; and acting in it according to his pleasure, without suffering anything from it.” Speaking of the laws by which God governs the world, and giving his definition of the term LAW, Boyle says, “I look upon a law as a moral, not physical cause, as being, indeed, but a rational thing, according to which an intelligent and free agent is bound to regulate its actions. But inanimate bodies are utterly incapable of understanding what it is, or what it enjoins, or when they act conformably or unconformably to it: therefore, the actions of inanimate bodies, which cannot incite or moderate their own actions, are produced by real power, not by laws.” “Hence,” says Whewell, in his Bridgewater Treatise, “hence we infer that the intelligence by which the law is ordained, the power by which it is put in action, must be present at all times, and in all places where the effects of the law occur: that thus the knowledge and the agency of the Divine Being pervade every portion of the universe, producing all action and passion, all permanence and change. The laws of nature are the laws which He, in his wisdom, prescribes to his own acts; his universal presence is the necessary condition of any course of events, his universal agency the only origin of any efficient force.”

The researches of science, the deeper they go into the secrets of nature, issue in the surest and brightest disclosures of the Divine Architect of the universe. We are enabled, by the lights which are furnished by the various branches of ascertained knowledge, to read in some degree the mind and purpose of God in the creations of his hand. We see in many instances what is actually intended by certain arrangements and combinations,—why, and for what end, objects are constructed in a particular way, and how it is that trains of events are made to follow in one uniform order rather than in any other. The universe, we discover, is not only bound by laws permanent and unchanging: the laws themselves have an end to serve, a particular result to accomplish. Accumulations of matter are brought together with a definite precise view; living substances are constructed with organs suited to their conditions of existence; relations of air, earth, and water, are established, which nicely answer the functions to be performed; and in ten thousands of cases are manifested the form, size, position, qualities of hardness, softness, and cohesion in the individual parts which can best secure their own special well-being along with the general conservation of the framework to which they are attached. How admirably, from age to age, do the organic as well as the inorganic structures of the geological narrative illustrate the truth of these remarks, where the manifestations of design are as numerous as the objects of creation, and as legible as if God had written their import by his own finger? The oldest, equally with the newest, book of nature, discloses the records of his will. We read them in the varied language traced and stereotyped upon their stony leaves. And in perusing the diversified contents of this wonderful volume, we cannot rise without the conviction that the being, attributes, and character of its Author, are brightly and indelibly impressed on every page.

The argument for the existence of a DESIGNING AGENT in the creation and arrangements of a material world, may be thus illustrated: A rude, unshapely piece of stone—say the “stone upon the heath”—does not at once impress the spectator with the conviction that it was made and placed where it is, by a designing intelligent being. But let it be chiseled into form, give it symmetry and proportion, and he immediately concludes that this is the result of skill and intention. Look at a piece of machinery—its framework of wood—its springs of iron—its wheels, beams and axles, composed of different metals, and arranged in different forms—and the inference is irresistible, that neither the forest, nor the quarry, nor the mine, yielded the materials in their present shape, nor combined among themselves to put them together.—Reason seeks for a different kind of agency, and experience tells that the mind and the hand of man have been there. We see water converted into steam, the steam brought into contact with a piece of metal, the vapor confined within an inclosure and acted upon by a condenser; and through means of this simple arrangement and the application of this natural power, duly regulated and sustained, we discern the triumph of mind over matter—the marvels which human industry and intelligence have been able to achieve. This combination of materials is not a thing of life.—Chance has produced none of these arrangements. The whole is the result of design, of aiming intention, of calculating intelligence. Examine the telescope, its apparatus of lenses, reflectors, and mirrors: look through that narrow tube as it is pointed in a clear starry night to the azure vault; and your shout of astonishment, when you first behold the increased magnitude of these orbs—their separation into systems and clusters—firmaments ascending in gradations of brilliancy, one above another—and the infinitely remote, studded and glowing with higher and higher galaxies—will partake of a mingled feeling of admiration at the immensity and grandeur of the universe—the wisdom and skill which combined to frame the instrument that brings within your ken, and enables you to gaze on, the glorious vision.

Now, in nature, we find the same indications of design, the same surprising combinations of skill, instruments framed with matchless wisdom and the most exquisite contrivance. Nay, all here, in every department of creation, leaves human ingenuity at an immeasurable distance. No statuary can rival that which is exhibited in the rocks, gems, and crystals of the earth. Machinery is transcendently surpassed, in the forms of every organic thing beneath or around, in minuteness, adaptation, and balancing of parts,—the steam-engine in energy and power—the ship by a more refined and skillful equipment of ropes, pulleys, and sails—and the telescope is not for a moment to be compared with the human eye in the beauty of its construction, the power of its movements, the amazing swiftness and variety of its glance.—But there is design and intelligence manifested in the works of man. They could not arrange themselves. They must have had an artificer. Draw near, look unto the works of creation, what cumulative evidence of their intelligent author, conclusive as the severest demonstrations of science. Man asks for a sign from heaven. Ten thousand intimations are given—millions, indeed, of miraculous contrivances meet him in every department of the universe.

