Chapter IV: Section THE THIRD: , Concerning the Religious Observances and Ceremonies

OF THE SAMARTAGANS (SMARTAS), OR ORTHODOX OF THE HINDUS.――According to this class, there are two kinds of birth: the first, on quitting the maternal womb; the second, on the day of assuming the _Munji_[73] or _Zanar_, and repeating the established forms of prayer; as, until a person has scrupulously performed both these rites, he is not regarded as orthodox, nor an observer of their institutes. Under this are contained the _Shodásán-Karmáni_,[74] “sixteen heads,” commencing with the woman being purified from periodical illness; her attachment to her husband; the forms of prayer necessary to be used on the occasion, and observed until the moment of death; and the acts of charity enjoined to be performed after the person’s decease.

Of their laudable customs are the following: 1. the _Garbh-ádhána-karma_,[75] or delivering the likeness of a son, that is, giving up a daughter to her husband; 2. the _Pungsavana_,[76] or reciting at the proper season the prayers enjoined to be said, that a virtuous offspring may be born; 3. the _Símantonnayana_,[77] that is, in the sixth month of a woman’s pregnancy, the recitation of the proper forms of prayer and giving a feast to Brahmans; 4. the _Játakarma_,[78] or the rites to be practised by the father on the birth of a son, in regard to ablution; _Hóm_, or burnt offerings; _Jap_, or devout meditation and acts of charity; 5. the _Náma-karana_,[79] when, on the eleventh day after the child’s birth, they give it a name and repeat the necessary forms of prayer; 6. on the fourth month they bring out the child, which they call the _Nish-kramana_;[80] 7. giving the child suitable food and at a propitious moment, which they call _Anna-prásanna_;[81] 8. at the age of three years they shave the child’s head and bore its ears, which rite they call _Chúd´á-karana_,[82] or the ceremony of forming the crest at the first tonsure of a Hindu. They are strictly enjoined to observe the above eight ceremonies; and if the child be of the female sex, they practise the same rites, but without the stated forms of prayer; excepting at the time of her marriage, when they are bound to recite the forms appropriated to that ceremony. 9. In his fifth year, they bind around the child’s waist a string which they call _Sútram_;[83] this rite they call _Mungi_;[84] the string is to be made of the bark of the _Darbha_;[85] 10. three days after investing the boy with the Sutra, they should put the Zanar, or “sacrificial thread,”[86] about his neck, which they call the _Yajnópavíta_;[87] 11. on assuming the Brahmanical thread they are, by way of charity, to bestow a cow on the Brahmans, which act they call _Gódán_;[88] 12. is the ablution of the body with milk, curds, clarified butter, honey, and sugar, which they call the _Ashnan-panjah_ and _Paraish-chat_;[89] 13. when the boy reaches his fifteenth year, they make him master of a household; this they call _Viváhah_,[90] or “matrimony;” 14. the son, after the decease of his father, performs the requisite charities and donations, which they call _Pind-pradán_;[91] 15. on the 7th of the month _Mágha_,[92] when the majesty of the great luminary is in Aquarius, they are to present the Brahmans with pulse, barley, wheat, black rice, sesamé, gold, and suchlike; this is called _Dán-phal_;[93] 16. on the _Shiva-rátri_,[94] or “night of Siva,” the 21st of the _Bhágan_ (Phágan, or Phálgun) they present to the Brahmans a serpent of silver, with red rice, which they call _Phani_.[95]

The above are the sixteen ceremonies. It is moreover necessary that a Brahman’s son should be invested with the Munji at the age of eight, the Chatriyas at eleven, and the Vaisyas at twelve, after which ceremony the boy is to be sent to school.

A Brahman must, whilst performing the offices of nature, fasten the Munji securely on the right ear, turning his face to the north, but at night to the south. After performing these offices, he is to take his instrument, and going three paces farther he is to apply to his hands water, which is to be in a vessel, and with which earth has been blended, and this is to be continued until there remains no disagreeable odour. He is after this to perform his ablution in a clean place,[96] and seat himself in such a manner that his hands should be under his knees, with his face to the north or east; next, whilst repeating the prescribed forms of prayer, he is to put a little water three times successively into the palm of the right hand,[97] which he is to swallow without reciting any prayers; he is then to cleanse the mouth with the back of the left hand, and having taken into the palm of his hand other water, and dipped the other fingers into it, he is to apply them to his nose, eyes, and ears; the water must be pure, without foam or bubble. On this occasion the Brahman is to swallow so much water that the moisture may extend to his breast; the Chattri such a quantity as to extend to his throat; the Vaisya sufficient to moisten the inside of his mouth; the cultivator, women, and children who have not assumed the Munji, are to apply a little water to the lips, then immerse the head, and having repeated the proper forms of prayer, to sprinkle the head several times. The Brahman is next to compress the nostrils, so that the passage of inhalation and exhalation should be closed up, and recite the prayers prescribed on the occasion; then he is to stand for some time, turning his face towards the great luminary, and repeat the necessary formulæ. Every morning, on rising up and performing duly the offices of nature, he is to go through the necessary rites which they call _Sandhya_,[98] the observance of which, three times every day, is equally imperative on both Brahman and Chattriya: 1. every morning, or from the dawn of day until the rise of the world-illuminating solar orb; 2. at midday, from the sun’s meridian altitude to his declination; 3. at evening, or from one hour before the setting of the world-enlightening sun until the rising of the stars. These rites are to be accompanied by _Ghasal_, or “ablution,” except on the Sandhya of the latter part of the day, when, if it be impossible, the established prayers only are to be recited. On performing this ablution, the head is to be several times sprinkled with water in such a manner that it may fall in drops on it; after which, having gone through the indispensable forms of prayer, he is to make the _Homa_, that is, he is to light the holy fire on a pure spot, and place on it thin and fine pieces of wood, and having chosen the still more delicate splinters of it, and moistened them with water, he drops pure rice upon them. The fire being thus lighted, he addresses prayers to his spiritual guide or his instructor, father, and elders, and laying his head on the ground, solicits their benedictions; pronouncing during this adoration his own name, so that it may be heard by them, after this manner: “I, who am such a one, in profound adoration address my prayers to you, and prostrate myself in your presence:” the same prostration must also be performed to his mother. He then repairs to his master, before whom he stands in an humble attitude and receives instruction: but after this form, that the instructor should say of himself, “I am now at leisure:” he is not to command him, which would be accounted great rudeness. When the pupil waits on his master, he is to appear before him dressed in costly clothing; but if both master and pupil should be in indigent circumstances, the latter is to solicit alms, and thus procure subsistence for his master and himself: he is moreover to remain silent at table.

