Chapter XXVII: Armand Trousseau, One of the Last of France’s Great Clinical Teachers

In the preface to his “_Bibliothèque de Thérapeutique_,” which was published first in 1828, A. L. J. Bayle says that the art of treating diseases has been greatly neglected, in comparison with the enthusiastic efforts made to promote some of the other branches of the science of medicine, especially that of pathological anatomy; and, as a result, this art has in reality actually retrograded. Indeed, he goes on to say, quite a large number of agents which, up to a recent date, had been considered efficient remedies, have been entirely forgotten or even, in some instances, proscribed. This unfortunate tendency, he adds, may be attributed to many different causes. One of the most important of these, he believes, is to be found in the fact that certain physicians have allowed the idea to take root in their minds that the lesions which have been discovered in the different organs of the body at post-mortem examinations were the cause of the symptoms that, taken in the aggregate, constitute the particular disease under consideration; and, acting under the influence of this idea, they have assumed that their therapeutic efforts should be directed solely to these lesions. “Experience has not confirmed the correctness of this theory; on the contrary, it has shown that, if pathological anatomy is useful to the practitioner, it is chiefly so because it throws light upon the course and prognosis of certain diseases, and not because it has furnished a basis upon which the treatment may be built up.”

There is still another equally strong reason, says Bayle, why the art of therapeutics has been prevented from making a satisfactory advance, viz., the propagation of the physiological doctrine (Broussaism), a doctrine which admits the existence of practically only one disease—_irritation_, in its varying degrees of intensity, together with a single class of remedies—_anti-irritants_. Modern therapeutists reject most of these ideas, and experience also shows that, in the matter of therapeutics, these anti-irritants often produce harmful results. “A treatise on therapeutics,” he goes on to say, “should contain the substance of all the good memoirs that have been published on the treatment of the different diseases and on the remedies employed; it should also mention all the circumstances which indicate or contra-indicate the employment of remedial agents, the best forms in which the latter may be administered, all the cases in which they have succeeded in affording relief as well as all those in which they have failed to accomplish this result; all the authors who have written on the subject under consideration; and, finally whatever additional facts may give the practitioner confidence in the reality of the results proclaimed.”

There came under public notice, at about this period of time, a French physician who evidently held very much the same beliefs as were put forward by A. L. J. Bayle and which I have very briefly stated in the preceding paragraph. I refer to ARMAND TROUSSEAU, who was born (1801) in Western France, and who received his early medical training under that prince of physicians, Bretonneau, of Tours. In association with his friend, Hermann Pidoux, he published (in two volumes, Paris, 1836–1839) an excellent treatise on materia medica and therapeutics. The spirit which guided him in the preparation of this treatise is well expressed in his own words as follows:—

Medicine is both a science and an art.... It is an art when it
becomes necessary to apply it to a human being who is ill, and
this is especially true when the manner of treatment is under
consideration. It is in this art that the physician reveals how
much talent he possesses; he reveals himself as a true artist by
the particular form of remedial preparation which he decides to
administer to his patient, by the felicitous choice which he
makes between remedies, and by the favorable manner in which he
combines them.

TROUSSEAU
]

Dujardin-Beaumetz then adds the important statement that in his belief Trousseau was—at the time when he gave utterance to these words—the living personification of the truth of what he said, for nobody had carried the therapeutic art to a higher state of perfection than he had. To this statement may be added, with perfect truth, the opinion held by many of his contemporaries to the effect that the publication of the Trousseau-Pidoux treatise promoted effectively the growth of a sound and trustworthy therapeutic code. The mere fact that in 1875 this treatise had already reached its ninth edition furnishes strongly corroborative proof of the correctness of this opinion.

The scantiness of the space which I consider it proper to devote to this single memoir appears to me to justify the omission, from this point onward, of everything that does not add to the description of Trousseau’s career as one of the greatest clinical teachers in the domain of internal medicine in France. I am the more strongly impelled to adopt this course because so many of my personal friends among the physicians who returned to New York, during the years 1860–1864, spoke in such terms of praise of the success attained by Trousseau in this particular branch of medical education.