This earth, however, is not an isolated body in the universe; it forms one of a system of worlds, and its geological history cannot be regarded as complete until we have viewed it in some of its more extended relations. The course of creation is traced in the planetary system, a series of masses of matter assuming one form, moving in one plane, following in one orbital path, revolving around a common center, enlightened and warmed by a common sun, and obedient, one and all, to the same great law of gravitation. The mighty problem of the universe has been solved upon the simple assumption, that a piece of our earth is like a piece of the other planets; that the properties of matter here are as the properties of matter above; and as the laws of motion and attraction below, so are they on high, and throughout infinite space. Astronomy thus derives all its achievements as a science from the earth, and the cause of the motions of the heavenly orbs is ascertained from experiments on the matter of the earth, which first led to the knowledge of regular dynamical laws. The field of astronomical research, in consequence, is not only the most wonderful, but it is also that in which our knowledge is the most accurate. Distant and infinitely remote as are the objects of the science, there is yet in no other department of natural philosophy results of investigation so completely satisfactory. With the precision of geometry, and the minute accuracy of numbers, the astronomer calculates the particular place of every one of the bodies of the solar system, at any particular hour and moment of the day. He determines the precise rate of their motions, and positions which they occupied in relation to the earth, in every past period of their history however remote, and even corrects the notations of former observers. He shows their relative distances, weights, dimensions, and influences upon one another; estimates the length of their days and years, eccentricities and perturbations; and describes the orbits in which they severally move, in their steady unwearied march through the heavens.—The undeniable effect of results like these, is to impress deeper upon the inquiring mind the conviction of foresight, method, and design in the vast system of which the earth is but a part; and as the earth gives lead to, and indicates some of the first lessons in, astronomy, so we derive in return a fuller knowledge of its various relations and past history than its own single geological tables can unfold.

When we proceed to speculate about the _manner_ of Deity’s actings, difficulties at once meet us in every quarter, partly from our utter incapacity to comprehend and partly from the imperfections of human language to express—even were our comprehension adequate to the task—the essential qualities of Deity himself. As the _anima mundi_, the ancients represented the Divine Being, as both the active and self-moving principle in nature, and likewise as passive, and acted upon by the external world. Newton, in order to express his idea of the Divine omnipresence, employed the term _sensorium_, as denoting the mode in which he was enabled to perceive whatever passed in space fully and intimately. And while nothing was farther from the mind of the great philosopher than the ascription of bodily organs to the Divinity, he had to defend himself from much bitter and vehement controversy in consequence. Equally liable to misrepresentation, and from the sane cause—the imperfection of language—was the manner in which Newton spoke of the eternity or infinity of the Supreme Being, as if he regarded him as present in all parts of time and space by _diffusion_: whereas his notion simply was, that since He is necessarily and essentially present in all parts of space and duration, space and duration must also necessarily exist. Durat semper, et adest ubique, et existendo semper et ubique, durationem et spatium constituit,—is the tenet which he held.

No less difficult is it to express correctly the inference which we may legitimately deduce of the PERSONALITY of the Godhead from the works and course of creation. And yet the idea is immediately consequent upon the conviction of a Divine existence, and is inseparable from it. The conception of both is necessarily involved in the same process of thought. Wherever we trace the actings of mind or of intelligence, the impress of design or the operations of a discriminating, discerning cause, reference is at one and the same instant made to a distinct personal subsistence. Power, wisdom, and goodness, may, indeed, be regarded in one way as abstract qualities. We can reason about them, and hold them up to our contemplation, as something distinct or different from the bodies in which they reside. Hence all our speculations respecting the laws of nature, the primary and secondary qualities of matter, the relations of cause and effect, to which principle of abstraction in man the various sciences owe their origin. The inductive philosophy is entirely built upon it. The creations of poetry, the peopling of the streams, groves, and mountains, with the ideal impersonations of fancy, are derived from the same source; while, by lifting us above the dominion of mere sense and attention to our physical wants, our spiritual energies are thereby awakened, and the soul enabled by its own inner visions to hold communings with new worlds, and to anticipate a new life.

But the principle of abstraction does not stop here. It both separates and combines. While it deals with the inferior manifestations of ideal qualities, it unites and embodies into one—links the universe to its Creator—represents him as the cause of all causes, the source of all power, and the fountain of all life; out of whose boundless, illimitable essence is the efflux of all being and existence. The ancients erroneously clothed their conceptions of Godhead in human shape, and multiplied the number of divinities to accord to the varieties of human passion, making gods many, as there were principles of good or evil in their own hearts; but still their superstition had a reality and foundation in nature. Their mythology had its origin in a true, though corrupted, theism; and giving form and locality to their numerous divinities, they but obeyed the dictates of that sentiment of the inner man, which, in unison with the voice of all creation, proclaims the existence of a Being whose personal subsistence and personal superintendence we necessarily associate with the laws and management of nature. HE is there among his works, their Director as well as author.

The UNITY of the Divine Being follows, in like manner, from an extended observation of the course of creation. There is but one God, as there is but one system of nature—one universe where the same law which acts upon all terrestrial bodies pervades all space, rules over the planets, and guides systems of worlds in their courses. Our deepest researches into the structure of the earth show, that the same forces have been operative there, as are still traced in passing changes on the surface. Similar organic forms were from the earliest periods in being, endowed with similar instincts, performing the self-same functions in the economy of nature, with their living types of the present day. The air, the sea, the earth; plants, animals, and man, are under one scheme of providence. The seasons are uniformly successive. Year to year we see the same causes in operation. Time rolls on; changes, vast and progressive, have been effected in the moral as well as physical aspect of the world, while bodies remain essentially what they were before, the conditions of sentient existence unaltered, and man occupies the same high intellectual position in the great scale of being. The same government thus maintains over all; the parts shifting and changing, the whole stable and collectively advancing; bound together by one invisible chain, and moving in obedience to one great principle of destiny and superintending will. Hence, upon the presumption that the character of the works determines the character of their author, the intelligent power which presides over all this must necessarily be ONE. Since creation in its elements, arrangements, and means of general harmony, is constructed upon a plan, and since that plan manifests the most perfect order—deviations controlled within limits, and convulsions only contributive to its greater stability—the inference cannot be resisted, that the Creator is essentially one in his being, as he is undivided in his purposes and actings.