The boy, when invested with the Brahminical thread, is called a _Brahmachari_, until he enters into the marriage state; after which, if through the necessity of his own family he derives his daily support from another quarter, he is not to eat at one place only, but go round to several doors, and receiving something at each, convey the whole to its proper destination; but the person, whose father and mother charge themselves with his annual support, and who can discover no other Brahman beside himself in that district, is allowed to satisfy his appetite at one place. Until the time of his marriage, the Brahmachari eats not honey, never applies collyrium to the eyes, nor oil nor perfumes to the body; and never eats the viands left at table, except his master’s; he never utters a rejoinder with harshness or severity; avoids female intercourse; and never looks at the great luminary when rising or setting; he is a stranger to falsehood, and never uses an expression of ill omen; nor holds any one in detestation, or regards him as an object of reproach; above all, he shows exceeding veneration to his preceptor.

The ancients commanded that boys should be engaged in the study of the Veds, or “religious sciences,” from five years of age to twelve. They have also said: “A Brahman should study the four Védas;” but as the acquisition of the whole is impossible, their learned men are consequently satisfied with the knowledge of small portions of each. The first is the _Rigvéda_, which treats concerning the knowledge of the Divine essence and attributes; the mode of creation; the path of righteousness; of life and death. The second, or _Yajúsh-véda_, treats of the rules prescribed for religious ceremonies, faith, burnt offerings, and prayers. The third is the _Sámavéda_, which treats of the science of music, the proper mode of reading the Védas, and the portions selected from them; from this source are also derived vocal and instrumental harmony. The fourth is the _Atharva-véda_, which includes the rules of archery, the prayers proper to be recited when encountering the foe and discharging arrows against them. If a person acquainted with this system and form of prayer discharge a single arrow, it becomes a hundred thousand arrows, some of which contain fire, others wind, storm, dust, and rain; others vomit forth golden stones and huge bricks; whilst some assume the forms of tremendous wild beasts and ferocious animals, which strike terror into the boldest hearts. Many are the extraordinary modes and wonderful devices unfolded in this Véda for the total destruction of one’s enemies. Such is the Atharva Véda, and such the artifices, magic practices, incantations, spells, and devices contained in it.[99]

The _Brahmachárí_ is of two kinds: one as already described, whom the Brahmans call Brahmachari, until the period of his becoming a householder and taking a wife; the second is he who in the course of this life never enters into the married state, pays no attention to worldly cares, and continues the devoted servant of his instructor, on whose death he pays the same attention to his survivors. If the disciple should happen to die in his master’s house or that of his successor, it is accounted far more meritorious than in any other place; and if his decease should not occur, he is carefully to worship the fire which is made for the purpose of the Hom, or “burnt-offering,” and diminishing every day the quantity of his food.

Having thus given some statements concerning the Brahmachárí, it now becomes proper to mention the various modes of contracting marriage among the Hindus: thus it is related in the first part of the _Mahábhárat_, that a woman who has lost her husband may lawfully take another; for when Parasu-Rama had exterminated the Chattris, their wives held intercourse with the Brahmans and bare them children. It is also permitted to a wife deprived of her husband, to attach herself to another; thus _Yojanagandhá_[100] was first the wife of _Paraśara_, by whom she had a son, the celebrated sage _Vyása_,[101] and she afterwards became the wife of a king named _Santana_.[102] In the same work it is also recorded, that a woman may, by her husband’s consent, maintain intercourse with another; thus, on the arrival of Raja Bali, a Brahman named _Tamma_, sent him his wife and obtained a son. In like manner, Raja _Pándu_, who abstained from all intercourse with woman, permitted his wife _Kuntí_[103] to keep company with others, and she, by force of his prayers, mixing with angels, had sons. In like manner it is permitted that the son be separated from the father, but remain with the mother, and that, on the decease of a brother, another brother by a different father but the same mother, may marry the widow of the deceased: thus _Vyása_, the son of _Yojangandha_ by _Párasaru_,[104] visited the wives of _Vichitra-Virya_, who was born of the same mother, Yojangandha, by king Santanu, and there was born to him _Dhritaráshtra_, Raja _Pándu_, and _Vidúra_. It is also allowed that several individuals of the same race and religion may among them espouse one wife: thus _Draupadí_, daughter of _Drúpada_, Rája of _Pánchála_,[105] was married to the five Pandava princes; and _Ahalyá_,[106] the daughter of _Gautama_, to seven persons; and the daughter of another holy person, was married to ten husbands. The Yezdanians ascribe the seclusion of women, and their not choosing husbands for themselves, to litigation, corruption, and the family perplexities. It is recorded also in the Mahábhárat, that in ancient times there was no such practice as the appropriation of husband and wife; every woman being allowed to cohabit with whomsoever she thought proper, until once the wife of a holy personage being in the society of another, Swétakéta, the holy man’s son, feeling indignant at such conduct, pronounced this imprecation: “Let the woman who approaches a stranger be regarded as a spirit of hell!” and at present the brute creation, which possess in common with us, immaterial souls, act according to the ancient law: many, also, of the northern nations follow the same practice. In the same work it is also stated, that the sage Vyása was born of the daughter of a fisherman, whom the sage Paraśara espoused, from which it follows that the issue of such a low connection is not to be held as a low or degraded character. Thus far has been extracted from the Mahábhárat.

According to the Smarttas, there are two kinds of wives: the first is the legitimate wife, who is degraded by holding intercourse with any man save her husband: the second are those on whom no restraints are imposed; of whom there are numbers at the disposition of their chief men. The princes of ancient times, to all appearance, established this description of females for the purpose of receiving travellers and pilgrims, an act which they regarded as productive of great blessings.

Moreover, on account of the increase of the male population, they held not as a criminal act the holding an intercourse with these females; but regarded guilt to consist in being intimate with a woman who has a husband: they moreover esteemed it a base act to defraud the licensed class of their hire. Tradition records that, in former times, the _Lulees_, or “dancing women,” who inhabited the temple of the Tortoise in the city of Kalinga, at first gave their daughters to a Brahman, in order to conciliate the favor of the Almighty and insure future happiness; but that afterwards they gave them from selfish purposes, and exposed them from mercenary motives; even at present, although they have entirely given up every pious purpose, yet they do not associate with any save those of their own religion. However, Shir Muhammed Khan, who was appointed military governor of that province under the first sovereign, Abdálláh Kuteb Shah, forced them to repair to the houses of the Moslem: notwithstanding which, the Lulees of the temple of Jagganath, to this very day hold no intercourse with the Muhammedans. In Gaya and Soram, when they take a wife, she must be of noble and honorable descent, and of graceful carriage; and must not previously have been affianced to any other person; she is not to be related, in the remotest degree, to the stock or family of her husband, she ought to have brothers, and her lineage and family for ten generations are to be publicly known among her contemporaries. Her relations also make strict inquiries into the merits and demerits of the bridegroom, particularly as to the state of his health and stamina. Some writers assert, that a Brahman may occasionally demand in marriage the daughter of a Chattri, merchant, or cultivator, but on this condition, that they do not join their husband in partaking of food or drink.