His profound earnestness as a clinical teacher and his incessant watchfulness over the interests and rights of the patients who served as material for his bedside lectures are brought out so clearly in one of his addresses to the class at the beginning of one of his regular courses that I shall be pardoned, I am sure, for reproducing it here in considerable fulness of detail:—

Gentlemen:—Before making any remarks to you about my service at
the hospital I feel impelled to tell you what I understand by
the expression ‘clinical instruction’ and to put before you what
I consider to be the respective duties of the professor and of
those who regularly follow his lessons.—It is for me a very
pleasant thing, as you may readily imagine, to see, crowding
around the beds in the ward and seated on the benches of the
amphitheatre, a large number of pupils; but the consciousness
that I am fulfilling a useful mission and am sowing in the minds
of these young men ideas that will later be fertilized, affords
me a much greater pleasure. However, both as regards the
professor and also as regards the pupils who listen to his
teaching, there are needed certain conditions in the absence of
which the clinical instruction must necessarily prove sterile.

Although clinical instruction represents the crowning stage of
your medical studies, I would not have you believe that this
particular part of your medical training should not be begun
until you reach the last period of your student career. From the
very day when a young man decides that he wants to be a
physician he should lose no opportunity of visiting hospitals.
It is desirable that he should see sick people—not occasionally,
but as frequently as possible. The materials which are thus at
first stored in one’s memory in a confused and disorderly
condition are nevertheless excellent materials. While they may
not to-day appear to possess a useful character, you will find
them at a later period stored away among the genuine treasures
lodged in your memory. To-day I have reached the period of old
age, and yet I remember distinctly the patients whom I saw
forty-three years ago when I took the very first steps in my
career of physician; I recall the most important symptoms, the
pathological lesions, even in some cases the patient’s name or
the number of the bed which he occupied. The recollections are
at times of service to me, they even afford me instruction, and
occasionally you may hear me refer to them at our bedside
conferences. I therefore urge upon even the youngest among you,
the practice of visiting regularly every day the hospital. On
the whole I believe that you will find it more profitable to
give the preference at first to the medical rather than to the
surgical wards.... You will not derive real profit from
frequenting the latter until after you have acquired some
knowledge in anatomy, whereas the possession of a few
superficial conceptions regarding physiology will be found
sufficient for the student who is beginning his first medical
studies.

Little by little you will find that you are becoming more and
more able to judge, from a mere inspection of the patient’s face
and expression, how serious is the malady with which he is
affected; you will learn how to feel his pulse and to appreciate
correctly its different qualities; and you will begin to acquire
some knowledge of auscultation and percussion; etc....

I cannot too often repeat to you the fact that a knowledge of
anatomy is not to be acquired by listening to lectures upon the
subject; in order to gain such knowledge you should have before
you, a human cadaver—a cadaver around which sit two or three
other students besides yourself, all busily engaged in the work
of dissecting, and near you there should be an older and more
experienced pupil upon whom you can depend for guidance.
Similarly, knowledge of actual disease is to be learned by the
student only at the hospital, and with the aid of one of the
resident physicians or of a chief of staff, who is competent to
teach you how a patient should be questioned and how a
systematic examination of the case should be conducted.... And
here let me remind you that the patients who are to be found in
our wards are poor people, people who are compelled by their
suffering and by their lack of money to take refuge in a
hospital. A knowledge of this situation of affairs should lead
us to show them some consideration and respect. So far as the
men are concerned I admit that it is permissible for us to treat
them with less delicacy. From the viewpoint of modesty there is
very little indelicacy in removing the clothes from a man in
order to make an examination of the surface of his body; on the
other hand, it is not right to do this if the examination is at
all likely to affect his health unfavorably. And now that we are
discussing this subject, I am obliged to confess that young men
are only too apt to forget that, after the clothing has been
removed from a man whose skin is wet with perspiration, it is
very dangerous to expose him even for a short time to the
contact of a chilly air. It is also not permissible, even in the
interest of science, to prolong a physical examination or to
carry out the manipulations required in auscultation and
percussion if you find that it is exhausting the poor patient’s
strength. In the latter case it is better to leave the
examination incomplete than to increase the feebleness of a
patient who is already in such a state of weakness....

VELPEAU
A contemporary of Trousseau and one of France’s most distinguished
surgeons.