When we narrow the field of inquiry, and look to man alone, in his relation to the external world, and the character of his moral constitution, the conclusion becomes still more decided and apparent. Here we see that the last of created beings is not only the highest in the scale, but likewise in the most perfect and extensive unison with the general scheme of nature. He spreads himself over the whole face of creation, is capable of enduring all climes, of deriving sustenance from the products of all countries, conveniences and the means of improvement from the rocks of all ages. If we cannot demonstrate that this earth was made exclusively for man’s use, we can still clearly show that he participates more largely in its various products than any of its other inhabitants, while it furnishes, not only to the individual, but to the race, generation after generation, the amplest field of mental and moral cultivation of which their natures are capable. The God of the outward world is also, and pre-eminently, the God of man’s inner being. He who created the light, likewise formed the human body. The potter of the clay fashioned and quickened the immaterial spirit. The controller of universal nature reigns supreme in the dominion of the soul. The power that binds the planets in their orbits, gives law to the conscience, constraining it to acknowledge in its perception of truth and homage to virtue the reverence that is due to the One Righteous Governor over all.

Contemplated under this latter and most important aspect of our nature, we are brought, in fact, into immediate communication with the undivided Author of our being. The idea of many is excluded in the conviction that truth and duty are one and unalterable. The gravitating principle in matter is not more universal in its operation, nor more distinct in its constraining influence over all bodies, than is the principle of CONSCIENCE in referring the good and evil of all actions to the standard of rectitude and tribunal of a righteous judge. Tribes, the most remote from each other—the most debased in ignorance—the most polluted in guilt—agree in this common attribute of humanity. Mankind do not, indeed, acknowledge one and the same standard of morality, and in religious observances there is the utmost diversity of opinion and practice. But the sense of duty, the feeling of moral and religious obligation, is universally discriminative of the human family; the sentiment of right and wrong is engraven indelibly on all human hearts. And, amidst all the ignorance or misconceptions that may prevail as to the merit or demerit of particular actions, the moral principle points but to one foundation of truth—the One Supreme—the Lord of conscience as of creation.

The PERFECTIONS of the Supreme Being are, in like manner, as distinctly notified in the works of creation as the fact of the mere existence of a designing Creator. The immensity of the universe clearly demonstrates the _power_ in which it originated, and by which all its movements are still sustained, guiding the infinite systems of celestial bodies and the geological revolutions of our own planet with the same ease that it watches over and upholds the minutest objects in existence. There is no exhausting nor wearing out of the energies of nature: the arm that reared, still directs the stupendous fabric; and as skill and contrivance are manifest in every part, the greatest simplicity combined with the most exquisite adjustments, the utmost regularity prevailing in every department, and no failure in the operations of a single law throughout the vastness of creation, the conviction of consummate _wisdom_ and of infinite _omniscience_ irresistibly strikes upon the mind. No less clear and convincing are the evidences of _goodness_ in the system of creation which we have been contemplating. The works, formed by the Divine hand, and which now occupy the Divine care, are boundless in extent, and of infinite variety; and they appear, to the eye of the common observer, as well as to the searching intellect, all formed for use, all rich in beauty, all indicative of beneficence. There is not utility alone interwoven, but an inimitable loveliness painted on the face and stamped on every department of nature; while creatures innumerable, of various orders and of different structures, present themselves to our view, which, by their creation and preservation—by the powers they possess, and the enjoyments they attain—proclaim the liberality of their author to be boundless. Nay, the inanimate parts of nature bear testimony to the same truth; the sun warms and fertilizes the earth; the earth affords nourishment, and furnishes a convenient dwelling-place to the various living creatures that inhabit it; and thus dead matter, in all its arrangements and under all its past changes, by being framed in subserviency to the happiness of living and intelligent beings, clearly evinces the goodness of its Creator. But to Man, in addition, the inspiration of the Almighty has given understanding, and has constituted him supreme in this lower world. Whoever considers his nature and condition, the make of his body and the constitution of his mind, the provision that is furnished for the supply of his animal wants, the objects that are provided for the improvement of his intellectual faculties, and the scope that is afforded for the exercise of his moral affections, must acknowledge that, if the goodness of God be manifestly displayed in the other works of his hands, it shines with peculiar luster in the creation and preservation of man.

Thus, step by step, we rise to the loftiest conception which the human mind can embrace—the conception of a God—the personality, unity, and perfection of his being. How the conception of a Creator is formed, we cannot otherwise describe than by saying, that it springs up in the mind immediately upon the perception of an external world. It is not so much an exercise of reason, or elaborate effort of the understanding; but is rather a direct impression, traced at once upon the soul, as the image of Deity reflected from his works. All men possess it, for all men are so constituted, that they cannot look upon creation without the idea of a Creator accompanying and flowing from the act. The conception will be obscure, vague, and indistinct, according to the capacity, improvement, and general knowledge of the individual. But the conception is there, as necessarily as the effect follows the cause, the shadow the substance, the image the object which occasioned it. The heavens DECLARE the glory of God, the firmament SHOWS his handiwork, the earth bears the traces of his path. And just in the degree in which we study and examine his works—their uses and adaptations—their infinite variety, proportions, regularity, and magnitude—are our convictions of his existence deepened, our admiration of his being and attributes enhanced, our feeling of security under his rule strengthened, and our sense of obligation and responsibility increased and solemnized. Ignorance does not obliterate the sense of Deity; it confuses and multiplies the image of his existence: it leads to polytheism. Knowledge brightens the picture, and represents the Creator, as reflected in his works, EXCELLENT, GLORIOUS, AND INFINITELY PERFECT.

FINIS.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Playfair.

[2] Playfair.

[3] Works, vol. i, page 189.

[4] Dr. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand.

[5] The diamonds found in the Ural chain are supposed to be connected with the carbonaceous grits of the devonian and carboniferous periods, which have been transmuted into metamorphic micaceous rocks, and contain the diamonds between the flakes of mica, just as garnets occur in mica-schist. Captain Franklin discovered diamonds in Bundelkund, imbedded in sandstone, with coal beneath, and supposed to belong to the true carboniferous system.

[6] Westminster Review, No. LXXIX.