Among the Hindus there are five modes of contracting marriage;[107] the first, or _Viváha_, after this form: the damsel’s father looks out for a son-in-law, to whom he presents money and goods in proportion to his means, and gives him his daughter, which is the most legitimate mode.[108] The second is the _Asurvívahah_, when without the consent of the father or mother, by employing force and violence, or the influence of money, the damsel is forcibly taken by the bridegroom from her parents’ house to his own, and there married to him. The third is the _Gandharviváhah_, when the bridegroom takes the damsel away with her consent, but without the approbation of her parents, and espouses her at his own house. The fourth is the _Rákshasa-viváha_, when the parties on both sides are at the head of armies, and the damsel, being taken away by force, becomes the victor’s bride.

The fifth is the _Písácha-viváha_, when the lover, without obtaining the sanction of the girl’s parents, takes her home by means of talismans, incantations, and such like magical practices, and then marries her. Písách, in Sanscrit, is the name of a demon, which takes whatever person it fixes on, and as the above kind of marriage takes place after the same manner, it has been called by this name.

On espousing a damsel, the intelligent Brahman, having taken the bride’s hand into his own, must go through the established forms prescribed by his faith, and move seven steps in advance.[109] When he espouses the daughter of a Chattrí, at the time of solemnizing the marriage, an arrow is to be held at one extremity by the bridegroom, and at the other by the bride; on contracting an alliance with a merchant’s daughter, the bride and bridegroom are to hold a scourge or some similar object in the same manner; on his marriage with the virgin daughter of a cultivator, the parties mark their union by a token of secret intimacy. When they deliver the bride to her husband, if her father be not alive, or her paternal grandfather, or if her brothers be not forthcoming on the occasion, then the most respectable person of the tribe or family is to perform the necessary ceremonies; and if the relations be not intelligent, then the damsel’s mother.

It is to be remarked, that when a girl attains the proper age for entering into the married state, if her parents, notwithstanding their ability, do not provide a husband for her, they commit a great sin. If a distinguished suitor should not present himself, they are however to provide a husband of a good family; this they are to perform only once in their lives, as on the husband’s death it is unlawful for the widow to become the wife of another person: after her husband’s decease, she is obliged to pass the rest of her life in his house. If, previous to advancing the seven steps prescribed at the time of contracting the marriage, there should present himself a more distinguished suitor than the former, it is allowed to take the damsel from the former and give her to the latter, as before advancing the seven paces, the matrimonial contract is not binding. Should a wife prove to be immoral, all intercourse with her must terminate; but putting her to death or turning her out of doors, are also forbidden: she is to be confined to a small and dark chamber, clad in a coarse dress, and to receive food but once a day.

The period of a woman’s illness, according to the Brahmans, extends to sixteen days: on the four days following the first day of the symptoms, all intercourse with her is forbidden. Women are strictly enjoined to show the greatest respect to their husbands, parents, brothers, and relations, and to use every possible exertion for the preservation of their husbands’ property. When he goes on a journey, she is not to deck her person, nor appear cheerful and smiling; she is not to go to entertainments, to the houses of her acquaintances or relations, nor invite them to hers.

As long as a girl is unmarried, it is necessary to guard her with the closest attention; but, when married, this would be highly improper, with this restriction however, that it is by no means fitting that a female, from her tenderest years to the period of her maturity, should be allowed unlimited liberty: on the contrary, she is to be ever submissive and obedient to her father, husband, and relations: but if these should not be in existence, the actual rulers are to take care of her state.

When the husband is on a journey, the wife is not to remain alone in the house, but is to repair to the dwelling of her parents, brethren, or relations; and if, on her husband’s death, she become not a _Sattee_, that is, burn herself with the deceased, she is then to reside with his relations, devoting herself to rigid abstinence and the worship of the Almighty. They say that when a woman becomes a _Sattee_, the Almighty pardons all the sins committed by the wife and husband, and that they remain a long time in paradise:[110] nay, if the husband were in the infernal regions, the wife by this means draws him from thence and takes him to paradise; just as the serpent-catcher charms the serpent out of his hole. Moreover the Sattee, in a future birth, returns not to the female sex; but should she reassume the human nature, she appears as a man; but she who becomes not a Sattee, and passes her life in widowhood, is never emancipated from the female state. It is therefore the duty of every woman, excepting one that is pregnant, to enter into the blazing fire along with her deceased husband; a Brahman’s wife in particular is to devote herself in the same fire with her husband; but others are allowed to perform the rite in a separate place. It is however criminal to force the woman into the fire, and equally so to prevent her who voluntarily devotes herself.[111]

The enlightened doctors say, that by a woman’s becoming a Sattee is meant that, on her husband’s decease, she should consume in the fire along with him all her desires, and thus die before the period assigned by nature; as in metaphysical language woman signifies “passion,” or in other words, she is to cast all her passions into the fire; but not throw herself into it along with the deceased, which is far from being praiseworthy. A respectable woman must not from vanity expose herself to the gaze of a stranger, but she is to wear a dress which will completely cover her to the sole of the foot.

It is to be noted, that the son of a Brahman by a Chattri female is not of the father’s caste, but a superior Chattri. It is moreover laid down as a rule that a Brahman, on becoming a Brahmachárí, should regularly worship the fire, which fire he is to discontinue at the time of the marriage contract; but on that occasion he is bound to light another fire and to recite the prescribed prayers, so that it may be as a witness of the compact entered into between husband and wife: also, after the celebration of the marriage, they are to repeat the prayers prescribed at the time of lighting the fire which they are ever after to worship daily.

The Brahman is moreover to offer up _Hóma_, or burnt offerings, at the rising and setting of the great luminary, and to partake of food twice; once during the day on the expiration of two watches (midday); the second time at night, on the expiration of one watch: he is also to assist with food and clothing, to the utmost of his power, the indigent, and friends who come to his house.

The Chattri is to learn the Védas and Shasters, or the divine revelations and sciences, but he is not to teach them to another; he is likewise to perform Hóma, or “burnt-offerings.” His occupation consists in governing and protecting the human race, for which reason all monarchs were anciently of the Chattri class, the more effectually to establish the righteous decrees of Brahma, and the institutions of the Brahmans.

To the Bakkál, or “merchant caste,” appertains the profession of buying, selling, and commercial transactions, the protection of animals, and agriculture, which is attended with profit.