(Copied from a print in the possession of Transylvania College,
Lexington, Kentucky.)
]

It was my intention to introduce at this point a citation from Trousseau’s “_Clinique de l’Hôtel-Dieu_” of sufficient length to reveal fairly well his manner of conducting clinical instruction at the bedside of a patient. My decision to do this was based upon the assumption that I should find among the printed accounts of these supposedly impromptu lectures one or more which would serve the required purpose. I soon discovered, however, that not a trace of the off-hand character of such instruction remained in these reports. As they appeared in print they were elaborate and quite exhaustive memoirs, suited for the edification of men who had already long since passed the undergraduate stage of medical training, and I was therefore obliged to abandon the plan which I had so much desired to carry out. If I had, from the very first, given more serious thought to the scheme which I had in mind I would have quickly realized the fact that no teacher of wide experience and universally recognized as an authority in the diagnosis and treatment of disease would be likely to commit to print lessons which were meant to be useful to medical students who had only just reached the threshold of their professional career.

Trousseau died on June 23, 1867, in his seventy-second year. The only important treatises which he published are the two which I have already mentioned.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT AUTHORITIES CONSULTED

ALIBERT, J. L.: ÉLOGES HISTORIQUES, ETC., Paris, 1806.

BAGLIVI: THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC REDUCED TO THE ANCIENT WAY OF
OBSERVATIONS, translated from the Latin, London, 1704.

BARON, JOHN: THE LIFE OF EDWARD JENNER, 2 vols., London, 1838.

BARTHEZ, P. J.: NOUVEAUX ELÉMENS DE LA SCIENCE DE L’HOMME, Montpellier,
1778; Paris, 1806.

—— CONSULTATIONS DE MÉDECINE (ouvrage posthume), Paris, 1820.

BAUDELOCQUE, JEAN-LOUIS: L’ART DES ACCOUCHEMENS, 2 vols., Paris, 1807.

BAYLE, A. L. J.: BIBLIOTHÈQUE DE THÉRAPEUTIQUE, 4 vols., Paris,
1828–1837.

BAYLE, G. L.: TRAITÉ DES MALADIES CANCÉREUSES; OUVRAGE POSTHUME, Vol.
I., Paris, 1833.

BÉCLARD, P. A.: ADDITIONS TO THE GENERAL ANATOMY OF XAVIER BICHAT,
Translated from the French by George Hayward, M.D., Boston, 1823.

BELL, SIR CHARLES: INSTITUTES OF SURGERY, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1838.

BERNARD, CLAUDE: LEÇONS SUR LES PHÉNOMÈNES DE LA VIE COMMUNS AUX ANIMAUX
ET AUX VÉGÉTAUX, Paris, 1878.

BONNET, THÉOPHILE: SEPULCHRETUM, 3 vols., Lyons, 1700.—A still earlier
edition (1675) exists.

BORDEU: (See under RICHERAND.)

BOUILLAUD, J.: CLINIQUE MÉDICALE DE L’HÔPITAL DE LA CHARITÉ, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1837.

BOUILLET, J.: PRÉCIS D’HISTOIRE DE LA MÉDECINE, Paris, 1883.

BRETONNEAU ET SES CORRESPONDANTS, 2 vols., Paris, 1891. (Review in the
_Revue Scientifique_ of July 23, 1892.)

BROUSSAIS, F. J. V.: EXAMEN DES DOCTRINES MÉDICALES, troisième edition,
4 vols., Paris, 1829–1834.

BUDD: TYPHOID FEVER, ITS NATURE, MODE OF SPREADING, AND PREVENTION,
London, 1873.

BUISSON, F. R.: PRÉCIS HISTORIQUE SUR BICHAT, in Vol. I. of this
Author’s Anatomie Générale, Paris, 1801.

CABANIS, P. J. G.: DU DEGRÉ DE CERTITUDE DE LA MÉDECINE, 3d edition,
Paris, 1819. (Also contains Richerand’s eulogy of Cabanis.)

CARTER, H. W.: A SHORT ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL HOSPITALS OF
FRANCE, ITALY, SWITZERLAND, AND THE NETHERLANDS, London, 1819.

CHEREAU, ACHILLE: NOTICE SUR LES ANCIENNES ÉCOLES DE MÉDECINE DE LA RUE
DE LA BÛCHERIE, Paris, 1866.

CHOMEL: LEÇONS SUR LA FIÈVRE TYPHOÏDE, 1834. At a still earlier date
(1821) Chomel published a general treatise on Fevers.

CORRY: LIFE OF JOSEPH PRIESTLEY, 1804.

CROSS, JOHN: SKETCHES OF THE MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF PARIS, London, 1815.

CUVIER: ÉLOGES HISTORIQUES LUS DANS LES SÉANCES PUBLIQUES DE L’INSTITUT
ROYAL DE FRANCE, 3 vols., Strassbourg, 1819.