[7] The strata in which these tracks occur have since been carefully investigated by Prof. H. D. Rogers, who has ascertained that they belong truly to the carboniferous red shale, and are, therefore, of an age essentially later than that attributed to them. In a communication made to the American Association, Prof. Rogers says:—They occur, indeed, in a geological horizon, only a few hundred feet below the conglomerate which marks the beginning of the productive coal series, in which series similar foot-prints, attributed to batrachian reptiles, had been previously met with in Western Pennsylvania. Instead, therefore, of constituting a register of the antique life earlier than any hitherto discovered, by at least a whole chapter in the geological book, they carry back its age only by a single leaf. The surfaces upon which these interesting foot-prints abound are the smooth, divisional plains separating the beds of red sandstone, and are invariably coated with a fine impalpable material of a once slimy and soft mud; and everything in the texture of these surfaces goes to prove that they were in contact with the air, and were the stages of rest between the alternate depositions of the strata. Many of them are covered with ripple-lines and water-marks, suggestive of the shelving shore, and, with few exceptions, they are spotted over with little circular impressions, imputed to the pattering of rain. All over the successive floors of this ancient world, as delicate and impressible in their texture as so much wax or parchment, are the footsteps and the trails of various creeping things,—the prints of some unknown four-footed creature, thought to be reptilian in its nature, but of whose true affinities the Professor expressed his doubts, trails analogous to those of worms and molluscs, and various other marks, written in hieroglyphics too ancient to be interpreted. The larger foot-prints are, for the most part, five-toed, alternate in the steps, and with the fore feet as large nearly as the hind ones; marks of the scratching and slipping of the feet, and the half effacing passage of the tail, or of some soft portion of the body, are often distinctly legible.

Prof. Agassiz stated his doubts as to the reptilian character of the foot-prints noticed, and, after describing the difference in the arrangement of the locomotive organs of the modern and the ancient fishes, gave it as his belief, that in those early periods there were fishes of a structure which permitted them to walk upon all fours.

[8] Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres.

[9] Lyell’s Principles of Geology, vol. i, p. 269.

[10] Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, by Richard Verstegan. London, 8vo, 1605. Noticed in “Chambers’ Journal,” June, 1846.

[11] Dr. Pye Smith on Scripture Geology.

[12] This branch of the argument has also been minutely and ingeniously extended in the last work of Mr. Hugh Miller, “Foot-prints of the Creator,” where the author dwells particularly on the comparative measurements of the different fossils found in different formations; a masterly and felicitous addition to the side of truth.

[13] “There is no doubt that coral, under favorable conditions of growth, increases to an enormous extent, and very rapidly: and although there are many instances on record of reefs which have not increased for many years, there are others telling a very different tale. The case of Matilda Atoll, described by Captain Beechy, is quoted as an example of this latter kind, this atoll having been converted in thirty-four years from being a reef of rocks into a lagoon island, fourteen miles in length, with one of its sides covered nearly all the way with high trees. Some experiments were also mentioned, in which it has been attempted to measure the rate of increase of different kinds of corals, and as one result of these, is an instance of a growth of two feet thick of coral, accumulated on the copper bottom of a vessel in the course of twenty months.”—_Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, by Charles Darwin._

[14] Mrs. Somerville’s Physical Geography.

[15] Mr. Davis.

[16] The Pre-Adamite Earth.

[17] 1. De Augm. Scien. L. I.

[18] La Place.

GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS.

ACCRETION. Increase of size or growth by the mechanical addition of new particles.

ACLINIC LINE. The magnetic equator.

ACOTYLEDONOUS. Plants having no seed-lobes. Mosses and ferns belong to this division, and most of the coal plants are acotyledonous.

ACTYNOLITE. A green mineral found chiefly in primitive formations often crystallized in six sided prisms.

AEROLITES. Stones which appear to have fallen from the higher parts of the atmosphere. They are sometimes called Meteorites.

ALGÆ. A division of plants including the common sea-weeds.

ALUMINOUS. Containing alumina, or rather silicate of alumina, which is the base of pure clay. Thus, aluminous means _clayey_. The word is, however, sometimes used in the sense of containing _alum_, a sulphate of alumina and potash.

AMMONITE. A fossil genus of many-chambered shells allied to the Nautilus, named from their resemblance to the horns on the statues of Jupiter Ammon.

AMORPHOUS. Without regular form.

AMORPHOZOA. Animals without definite form—sponges.

AMYGDALOID. Almond-shaped. Any rock is called by this name which contains rounded or elongated minerals imbedded in some simple mineral or base.

AMYGDALOIDAL (in mineralogy). A conglomerate.

ANALCIME is found in granite and gneiss rock—generally in cubes of various colors.

ANANCHYTES. A genus of fossil echini or sea-urchins—in the chalk, &c.

ANCHYLOSIS. (Gr., crooked), a joint is said to be anchylosed, when so diseased as to become, or when it becomes, stiff or immovable.

ANNELIDÆ. (Annulus, a ring)—Lamarck’s worm-shaped animals, as Serpula, vermilia, &c.

ANOPLOTHERIUM. The name given to a characteristic genus of a group of extinct quadrupeds found fossil in the older Tertiary deposits, and nearly allied to the tapir and pig.

ANTICLINAL. Or _Anticlinal axis_. A saddle-shaped position of rocks, the result of disturbance.

APIOCRINITE. Pear-shaped crinoidea—lily-shaped animals.

AQUEOUS. That which is dependent on water. Aqueous rocks are those produced by deposit from water.

ARBORESCENT. Branching like a tree.

ARENACEOUS. Sandy.

ARGENTIFEROUS. Containing silver.

ARGILLACEOUS. Clayey.

ARTICULATA. A natural division of animals having their limbs articulated or jointed together, like the lobster.

ASAPHUS. An obscure genus of trilobites.

ASBESTUS. A fibrous mineral of which an incombustible cloth is sometimes made.

ASTEROLEPIS. (Gr., star scale). It is the largest fish yet found in the _Old Red Sandstone_.

AUGITE. (Gr., luster)—a mineral.

BASALT. An igneous rock, often columnar and supposed to be ancient volcanic lava. It is the most common of the group called _Trap-rocks_.