The cultivator, who is called _Dalmah_, or _Kumbí_, is enjoined to engage in service, to practise tillage, or any employment within his capacity by which he can gain a maintenance; there are in fact no limits prescribed as to the nature of his occupations.

All four classes are strictly enjoined not to injure any living being whatever, especially not to deprive any one arbitrarily of life; to speak the truth, to act uprightly, and as long as they live not to defraud a fellow-creature of his wealth.

Every Brahman is obliged once a year to celebrate the established rite of _Yajna_, or “sacrifice:” if he be in indigent circumstances, he is to go round to his brethren, and expend whatever he collects in the Yajna, which is thus performed: there are three _Kundams_,[112] or “fire-pits” to be formed, in front of which is fixed a wooden post; then a rope made of Durva grass (in Sanskrit, _Kúsá_) is thrown around the neck of a black he-goat, and fastened to that post; _Hóm_ is then offered up during five days; on the first day, the sacrificer and his wife both perform their ablutions, nine Brahmans at the same time going through the rite of washing their heads and persons; of these nine, one is looked upon as Brahma himself, all present obeying his commands, and the remaining eight Brahmans waiting obsequiously on him. In addition to these, sixteen more Brahmans are required, who are to recite by themselves the _Mantra_, or “forms of prayer,” at the moment of the _Hóm_, or “burnt-offering.” In order to light the fire, they bring small pieces of a wood which in Sanscrit they call _Arana_,[113] in Hindi, _Ak_ (asclepias gigantea); and also for the same purpose another kind, in Sanskrit, _Khandíra_,[114] in Telinga, _Chandaru_; for the Homa, a wood in Sanskrit called _Pámárak_, in Telinga, _Utarini_, in Dakhani _Akhárah_, of which they make tooth-picks; also a wood, in Sanskrit _Udámvarah_[115] (ficus racemosa), in Telinga, _Miri_, in Dakhani, _Kular_, in Parsi _Anjir dasti_, or “wild fig;” and another wood, in Sanskrit _samí_,[116] and in Telinga, _Khammi_; also a grass, named in Sanskrit _Dúrvá_,[117] in Telinga, _Kargi_, in Dakhani, _Haryálí_; also another sort, called _Darbas_: altogether nine are required. The eight Brahmans first mentioned having repeated the proper incantation, lay hold of the goat in such a manner that they make it lie down on a bed formed of the leaves and branches of the tree _Khartarhari_, or _Karshartari_, in Sanskrit, _Kaliśakha_,[118] in Telinga, _Balsúkúma_, and in Dakhani _Karankabánta_. In the next place, the sixteen Brahmans, having recited the formula, or appropriate Mantra, stop up all the animal’s orifices, so that he can neither exhale nor inhale, and keep him in that position until he dies. Then one of the sixteen Brahmans, cutting off the head at one blow, flays the carcase and cuts it up into small pieces, throwing away all the bones to some distance, and then mixes up clarified butter with the flesh. The eight Brahmans next lay it piece by piece on the fire, whilst the other sixteen are employed in throwing on the above mentioned kinds of wood, and pouring clarified butter on them. The eight Brahmans eat of the meat thus roasted; the person who offers the sacrifice also partakes of it; after which he gives among all the officiating Brahmans one hundred and one cows with their calves, along with a _dakshinah_, or “presents of money.” Hóma must also be performed on the second day, and gifts presented to the Brahmans; on the three following days, they recite the appropriate Mantras, and light up the fire in the manner before described, but lay no meat upon it; in short, during the whole five days, they entertain all Brahmans who present themselves, offering up perfumes and giving presents to each of them. On the expiration of the five days, they completely fill and stop up two of the fire-receptacles, leaving the third, which they do not close up until they have removed the fire it contains to their dwelling: as the fire on this occasion had been made outside the city, they erect there a house which they burn down on the completion of the ceremony. When they have taken the fire to their dwelling, they deposit it in a peculiar receptacle excavated for the purpose; they offer up the _Hóma_ daily, never suffering this fire to go out: they also make a covering for it, which they remove at the time of offering up the Hóma.

The manner of offering the _Hóma_ is as follows: the sacrificer having performed his ablution and made the _tilek_, or “inaugural mark,” on the forehead with ashes from the fire receptacle, then celebrates the Hóma; the rites must be performed by a Brahman, as it is of no avail when performed by any other. If the officiating Brahman be a _Vaishnavah_, “worshipper of Vishnu,” he performs the _Yajna_, or “sacrifice,” in the same manner, excepting that, instead of a goat, he employs the figure of a goat formed of flour, over which he goes through the established ceremonies. When one goat is sacrificed, it is called _Agnishtóma_, or “sacrifice to Agni;”[119] where two are offered, _Yúnyíkam_;[120] the sacrifice of three is called _Wajpéya_;[121] the sacrifice of four is called _Jyotishtóma_;[122] and the sacrifice of five is named _Panjáham_.[123] When they sacrifice a cow after this manner, it is called the _Gomédha_; the sacrifice of a horse, _Aswamédha_; that of a man, _Narmédha_.

The _Yajna_, or “sacrifice” is to be offered in the months of _Mágha_, “January,” _Váisháka_, “April,” or _Márga-sirsha_,[124] “August.” Every person performs the Yajna once; but he sacrifices a goat every year; or, if in indigent circumstances, the figure of a goat formed of flour; and if he be a follower of Vishnu, the goat is to be a figure formed of the same materials, as among that sect cruelty towards the animal creation is reckoned as impiety. In their Smriti, or “sacred writing,” it is thus laid down: “Let that person put animals to death who has the power of reanimating them, as the victim thus sacrificed must be restored to life.” Moreover, their pious doctors have said that, by the sacrifice of a sheep, is meant the removal of ignorance; by that of a cow, the abandoning low pursuits; by that of the horse, the curbing of the mind; as according to the Hindus, Manah, or “the heart,” from which proceed all phantasies and internal sense, is a fiery and unbroken steed; finally, shedding man’s blood in sacrifice, implies the eradication of all reprehensible human qualities. It is also to be highly commended in a Brahman not to devote himself to lucrative pursuits, but to repair to the abode of his co-religionists, and being satisfied and grateful for the portion of grain he receives from them, to give up the rest of his time to devotion; nor is he to collect so much food as to have any remaining for the next day. Vessels of gold are esteemed more pure than those of any other metal. Whenever a Brahman sees an idol-temple, a cow, or a holy personage, he is to walk reverentially round each. He is not to perform the offices of nature in running water, nor in a cow-shed, nor in ashes; before a Brahman, or a cow, or in sight of the great luminary; when he retires to any place for this purpose, he is not in that state of nudity to look towards the stars; neither is he to go out naked in rain, nor sleep with his head to the west; he is not to cast saliva, blood, nor semen into water, nor extend his feet towards the fire for the purpose of warming them; he is not to leap on fire, nor drink water with both hands. It is also wrong to awake, unless in case of necessity, one who is in a profound sleep; nor is it allowed to sit on the same couch with a sick person. It is not right to enter upon any undertaking to which a suspicion of evil consequences is attached. Great care must also be taken to remove to a distance from the smoke of a dead body on the funeral pile. No one is to return to his home, whether in a city or village, except by the public gate. A Brahman must not receive a gift from a mean and sordid monarch, or from an avaricious person of degrading pursuits, as in the future investigation, punishment certainly awaits such conduct: in short, he never accepts any thing from the impure or base. He is not to look at his wife when sneezing, yawning, or gaping; when she is seated in privacy at her ease; or when applying collyrium to her eyes, or anointing her hair.[125] He ought not to sleep naked in his bed-room, nor in an empty house without a companion; he ought not to throw water about in play, with the palm of his hand or with his foot, nor to blow out fire with his breath, without using any instrument.