DAREMBERG, CHARLES: HISTOIRE DES SCIENCES MÉDICALES, Vol. 2, Paris,
1870.

DEZEIMERIS, OLLIVIER ET RAIGE-DELORME: DICT. HISTORIQUE DE LA MÉD. ANC.
ET MOD., 3 vols., Paris, 1828–1837.

DUJARDIN-BEAUMETZ: “LEÇONS DE CLINIQUE THÉRAPEUTIQUE,” Paris, 1883.

DUPUYTREN, see under PAILLARD ET MARX.

EYNARD, THÉODORE: ESSAI SUR LA VIE DE TISSOT, Lausanne, 1839.

FRANK, JOHANN PETER: SYSTEM EINER VOLLSTÄNDIGEN MEDICINISCHEN POLIZEY, 6
vols., Mannheim, 1780–1788.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN: LIFE AND WRITINGS OF, Published by J. M. Dent &
Sons, London and New York, 1908.

GAZETTE MÉDICALE DE PARIS, Tome III., 1835.

GILLES DE LA TOURETTE: THÉOPHRASTE RENAUDOT, Plon et Cie., Paris, 1884.
Reviewed in _La Revue Scientifique_, April 9, 1892.

GRIBBLE, FRANCIS: LAKE GENEVA AND ITS LITERARY LANDMARKS, Westminster,
England, 1901.

GUARDIA, J. M.: LA MÉDECINE À TRAVERS LES SIÈCLES, Paris, 1865.

GUÉNEAU DE MUSSY: CLINIQUE MÉDICALE, Vol. III., Traité Théorique et
Pratique de la Fièvre Typhoïde ou Dothiénentérique, Paris, 1884.

GUEYRARD: LA DOCTRINE HOMOEOPATHIQUE EXAMINÉE SOUS LES RAPPORTS
THÉORIQUE ET PRATIQUE, Bruxelles, 1834.

HAESER, H.: LEHRBUCH DER GESCHICHTE DER MEDICIN, Zweite Ausgabe, Jena,
1868 (3d edition, 1875).

HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL: ORGANON OF THE RATIONAL ART OF HEALING, translated
from the German by C. E. Wheeler; published by C. M. Dent & Sons,
London, 1913.

VON HALLER, ALBRECHT: BIBLIOTHECA MEDICINAE, 4 vols.; PRIMAE LINEAE
PHYSIOLOGIAE, Goettingen, 1751; and a later edition of this work in
two volumes, printed at Lausanne, Switzerland.

HECKER: GESCHICHTE DER NEUEREN HEILKUNDE, Berlin, 1839.

HIRSCH, AUGUST: GESCHICHTE DER MED. WISSENSCHAFTEN IN DEUTSCHLAND,
Muenchen and Leipzig, 1893.

HOLLAENDER, EUGEN: PLASTIK UND MEDIZIN, Stuttgart, 1912.

HUFELAND, CHRISTOPH WILHELM: KUNST DAS MENSCHLICHE LEBEN ZU VERLAENGEREN
(MAKROBIOTIK), Berlin, 1823, 5th edition.

HUNTERIAN REMINISCENCES, from notes taken by James Parkinson; London,
1833. (These notes were taken from a course of lectures delivered by
the late John Hunter in 1785.)

HYRTL, JOSEPH: LEHRBUCH DER ANATOMIE DES MENSCHEN, Wien, 1873.

JACKSON, SIR GEORGE, K. C. H.: DIARIES AND LETTERS, 2 vols., London,
1872.

J. L. H. P.: SKETCHES OF THE CHARACTER AND WRITING OF EMINENT LIVING
SURGEONS AND PHYSICIANS OF PARIS, translated from the French by
Elisha Bartlett, M.D., Boston, Mass., 1831.

JAHR: MANUAL OF HOMOEOPATHIC MEDICINE, Vol. I.

KORN, GEORG: DIE HEILKUNDE IM NEUENZEHNTEN JAHRHUNDERT, Berlin, 1899.

LAËNNEC, R. T. H.: TRAITÉ DE L’AUSCULTATION MÉDIATE ET DES MALADIES DES
POUMONS ET DU COEUR, deuxième édition, 2 vols., Paris. 1826.

LARREY, BARON: MÉMOIRE SUR LES AMPUTATIONS DES MEMBRES À LA SUITE DES
COUPS DE FEU, Paris, 1797.