BED or STRATUM. A layer of material the whole of which exhibits some common character.

BELEMNITE. A dart-shaped shell, probably the ancient representative of some of our cuttle-fish. The shell is conical and chambered.

BELLEROPHON. A small chambered-shell like the Nautilus.

BOTRYOIDAL (in Mineralogy). Clustered like a bunch of grapes.

BRACHIOPODA. A group of shell-bearing animals having two long spiral arms serving to assist in locomotion and for other purposes.

BREVIPENNATE. Short-winged.

CÆLACANTHUS. A fish of the Devonian formation.

CALAMITE. A fossil from the coal-measures resembling a gigantic reed.

CALAMUS. A fossil reed-like plant.

CALCAIRE GROSSIER. A coarse limestone of the Older Tertiary period, found in the Paris basin.

CALCAIRE SILICEUX. A compact silicious limestone sometimes replacing the calcaire grossier.

CALCAREOUS. Containing lime.

CAMBRIAN. Belonging to Wales. The “Cambrian system” in Geology, is a name suggested by Professor Sedgwick, to designate part of the Silurian series of North Wales.

CARAPACE. The upper shell of reptiles.

CARBONIFEROUS. Containing carbon.

CARNIVOROUS. Flesh-eating. The “Carnivora” in Zoology consist of a group of animals eminently carnivorous.

CAUDAL. Connected with the tail.

CEPHALOPODA. A group of animals of which the Nautilus and Cuttlefish are examples, having the locomotive apparatus immediately over the head and stomach.

CEPHALASPIS (Buckler-head). A fish.

CESTRACION. A fish, a genus of an extinct family of sharks.

CETACEANS. The whale tribe.

CHALCEDONY. A silicious mineral, like Cornelian.

CHALYBEATE. Water holding iron in solution.

CHARA, CHARACIDÆ. An aquatic plant fossilized.

CHEIROLEPIS (Thorny scale). A fossil fish.

CHELONIA. Sea tortoise.

CHERT. A silicious mineral, resembling common flint, but of coarser texture.

CHŒROPOTAMUS. An extinct quadruped found in the Eocene of England.

CHEIRACANTHUS (thorny hand). A fish of the Old Red Sandstone.

CIRRHIPEDA (hair feet). Balanus-Coronula; Anatifa are of this family.

CLINOMETER. An instrument for measuring the dip and determining the strike of beds or strata.

COAL-MEASURES. The whole group of deposits, consisting chiefly of sands and shales, with which coal is usually found.

COCCOSTEUS. (Gr., berry on bone)—a Ganoid fish.

COLEOPTERA. Beetles whose wings are covered with a hard sheath.

COLUMNAR. Arranged in columns.

CONCHIFERA. One of the great divisions of Conchology.

CONCHOIDAL. Resembling a shell. Used in Mineralogy to designate a particular kind of fracture.

CONDYLE. A knob at the end of a bone, a joint.

CONFORMABLE. When the planes of bedding of two successive beds or strata are parallel to each other they are said to be _conformable_; when not parallel they are _unconformable_.

CONGENERS. Species belonging to the same genus.

CONGLOMERATE or PUDDINGSTONE. A rock made up of rounded water-worn fragments of rock or pebbles cemented together by another mineral substance.

CONIFERÆ. Trees that bear cones, as the pine.

COPROLITE. The fossil remains of excrement.

COSMICAL. Relating to the universe.

COSMOGONY. The word formerly applied to speculations concerning the earth’s age and history.

COTYLEDONOUS. Plants whose seeds have but one lobe.

CRAG. The name given to certain Tertiary deposits in Norfolk and Suffolk.

CRETACEOUS. Belonging to the chalk.

CRINOID. Belonging to the encrinite family.

CROPPING OUT. The _out-crop_ of a bed is its first appearance at the surface.

CRUSTACEANS. Belonging to the crab or lobster family, &c.

CRYPTOGAMOUS. Plants without apparent flowers.

CRYSTAL. The regular form in which a mineral is presented when that form can be described mathematically. A mineral is said to be _crystalline_ when its atoms are arranged with reference to some definite form.

CTENACANTHUS. Belonging to the Placoids.

CTENOIDS. Fishes with comb-shaped scales.

CTENOPTYCHIUS. A fish of the chalk formation.

CULM. An impure kind of coal.

CUMBRIAN. Occurring in Cumberland. The “Cumbrian System” of Prof. Sedgwick is a part of the Silurian series of the Lake district of Cumberland and Westmoreland.

CYCADEÆ. Fossil plants of the coal-measures.

CYCLAS. A small bivalve shell recent and fossil.

CYCLOID. Marginated scales.

DEBRIS. The fragments of rocks removed by the action of weathering or by water.

DECORTICATED. Stripped of bark.

DEFLECTION. Deviation from a straight course.

DEGRADATION. The wearing away of rocks, generally effected by aqueous action.

DELIQUESCENT. Becoming fluid by the attraction of water from the atmosphere.

DELTA. The alluvial land formed by a river at its mouth, usually expanded in a fan shape like the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet (Δ), and thence called _Delta_.

DENUDATION. The act of laying bare rocks formerly covered up, the removal of the overlying masses being effected by water.

DERMAL. Belonging to the skin.

DETRITUS. Matter rubbed off by mechanical action from other rocks.

DIALLAGE. A mineral.

DIDELPHYS. A pouched animal, as the Opossum.

DINOSAURIA. Land lizards—only found fossil.

DIP (in Geology). The angle of inclination which the plane of a bed makes with the plane of the horizon.

DIPLOPTERUS, DIPLODUS, and DIPLOCANTHUS. Fishes of the Devonian or Old red sandstone.

DIPTERUS (having two wings). A fish of the Old red sandstone.

DODO. A large bird once found in the Isle of France, but now extinct.

DOLOMITE. Crystalline carbonate of lime and magnesia.

DYKE. A rock, generally crystalline, occupying a rent or fissure in some other and older rock. A dyke differs from a mineral vein chiefly in its greater magnitude and in the absence of ramifications.