It is to be known, that the astronomers among the Brahmans, in their computation, divide the month into two parts; from the beginning to the fifteenth day they reckon one part, and call the sixteenth day _Púrva_, that is, one entire part; and the rest, to the end of the month, is the other part; in like manner, they have in each month twice twelve and six days; which they distinguish by the denomination _dvádásí_, “the twelfth,” and _chachtí_, “the sixth, day” of the lunar fortnight.

Nobody ought to put his feet upon the shade of a Dív, that is, of the image of a celestial being, of a king, a preceptor, a saint, and a married wife of another. It is not right to look with contempt upon a Brahman. One may beat a delinquent on account of a fault, or a pupil by way of chastisement, but his blows must not hurt the upper parts of the body. No man ought to dispute or wrangle with one higher in rank than himself, nor with a widow, nor with a man without connexion, an old woman, a beggar, nor with children. Let him feign ignorance with respect to a mandate upon a woman, and towards a person who should be aware of the bad conduct of his wife. He is never to take his meal upon the same table-cloth with a man without religion, a butcher, and one who sells his wife. The master of the house ought never, with a loud voice, to invite another to his board, because this looks like ostentation.

Nine stars are to be worshipped for the increase of wealth, the accomplishment of our wishes, and the union with the divinity; namely, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, Mercury, the solstice, and the descending node. Let the pious distribute to the Brahmans and to the wise men what is prescribed of corn, raiment, and jewels that may suit them. The king is to possess dignity, wisdom, and affability towards young and old; he is to be just towards the complainants; at court, condescending to all, mild and liberal, knowing the truth, understanding the wishes of men, respectful to the pious and the saints, and showing deference to the lords of the faith, and the secluded from the world; he is to be humble and command his ambition; and in whatever may occur, pleasure and pain, fortune and misfortune, let his conduct never be mutable and inconsistent.

Whoever runs away in battle, renders himself highly guilty, and all the merit which he might have acquired before, falls to the share of another who stood firm in the field of battle.[126] A king who, with the laudable qualities before described, exerts himself in the maintenance of his laws, the distribution of justice, and the welfare of the cultivators, shares the recompense of all the good actions which the inhabitants of the country have performed.[127] The exercise of justice is imposed as a necessity upon a king; in order that, if a son, brother, uncle, brother-in-law, preceptor, or any other friend, commit a crime, he may immediately, according to the established code of laws, order their chastisement, terrify, reprimand, or subject them to retaliation.

In the Hindu Institutes which are called _Smriti_, it is said to be established that, after the worship of the Supreme God, they ought to venerate the subordinate divinities, and perform the prescribed rites. To eat flesh, and to put to death some animals, is therein not prohibited, excepting the cow; he who kills, or even hurts, this animal, shall never enjoy the sight of heaven; and they say that he only who can restore to life, may put to death, an animal; this is necessary: who destroys a living being must vivify it again; if he be not able to do this, he ought to forbear from that act, because he shall not escape punishment for it. According to their learned interpreters, the killing of certain animals which is permitted in their sacred books, signifies the eradicating and destroying of such blameable qualities as are proper to these animals.

In ancient times, it was the custom among the Brahmans and the wise among them, when they had become householders and begotten a son, to withdraw from society, and when they had established their sons, to separate from them, and having retired into a desert, to devote themselves to the worship of God; and when the sons had children in their house, their father and mother did not visit each other in the desert, but lived separate from each other, at the distance of several farsangs.

The religious austerity of this people is very great; thus they practise perpetual standing upon their legs, hanging themselves up, abstaining from conversation, keeping silence, cutting themselves asunder, leaping down from a rock, and such like. Women used to burn themselves alive with their dead husbands: this is according to the _Smriti_,[128] which is ascribed to Brahma, and believed to be eternal truth.

Of this people, the author of this book saw in Lahor, the capital of the sultan, a Brahman, called Sri Manu Rama, who would not accept any nourishment from the Musulmans, nor keep society with strangers. It was said, that an Umra of the Mahommedans had offered him three lacs of rupees, which he refused to take. Pursuant to his religion, he abstained from animal food. Kesayi Tívárí is one of the Brahmans of Benáres, and well conversant with the science of his class. Having left his house, he settled on the bank of the river Ravi, which passes near the garden Kamran, at Lahór: given up to devotion, he seeks no protection against rain and sun; he lives upon a little milk; and whatever he has collcted during several months, he spends in the entertainment of the pious Brahmans whom he invites.

[73] _Munji_, a sort of grass, from the fibres of which a
string is prepared, of which the triple thread worn by the
Brahman should be formed (_Saccharum munja Rox._)――(_Wilson’s
Sanskrit Dictionary._)――D. S.

[74] Ward enumerates only ten _Sanskara_, or “ceremonies:”
_Garbhádhána_, _Púngsavana_, _Simonton-nayana_,
_Játa-karma_, _Nishkramana_, _Náma-karana_, _Anna-práshana_,
_Chúra-karana_, _Upanayana_, and _Viváha_ (vol. III. p. 71).

[75] The above interpretation is not correct; the name of
the ceremony गर्भाधान is derived from _Garbha_, “the fœtus,”
and _adhan_, “taking;” according to Wilson’s Dictionary, a
ceremony performed prior to conception; but, according to
Ward, a ceremony to be performed four months after
conception, including a burnt sacrifice, the worship of the
Shálgráma, and all the forms of the Nándí-Múkhí-Shrádda. The
Shalgrama (from _Shal_, “to move, to shake,” and _Grama_, “a
village”) the _ætites_, or “eagle-stone,” black, hollow, and
nearly round, said to be brought from mount Gandaki, in
Nepaul――an emblem of Vishnu (see Ward, vol. I. p.
283-4-5).――D. S.