DYNAMICS (Gr., power). Used in mechanics.

ECHINODERMATA. Having a skin like a hedgehog.

EFFLORESCENCE. The term used to describe the falling to powder of certain minerals on exposure.

EMBOUCHURE. The mouth of a great river.

ENALIOSAURIA, PLESIOSAURUS and PLIOSAURUS. Marine Saurians, as the Ichthyosaurus.

ENCRINITE. Stone lily.

ENDOGENOUS. Plants that increase from within, as lilies, grasses, and among trees, palms.

ENTOMOSTRACEA. One of Cuvier’s sections of Crustaceans.

EOCENE. The name given by Sir C. Lyell to the lowest and oldest division of the Tertiary series of rocks.

EQUISETUM. A plant, fossil and recent.

ESCARPMENT. The steep face of a mountain chain or a ridge of high land.

EXOGENOUS. Plants which increase their wood by external additions or rings of growth.

EXUVIÆ. A name sometimes given to all fossil remains found in the earth’s crust.

FAUNA. The whole group of animals peculiar to a country or natural region at some one period.

FELDSPAR. A hard silicious rock.

FERRUGINOUS. Irony, or containing iron.

FERN. (Lat., Felices), a class of cryptogamous plants.

FISSILE. Capable of being split asunder.

FLUSTRA. A parasitic zoophyte or polyparia, which covers sea-weeds and shells.

FÆCAL SEDIMENT. Dregs, excrement.

FORAMINIFERA. The name given to a group of many-chambered shells, generally microscopic, the chambers communicating by a small open orifice (_foramen_).

FOSSIL. A word originally applied to all substances dug out of the earth, including therefore all minerals, but now limited in its application to the remains of organic beings, whether vegetable or animal, buried beneath the surface.

FOSSILIFEROUS. Containing fossils or organic remains.

FRITH. A deep and comparatively narrow arm of the sea.

FRONDS. The leaf of a fern is called a frond.

FUCOID. That which resembles a _fucus_, or seaweed:—fossil remains of fuci are called fucoids.

FUSIFORM. Spindle-shaped.

GALENA. Sulphuret of lead.

GANOID. A group of fishes having enameled scales.

GASTEROPODA. A group of shell-bearing animals covered by one valve, and having a fleshy foot attached to the belly.

GAULT. A bluish clay underlying the Chalk and Upper green sand in England.

GAVIAL. A species of shark found in the Ganges.

GEODES (in mineralogy) a round hollow stone whose cavity is usually filled with crystals.

GLACIS. A gently sloping bank.

GLYPTOLEPIS. (Gr., carved scale.)

GLYPTOPOMUS. A Devonian fossil fish.

GNEISS. The name given to mixtures of quartz, feldspar, and mica, in which there is a laminated arrangement of the different ingredients.

GONIATITES. Chambered fossil shells.

GRANITE. A rock consisting generally of crystals of feldspar and mica imbedded in a quartzy base.

GRAMINÆ. Grasses.

GRAPTOLITES or SEA-PENS. Fossils of the lower Silurian system.

GRAUWACKE or GRAYWACKE. The name given by German geologists to some of the older fossiliferous rocks, and generally of a gray color, sandy composition, and fissile nature.

GRYPHIÆ. Fossil bivalve shells found in the Lias, &c.

HABITAT. The natural district to which a species of animals or vegetables is confined in its distribution.

HEXAHEDRAL. Having six equal sides.

HETEROCERCAL. Applied to the tail of a fish, means that the upper lobe extends farther than the under.

HETEROPODA. An order of univalve molluscs, whose feet form a kind of fin.

HOLOPTYCHIUS. A Ganoid fish of the coal-measures.

HORNBLENDE. An important mineral in the composition of some rocks.

HOMOCERCAL. Applied to fishes having equal lobed tails.

HORNSTONE. A variety of quartz found in volcanic districts.

HYALINE. Transparent like glass.

HYBODENTES. Fossil fish.

HYLÆOSAURUS. Fossil lizard of the Wealden.

HYPERSTHENE. A mineral.

HYPOGENE ROCKS. Rocks formed beneath others or which are assumed to have obtained their present aspect underneath the earth’s surface.

ICHTHYODORULITE. The fossil spine of certain fishes resembling sharks.

ICHTHYOLITES. Fragments of the bones of fossil fishes.

ICHTHYOLOGY. The study and description of fishes.

ICHTHYOSAURUS. A marine reptile (fish-lizard), whose remains are very abundant in rocks of the Secondary period.

IGNEOUS ROCKS. Rocks, such as lava, trap, and some others which have been fused by volcanic heat.—Granite and other porphyritic rocks are sometimes called crystalline.

IGNIGENOUS. Produced by fire.

IGUANODON. Extinct gigantic lizard.

IMBRICATED. Covered with scales overlapping each other like tiles on the roof of a house.

INOCERAMUS. A bivalve of the chalk formation.

INORGANIC. Not produced by vital action.

INVERTEBRATA. Animals not furnished with a back bone.

JUNCUS (in botany). A rush.

LACERTIANS. Lizards.

LACUSTRINE. Belonging to a lake.

LAGOON. A salt-water lake, or part of a sea nearly inclosed by a strip of land.

LAMINATED. Arranged in thin plates or _laminæ_.

LENTICULAR. Lens-shaped.

LEPIDOIDES. Extinct fish of the Oolite formation.

LLANDEILO FLAGS. A division of the lower silurian formation of Murchison.

LIAS. A provincial name now generally adopted to designate the calcareous clay or clayey limestone occurring between the Upper new red sandstone and the Oolite.

LIGNEOUS. Woody.

LIGNITE. Wood converted into an imperfect kind of coal.

LITHOLOGY (lithos, a stone; logos, a discourse). Description of stones.

LITTORAL. Belonging to the shore.

LOPHIODON. A fossil animal allied to the tapir.