[76] पुंसवन. A religious and domestic festival, held on the
mother’s perceiving the first signs of a living conception:
from _pung_, “a male,” and _shu_, “to bear.”

_Nándi-Mukha-Sráddha_, funeral obsequies performed on joyous
occasions, as initiation, marriage, etc., in which nine
balls of meat are offered to the deceased father, paternal
grandfather, and great grandfather; to the maternal
grandfather, great grandfather, and great great grandfather;
to the mother, paternal grandmother, and paternal great
grandmother: from _Nandi_, “good fortune,” and _Mukha_,
“principal.”

[77] सीमन्तोन्नयन a purificatory and sacrificial ceremony
observed by women, on the fourth, sixth, or eighth month of
their pregnancy: from _Simanta_, “a portion of the hair,”
and _Unnayana_, “arranging;” this forming an essential part
of the ceremony――(_Wilson_).

[78] जात कर्म from _Jata_, “born,” and _karma_, “an act
practised at the moment of birth,” in which the Shrádaha,
“the burnt sacrifice,” and other ceremonies, which occupy
about two hours, are performed, and then the umbilical cord
is cut――(_Ward_, vol. III. p. 73).

[79] नामकरण from _Náman_, “a name,” and _Kri_, “to
make”――(_Ward’s Glossary_).

The first part of a Brahman’s compound name should indicate
holiness; of a Chatriya’s, power; of a Vaisya’s, wealth; and
of a Sudra’s, contempt. Let the second part of the priest’s
name imply prosperity; of the soldier’s, preservation; of
the merchant’s, nourishment; of the servant’s, humble
attendance. The names should be agreeable, soft, clear,
captivating the fancy, auspicious, ending in long vowels,
resembling words of benediction――(_Haughton’s Menu_, p. 25).

[80] निष्क्रमण from _Nir_, “forth,” and _Kram_, “to step:”
carrying the child out of the house to see the sun, and
offering up petitions for the long life and prosperity of
the child.

[81] अन्न प्राशन from _Anna_, “food,” and _práśanna_,
“feeding” (_Ward’s Vocabulary_).――“In the sixth month, he
should be fed with rice; or that may be done which, by the
custom of the family, may be thought most propitious”
(_MS._, p. 25).――For the goddess Anna Perenna of the Romans,
the Anna-purna of the Hindus, from _Anna_, “race,” and
_purna_, “to fill” (see _As. Res._, vol. VIII. p. 69. 85).

[82] चूडाकरण from _Chúd´a_, “a single lock of hair left on
the crown of the head at the ceremony of the first tonsure,”
and _Karana_, “the act of making.”

[83] सूत्र _Sútra_, “a thread in general; a string, or
collection of threads,” as that worn by the three first
classes――(_Wilson_).

[84] मुञ्ज _Munja_, “a sort of grass” from the fibres of
which a string is prepared, of which the triple thread worn
by the Brahman should be formed (_Saccharum
Munja_)――(_Wilson_).

[85] दर्भ _Darbha_, _Cúsa_, or “sacrificial grass”――(_Wilson_).

The girdle of a priest must be made of Munja in a triple
cord, smooth and soft; that of a warrior must be a
bow-string of Murva; that of a merchant, a triple thread of
Sana. If the Munja be not procurable, their zones must be
formed respectively of the grasses Cusa Asmantaca, valvaja,
in triple strings, with one, three, or five knots, according
to the family custom――(_MS._ p. 26).

[86] The sacrificial thread of a Brahman must be made of
cotton, so as to be put on over his head, in three strings;
that of a Chatriya, of Sana thread only; that of a Vaisya,
of woollen thread――(_MS._ p. 27).

[87] The यज्ञोपवीत or “sacrificial cord,” originally worn by
the three principal casts of Hindus; at present, from the
loss of the pure Chatríya and Vaisya casts in Bengal,
confined to the Brahmanical order: from _Yajna_, “a
sacrifice,” and _Upavíta_, “a thread.”

[88] गो दान _Go-dána_, from _Go_, “a cow,” and _Dána_, “a
gift.”

[89] Probably अशन पञ्च or पञ्च तन्त्र _asana pancha_, or
_pancha tantra_, “five things.”

[90] विवाह.

[91] पिण्ड प्रदान _Pinda-pradána_, from _pinda_, “a funeral
cake;” an oblation to deceased ancestors, offered at the
several _Sraddhas_, by the nearest surviving relation, and
_prádán_, “the act of giving.”

[92] माघ _Magha_, the name of a Hindu month commencing when
the sun enters Capricornus. (January-February).

[93] दान फल _Dána-phal_, from _Dána_, “a gift,” and _phal_,
“fruit.”

[94] शिव रात्रि _Shiva-ratri_, from _Shiva_, “Siva, the
deity,” in his character of destroyer and reproducer; the
third person of the Hindu triad, and _ratri_, “night,” being
the night of the fourteenth day of the moon’s wane, in the
month _Magha_, or _Magha-phalguna_, a rigorous fast with
extraordinary ceremonies in honour of the _Sivalinga_, or
_Phallus_.
(_As. Res._, vol. III. p. 274.)

[95] फणी _Phani_, from _Phana_, “the expanded hood or neck
of the _Cobra di Capello_”――(_Wilson_).

[96] For a more detailed account, see _Ward on the Hindoos_,
vol. II. p. 29, etc.――The abstract given in the Dabistán is
inaccurate, agreeing neither with _Manu_ nor _Ward_: in
_Manu_, it is as follows (l. II. sl. 58): Let a Brahman at
all times perform the ablution with the pure part of his
hand, denominated from the Veda, or with the part sacred to
the Lord of creatures, or with that dedicated to the gods:
but never with the part named from the _Pitris_. (sl. 59)
The pure part under the root of the thumb is called
_Brahma_; that at the root of the little finger, _Cáya_;
that at the tips of the fingers, _Daiva_; and the part
between the thumb and index, _Pitrya_. (sl. 60) Let him sip
water thrice; then twice wipe his mouth; and lastly, touch
with water the six cavities (or his eyes, ears, and
nostrils), his breast, and his head. (61) He who knows the
law and seeks purity, will ever perform his ablution with
the pure part of his hand, and with water neither hot nor
frothy, standing in a lonely place, and turning to the east
or north. (62) A Brahman is purified by water that reaches
his bosom; a Chatríya, by water descending to his throat; a
Vaisya, by water barely taken into his mouth; a Sutra, by
water touched with the extremity of his lips.――D. S.