LYCOPODIUM. A cryptogamous plant.

MACAUCO. A four-handed animal allied to the Ape family.

MAMMALIA. Animals that suckle their young.

MARL. A mixture of clay and lime.

MARSUPIAL. An animal having a pouch, as the kangaroo.

MASTODON. A gigantic extinct quadruped resembling the elephant.

MATRIX. The earthy or stony matter in which a mineral or fossil is imbedded.

MECHANICAL ROCKS. Rocks formed by deposition from water.

MEGALOSAURUS. A gigantic extinct lizard.

MEGALICHTHYS. Megas, great; ichthus, fish.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS. Rocks that have undergone change or metamorphosis since their original formation.

METATARSAL. The part of the foot between the ankle and toes.

METEOROLOGY. The science of the phenomena of the atmosphere.

MICA SLATE. Is the lowest stratified rock except gneiss—it is unfossiliferous.

MIOCENE. The middle of the three divisions of tertiary rocks, according to Sir C. Lyell.

MOLASSE. A provincial name for a sandstone associated with marl and conglomerates, found abundantly in the great valley of Switzerland. It belongs to the middle tertiary period.

MOLECULES. The ultimate particles or atoms of bodies.

MOLLUSCA. A division in Conchology.

MONOMYARIA. Bivalve shells having but one adductor muscle.

MORAINE. A Swiss term for the débris of rocks brought down into valleys by glaciers.

MYRICACIÆ. Plants of the Gale family.

MYTILUS. A marine shell, the mussel.

NEUROPTERIS. A fossil fern of the coal-measures.

NODULE. A rounded irregular-shaped mass.

NUCLEUS. The solid center, about which matter is often collected to form solids.

NUMMULITES. A group of foraminiferous shells, some of them of large size and very abundant, occurring in rocks chiefly of the oldest tertiary period.

OOLITE. A limestone composed of rounded particles, like the roe of a fish. The name _Oolitic_ is applied to a considerable group of deposits in which this limestone occurs.

ORGANIC. Exhibiting organization, or the results of vital force. _Organic remains_, or _fossils_, are the remains of the animals and vegetables of a former state of existence found buried in rocks.

ORNITHIC. Relating to birds.

ORNITHORHYNCHUS. A singular animal, found in New Holland, called also the water-mole.

ORTHOCERA. A straight-chambered shell of the Silurian formation.

OSSEOUS. Bony: _Osseous breccia_ is a conglomerate made up of bones cemented together by lime, and mixed with earthy matter.

OSTEOLEPIS (bone-scale). A fish of the Old red sandstone.

OSTEOLOGICAL. Relating to bones.

OUTCROP. The line at which a stratum first shows itself at the surface in inclined deposits.

OVIPAROUS. Egg-laying animals.

PACHYDERMATA. A group of animals so called from the thickness of their skin. The elephant and pig are well known examples.

PALÆONISCUS. A fossil fish of the Magnesian limestone of England.

PALÆONTOLOGY. The science which treats of fossil organic remains; it is the zoology and botany of the ancient conditions of the earth.

PALÆOTHERIUM. A genus of Pachydermata allied to the Tapir.

PECOPTERIS. A fern of the coal-measures.

PELAGIAN. Belonging to the sea.

PENTACRINITE. A stone lily with five-sided foot-stalk.

PETROLEUM. Mineral pitch.

PHÆNOGAMOUS, or PHANEROGAMIC PLANTS. Those in which the reproductive organs are apparent.

PHRYGANEA. A family of insects which breed in water.

PHYLLOLEPIS. Leaf-scale.

PHYSICAL. Literally _natural_, but used in scientific language in treating of the higher and wider views of various departments with reference to the whole external world, and not to mere human objects.

PHYTOLOGY. The department of Natural History which relates to plants. Botany.

PLACOID. A group of fishes, so called from the structure of their scales.

PLANORBIS. A fresh water univalve. Fossil and recent.

PLATYGNATHUS. (Greek; platus, wide, and gnathos, jaw or mouth.)

PLESIOSAURUS. An extinct genus of reptiles.

PLIOCENE, OLDER AND NEWER. The upper part of the Tertiary series, so called by Sir C. Lyell from the preponderance of recent shells in them.

PLUMBAGO (Black lead). The name commonly given to _graphite_, a form of carbon.

PLUTONIC ROCKS. Rocks supposed to be due to igneous action at great depths below the earth’s surface, have been thus named by older geologists. The igneous action is not manifest in such rocks, but presumed, as in the case of granite.

POLYPARIA. A group of animals of which the _coral animal_ is a well known example.

PORCELLIA. The papaw, a plant now called asimina.

PORPHYRY. Any rock having crystals imbedded in a base of other mineral composition. Thus granite is a porphyritic rock, having crystals of feldspar and mica imbedded in a quartz base.

PREDACEUS. Preying upon other animals.

PREHNITE. A mineral.

PRIMARY, or PRIMITIVE. This name is commonly applied to the rocks which underlie those that are manifestly of mechanical origin and contain fossils.

PRODECTUS. A bivalve shell.

PTERICHTHYS. (Winged fish.) A fossil of the Old red sandstone.

PTERODACTYL. A remarkable genus of reptiles adapted for flight; its remains have been found in a fossil state throughout the Secondary rocks.

PTEROPODA. Marine animals having wing-like fins.

PUDDING STONE. The name often given to coarse conglomerates in which the fragments or pebbles are rounded.

PYRITES. A name given to the combinations of certain metals with sulphur.

QUA-QUA-VERSAL. The dip of beds in every direction from an elevated central point. The beds on the flanks of a volcanic cone dip in this way.

QUARTZ. The common form of silica; rock-crystal and flint are examples.

RACEME (in botany). When the florets are arranged along the sides of a general peduncle.

RADIATA. A division of the animal kingdom so called because the body is frequently presented in a radiated form like the common star-fish.

RETICULATED. A structure of crossed fibers, like a net, is said to be reticulated.