[97] This rite is called _Achamana_, performed by taking up
water in the palm of the right hand three times, and
drinking it as it runs towards the wrist; then, with the
right hand, the Brahman is to touch his lips, nose, ears,
navel, breast, forehead, and shoulders, repeating an
incantation; wash his hands again, and perform _achamana_;
repeat an incantatian; then sitting to the N. or E., before
sunrise, cleanse his teeth with the end of a green stick,
about six or seven inches long. If he clean his teeth after
sunrise, in the next birth he will be born an insect feeding
on ordure. He must now wash from his face the mark on his
forehead made the day before. Lastly, he puts a dry and
new-washed cloth round his loins and sitting down, let him
cleanse his poita by rinsing it in the water; then taking up
some earth in his hand and diluting it with water, put the
middle finger of his right hand in this earth, and make a
line botwixt his eyes up to the top of his forehead; then
draw his three first fingers across his forehead; make a
round dot with his little finger in the centre at the top of
his head; another on the upper part of his nose; and another
on his throat; etc., etc. (_Ward_, vol. II. p. 31).――D. S.

[98] _Sandhya._ The Brahman must offer up many prayers; pour
out water to different gods; repeat certain forms of prayer
in honor of the sun, which he must worship; and repeat the
Gáyatrí; then take up water with his Kosha (small copper
cup), and pour it out to his deceased ancestors; after which
he must return home and read some part of the Veda――(_Ward_,
vol. II. p. 31-32).

The _Gáyatrí_ here means a sacred verse from the Vedas, to
be recited only mentally: this is usually personified and
considered as a goddess, the metaphorical mother of the
three first classes, in their capacity of twice-born;
investiture with the sacred and distinguishing string, viz.:
being regarded as a new birth. There is but one Gayatri of
the Vedas; but, according to the system of the Tantricas, a
number of mystical verses are called Gáyatrís, each deity
having one in particular. From _Gaya_, “who sings;” and
_Trai_, “to preserve.”――D. S.

[99] We read in Colebrooke’s Treatise on the Védas (_As.
Res._, vol. VIII. p. 370) what follows: “It is well known,
that the original Véda is believed by Hindus to have been
revealed by Brahma, and to have been preserved by tradition,
until it was arranged in its present order by a sage, who
thence obtained the surname of _Vyása_, or _Véda Vyaśa_,
that is, ‘compiler of the Védas.’ He distributed the Indian
scripture into four parts, which are severally entitled
_Rich_, _Yajush_, _Sáman_, and _At´harvańa_; and each
of which bears the common denomination of Véda.”

After having discussed the question whether the fourth Véda
be more modern than the other three, the celebrated
Indianist concludes (p. 372): “That the three
first-mentioned Védas are the three principal portions of
the Véda; that the _At´harvańa_ is commonly admitted as a
fourth; and that divers mythological poems, entitled
_Itihása_ and _Puránás_, are reckoned a supplement to the
scripture, and, as such, constitute a fifth Véda.” He says
further (_ibid._, p. 378): “Each Véda consists of two parts,
denominated the _Mantras_ and the _Bráhmańas_, or ‘prayers’
and ‘precepts.’ The complete collection of the hymns,
prayers, and invocations belonging to one Véda is entitled
its _Sanhita_. Every other portion of Indian scripture is
included under the general head of divinity (_Bráhmańa_).
This comprises precepts which inculcate religious duties;
maxims, which explain those precepts; and arguments, which
relate to theology.――The theology of the Indian scripture,
comprehending the argumentative portion entitled _Védanta_,
is contained in tracts denominated _Upanishads_.”――A. T.

The Hindus have, besides, _Upavédas_. _Upa_ is a preposition
importing resemblance in an inferior degree; and _Véda_,
from _Vida_, “knowledge.” The four Upavedas comprise the
_Ayu_, on the science of medicine, drawn from the Rig Veda;
the _Gandharva_, on music, from the Sama-Véda; the _Dhanu_,
on military tactics, from the Yajush; and the _Silpa_, on
mechanics, from the Atharvańa.

Hindu learning has six divisions, called _Angas_, that is,
“parts,” or “members.” The six Angas are: _Sikshya_, on
pronunciation; _Kalpa_, on ceremonies; _Vyákarana_, on
grammar; _Chanda_, on prosody and verse; _Jyotisha_, on
astronomy; and _Nirukta_, an explanation of difficult words,
etc., in the Véda. These divisions, as dependant upon the
Védas, are also called _Védangas_. The Hindus count besides
four secondary portions of science, called _Upangás_: these
are: the _Puranas_, or poetical histories; the _Náya_, on
ethics; the _Mímánsa_, on divine wisdom and on ceremonies;
and the _D’harma s astra_, or the civil and canon laws (_Ward_,
vol. IV. p. 55).――D. S.

[100] Yojanagundhá (_Wilson’s Dict._) is a name of
Satyavati, the mother of the sage and poet Vyása.

[101] The great epic poem, _Mahábhárat_, is ascribed to
Vyása, on the wars between the Kurus and the Gandus, when
more than seven millions of men perished. Of the birth of
Vyasa, who divided the Véda into eighteen parts, wrote
eighteen _Puranas_, the eighteen _Upapuranas_, the
_Kalkipurana_, the _Mahabhagavata_, the _Ekámrapurana_, the
_Vedanta darshana_, and founded the _Vedanta_ sect, an
account is given, by himself, in the Mahabharat.――(_Ward_,
vol. III. p. 12).――D. S.

[102] Santanu, the fourth prince in succession from
Sambarana, the son of Riksha, whose reign began at the
commencement of the Kali Yug.
(_Ward_, vol. III. p. 21-22).――D. S.

According to Sir W. Jones (_Works_, IV. p. 32) and to
_Wilson’s Dict._ (_sub voce_), Sántanu was the twenty-first
sovereign of the lunar race in the third age; he was the son
of _Pratípa_, and grandson of _Riksha_ (see also
_Vichnupurana_. _Wilson’s transl._, p. 457.)――A. T.

[103] Kuntí was mother of the five Pandava princes, by as
many gods; the names of the princes were _Yud´hisht´hira_,
_Bhíma_, _Arjúna_, _Nakuĺa_, and _Sahadéva_. Pandu was
interdicted by a curse from connubial intercourse, and
obtained the above five sons through his two wives Kuntí and
Madrí (_Ward_, vol. III. p. 22).――D. S.

[104] _Parásaru_: this philosopher is described as a very
old man, in the dress of a mendicant. He is charged with an
infamous intrigue with the daughter of a fisherman; to
conceal his amour with whom, he caused a heavy fog to fall
on the place of his retreat. Veda Vyasa, the collector of
the Vedas, was the fruit of this interview (_Ward_, vol. IV.
p. 40).――D. S.

[105] One of the thirty-eight divisions of Central India
(_Ward_, vol. III, p. ix.)――D. S.

[106] _Ahalyá_ (_Vichnupurana, Wilson’s transl._, p. 454)
was the daughter of _Bahwaśwa_, and the wife of Gautama.――A.
T.