ROCK (in Geology). Any mass of mineral matter of considerable or indefinite extent and nearly uniform character, is called in geological language a rock, without regard to its hardness or compactness: thus, loose sand and clay, as well as sandstone and limestone, are spoken of under this name.

ROCK SALT. Common salt occurring in a crystalline state in rocks.

ROE-STONE. The name sometimes given to _Oolite_.

RUMINANTIA. An important group of quadrupeds including those which chew the cud, as the ox, deer, &c.

SACCHAROID. Having the texture of loaf sugar.

SALIFEROUS SYSTEM. The new red sandstone system, so called from the salt with which it is associated in parts of England.

SAURIAN (reptilian). Any animal of the lizard tribe, and many extinct reptiles only distantly allied to these.

SAUROIDS. Marine fishes resembling lizards.

SALMONOIDES. Resembling the salmon.

SCHIST. A name often used as synonymous with slate, but more commonly, and very conveniently, limited to those rocks which do not admit of indefinite splitting, like slate, but are only capable of a less perfect separation into layers or laminæ. Of this kind are gneiss, mica-schist, &c., often more or less crystalline.

SCIRPUS (in Botany). A rush.

SCORIÆ. The name given to volcanic ashes. The word means any kind of cinders, but its scientific use is thus limited.

SHALE. An indurated clay, less fissile than schist, but splitting with tolerable facility in plates parallel to each other, and to the original planes of bedding.

SHELL MARL. A deposit of clay, peat, and silt, mixed with shells, which collects at the bottom of fresh-water lakes.

SERPULA (in Conchology). A worm-like marine shell.

SERRATED. Having points like a saw.

SIGILLARIA. Fossil plants found in the coal-measures.

SILEX, SILICA. The name given by Mineralogists to a pure earth, more commonly spoken of as _flint_, and, when crystallized, called rock-crystal.

SILT. The name usually given to the muddy deposit found at the bottom of running streams.

SILURIAN. The name given by Sir R. Murchison to an important series of fossiliferous rocks well developed in, and first described from, a district in Wales and Shropshire formerly inhabited by the _Siluri_, a tribe of Ancient Britons.

SIPHUNCLE. A small tube passing through an orifice in the septum of a chambered shell.

SPHENOPTERIS. Fossilfern (leaf wedge-shaped).

SPHEROID. Having a shape nearly resembling that of a sphere or globe.

SPIRIFER. An extinct bivalve.

STALACTITE and STALAGMITE. Concretions of carbonate of lime and sometimes of other minerals, as quartz or even malachite, deposited by water dropping from the roof of a cavern or other vacant space.

STEATITE. Soapstone.

STIGMARIA. A coal fossil, an aquatic plant.

STRATIFICATION. The condition of rocks or accumulated minerals deposited in layers, beds, or _strata_.

STRIKE. The line of bearing of strata, or the direction of any horizontal line on a stratum.

SUPERPOSITION. An expression very commonly employed by Geologists to describe the order of arrangement when one bed or stratum reposes upon another.

SUPRA-CRETACEOUS. A term applied by Sir H. de la Bèche to rocks overlying the chalk. The term Tertiary is now universally adopted for this group.

SYENITE. The granite of the quarries of Syene in Egypt. It is usual to call by this name any combination of quartz, feldspar, and hornblende.

SYNCLINAL AXIS. The line of depression between two anticlinal axes.

SYNCONDROSIS. Connection of bones by cartilage.

TEREBRATULA. A fossil shell.

TERTIARY STRATA. The series of sedimentary rocks overlying the chalk, or other representative of the Secondary period, and extending thence to the rocks of the Recent period.

TESTACEA. Molluscous or soft animals having a shelly covering.

THECODONT. A fossil saurian or marine lizard.

THERMAL. Hot. _Thermal Springs_ are springs whose temperature is above the mean annual temperature of the place where they break out.

TETRAPTEROUS. Four-winged.

TIBIA. The principal bone of the leg.

TOAD-STONE. The name given by miners to beds of basalt, occurring in Derbyshire.

TRACHYTE. A feldspathic variety of lava.

TRAP. Crystalline rocks, composed chiefly of feldspar, augite and hornblende, combined in many ways, and exhibiting great varieties of aspect, are frequently called by this name.

TRIAS. The name given on the continent to the beds of the New red sandstone series.

TRILOBITE. A common fossil in the Dudley limestone, so named from the characteristic species having the body divided into three lobes. Trilobites are the remains of a remarkable extinct family of Crustaceans, of which the crab, lobster, &c., are modern representatives.

TRIONYX. A genus of tortoise, having three claws.

TUFACEOUS, TUFF. An Italian name for a variety of volcanic rock of earthy texture, and made up chiefly or entirely of fragments of volcanic ashes.

TURBINATED. Shells which have a spiral or screw-like structure are thus named.

UNCONFORMABLE SUPERPOSITION (instratification). The condition of strata when one has been deposited horizontally upon the upturned edges of those immediately below.

UNIO. Fresh water bivalve.

VERTEBRATA, or Vertebrated Animals. A large and most important division of the animal kingdom, including all those animals provided with a back bone. Each separate bone of the back is called a _vertebra_.

VERTEX. The summit or upper part of a solid.

VITREOUS. Glassy. Used in Mineralogy to designate a peculiar luster.

VIVIPAROUS. Bearing young alive.

WARP. The deposit of muddy waters.

WEALDEN. The name given to an important fresh-water formation, occurring between the Cretaceous and Oolitic rocks, chiefly in the Wealds of Kent and Sussex.

WHIN-STONE. A provincial term applied to some trap rocks.

ZAMIA. A plant allied to the palm, plentiful east of the Cape of Good Hope.

ZEOLITE. A group of minerals which swell and boil up when exposed to the blow-pipe flame.

ZOOPHYTE. The term applied to some animals of low organization, which, during the greater part of their lives, are attached to some foreign substance, and are incapable of locomotion.