[107] In the _Institutes of Manu_ (l. III. sl. 21.) eight
forms of marriage are enumerated, viz.: the marriage form of
_Brahma_, of the _Dévas_ (gods), of the _Rishis_ (saints),
of the _Praja patis_ (creators), of the _Asúras_ (demons),
of the _Gandharvas_ (celestial musicians), of the
_Rákshasas_ (giants), and of the _Pisáchas_ (vampires). The
six first in direct order are by some held valid in the case
of a priest; the four last in that of a warrior; and the
same four, except the _Rakshasa_ marriage, in the cases of a
merchant and a man of the servile class. Some consider the
four first only as approved in the case of a priest; one,
that of _Rakshasas_, as peculiar to the soldier; and that of
_Asuras_ to a mercantile and a servile man; but in this code
three of the five last are held legal, and two illegal: the
ceremonies of _Pisáchas_ and _Asuras_ must never be
performed.――A. T.

[108] According to Mr. Wilson, it is when the bridegroom
gives to the bride, her father, and paternal relations, as
much as he can afford. According to Ward, it is when money
is received in exchange for a bride. Where a present is made
to the father of the girl, the caste of the boy is not very
respectable. In the most respectable marriages, the father
not only gives his daughter without reward, but bears the
expenses of the wedding, and presents ornaments, goods,
cattle, and money to the bridegroom (_Ward_, vol. III. p.
163-168). Ward mentions eight kinds of marriage: 1.
_Bráhma_, when the girl is given to a Brahman without
reward; 2. _Daíva_, when she is presented as a gift at the
close of a sacrifice; 3. _Arsha_, when two cows are received
by the girl’s father; 4. _Prájápatya_, when the girl is
given at the request of a Brahman; 5. _Asura_, as above; 6.
_Gandharva_; 7. _Rákshasha_; 8. _Piśhácha_ (_Ward,
ibidem_).――D. S.

[109] See for the marriage customs of the Hindus: _On the
religious ceremonies of the Hindus and of the Brahmans
especially_, Essay III. by H. T. Colebrooke, Esq.; _As.
Res._, vol. VII. p. 288. Calcutta edit.; and also: _Mœurs,
institutions et cérémonies des peuples de l’Inde_, par M.
l’abbé J. A. Dubois, vol. I. chap. VI. pp. 284-326. Paris.
1825.

[110] This passage is nearly a literal translation from the
Hetopades, p. 79:

“Three crores and a half are the hairs on a man;
So long a time shall she live in paradise who follows
her lord.
As a snake-catcher forcibly draws up a snake from his
hole,
In the same manner she, having taken her husband, is exalted
to heaven.
The affectionate wife, who on the funeral pile has embraced
her inanimate
Husband, abandons indeed her own body:
But taking up her husband, who has committed many sins――even
a hundred times
A hundred thousand――she shall obtain the mansions of the gods.”
――D. S.

[111] It is known that the sacrifice of widows was abolished
in the year 1834, in all the Indian provinces under the
government and influence of the English authorities, by lord
William Bentinck, governor-general of India.――A. T.

[112] कुण्डं a hole in the ground for receiving and
preserving consecrated fire.――(_Wilson._)

A part of the sacrifice, called _Yajna_, but it is often
performed separately. The things offered are clarified
butter, sesamum, flowers, rice, boiled in milk and sweetened
in honey, Durva grass, vilwa leaves, and the tender
branches, half a span long, of the _ashwatta_ (ficus
religiosa), the _dumvara_ (ficus racemosa), the _palasha_
(butea frondosea), the _akunda_ (asclepias gigantea), the
_sharni_ (mimosa albida), and the _kladira_ (mimosa catechu)
(see _Ward_, vol. II. p. 58).――D. S.

[113] अरणि _arani_, the plant of which especial use is made
for kindling fire, is the _Premna spinosa_ (_Wilson’s
Dict._).

[114] Perhaps खदिर _khadira_, (mimosa catechu).

[115] उडम्वर _udamvara_, “glomerous fig-tree” (ficus
glomerosa, Rox.).

[116] शमी _samí_ (acacia suma, Rox.).

[117] दूर्वा bent grass, commonly dub (Panicum dactylon)
(_Wilson’s Dict._).

[118] Probably a tree with black blossoms, perhaps काल
स्कन्ध _kála-shandha_, a sort of ebony; or the _tamála_,
bearing dark blossoms.

[119] अग्निष्टोम According to Wilson’s Dict., a sacrifice,
or rather a series of offerings, to fire, for five days, to
be celebrated in the spring, from _Agni_, “the deity
presiding over fire,” and _Stoma_, “an offering.”

[120] Perhaps युग्मकं _yugmakam_, “couple.”――A. T.

[121] वाजपेय from _waj_, “the acetous fermentation of meal
and water,” and _pèya_, to be drunk (by the gods).

[122] ज्योष्टिोम from _jyotish_, “light,” and _stóma_, “an
offering;” a particular sacrifice, at which sixteen priests
are required.

[123] पञ्जहोम From _panja_, “five,” and _hóma_, “a burnt
offering.”

[124] The months are so called from certain Nakshatras, or
the twenty-seven stellar mansions, two and one quarter of
which make up each sign of the zodiac. The sun passes
through those signs in twelve months, and the moon through
each sign in two days and a quarter. _Mágha_ is so called
from the tenth Nakshatra Mágha, represented by a house;
_Vaiśaka_, from Viśakha, the sixteenth, represented by a
festoon; and _Márgaśirsha_, from the fifth Mriga-siras, or
the antelope’s head.――D. S.

[125] Here terminates the translation of the late D. Shee,
p. 201, l. 9, of the Calcutta edition.

[126] According to the _Institutes of Manu_ (chap. VII. sl.
94-95): “The soldier who, fearing and turning his back,
happens to be slain by his foes in an engagement, shall take
upon himself all the sin of his commander, whatever it be:
and the commander shall take to himself the fruit of all the
good conduct which the soldier who turns his back and is
killed, had previously stored up for a future life.”
(_Transl. of Sir W. Jones._)

[127] _Manu_ (_ibid._, ch. VIII. sl. 304-305) determines the
recompense or punishment of good or bad kings as follows: “A
sixth part of the reward for virtuous deeds, performed by
the whole people, belongs to the king who protects them;
but, if he protect them not, a sixth part of their iniquity
lights on him.” The legislator redoubles the amount of
punishment to a bad king in a subsequent _sloka_ (308):
“That king who gives no protection, yet takes a sixth part
of the grain as his revenue, wise men have considered as a
prince who draws to him the foulness of his people.”

[128] It is to be regretted that the author has not
indicated the precise place of the Smriti, which enjoins the
sacrifice of the widows.

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