—— MÉMOIRES DE CHIRURGIE MILITAIRE, ET CAMPAGNES, 3 vols., Paris, 1812.

LAS CASES: MÉMOIRES D’E. A. D., COMTE DE LAS CASES, 1819.

LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT: “OEUVRES DE LAVOISIER PUBLIÉES PAR LES SOINS
DE SON EXCELLENCE LE MINISTRE DE L’INSTRUCTION PUBLIQUE ET DES
CULTES,” 6 vols., quarto, Paris, 1864.

LITTRÉ: DICTIONNAIRE DE MÉDECINE, DE CHIRURGIE, DE PHARMACIE, DE L’ART
VÉTÉRINAIRE ET DES SCIENCES QUI S’Y RAPPORTENT, Paris, 1886.

LONDON LANCET, THE, of NOV. 25, 1837; editorial comparing the management
of the large hospitals in the two countries—France and England.

LOUIS, CH. A. P.: RECHERCHES ANATOMIQUES, PATHOLOGIQUES ET
THÉRAPEUTIQUES SUR LA MALADIE CONNUE SOUS LES NOMS DE
GASTRO-ENTÉRITE, FIÈVRE PUTRIDE, ADYNAMIQUE, ATAXIQUE, TYPHOÏDE,
ETC., Paris, 1829.

MAGENDIE, M.: LEÇONS SUR LES PHÉNOMÈNES PHYSIQUES DE LA VIE, Paris,
1855.

MARSHALL HALL: LECTURES ON THE THEORY AND THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, in
the _Lancet_, London, Oct. 7, 1837.

MÉMOIRES DE L’ACADÉMIE ROYALE DE MÉDECINE, Vol. I., Paris, 1828.

MIQUEL, A.: LETTRES À UN MÉDECIN DE PROVINCE OU EXPOSITION CRITIQUE DE
LA DOCTRINE MÉDICALE DE MONSIEUR BROUSSAIS, 2me édition, Paris,
1826.

MONFALCON, I.: PRÉCIS DE BIBLIOGRAPHIE MÉDICALE, Paris, 1827.

MORGAGNI: DE SEDIBUS ET CAUSIS MORBORUM, 1767. An English version of
this work, in 3 volumes, was published at London in 1769, and a
French version was issued a few years later.

MUELLER, WILLIBALD: BIOGRAPHIE VON GERHARD VAN SWIETEN, Wien, 1883.

PAGEL, JULIUS: EINFUEHRUNG IN DIE GESCHICHTE DER MEDIZIN, Berlin, 1898.

PAILLARD ET MARX: TRAITÉ DES BLESSURES PAR ARMES DE GUERRE, D’APRÈS LES
LEÇONS CLINIQUES DE MONSIEUR LE BARON DUPUYTREN, 2 vols., Paris,
1834.

PETERSEN, JULIUS: HAUPTMOMENTE IN DER GESCHICHTLICHEN ENTWICKELUNG DER
MED. THERAPIE, Copenhagen, 1877.

PETIT, J. L.: TRAITÉ DES MALADIES CHIRURGICALES, ET DES OPÉRATIONS QUI
LEUR CONVIENNENT, Nouvelle édition, Paris, 1790.

PETTIGREW, THOMAS J.: MEDICAL PORTRAIT GALLERY. (BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS OF
THE MOST CELEBRATED PHYSICIANS, SURGEONS, ETC., WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED
TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF MEDICAL SCIENCE.) 2 vols., London, 1838.

PINEL: NOSOGRAPHIE PHILOSOPHIQUE, Paris, 1798.

POTAIN: LA MÉDECINE EN PROVINCE (containing certain data relating to
Bretonneau, of Tours); in the _Revue Scientifique_ of Nov. 10, 1894.

POTT, PERCIVAL: CHIRURGICAL WORKS, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1819.

PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH: EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON DIFFERENT KINDS OF
AIR, 2d edition, London, 1775.

PUSCHMANN, THEODOR: DIE MEDICIN IN WIEN WAEHREND DIE LETZEN 100 JAHRE,
Wien, 1884. —— GESCHICHTE DES MEDICINISCHEN UNTERRICHTS, Leipzig,
1889.

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF FOREIGN MEDICINE AND SURGERY, Vol. I., London,
1818–1819.

REVUE SCIENTIFIQUE for March 24, 1894. (Article on the proportion of
homoeopathic practitioners to those of the regular school in some of
the cities of the United States.)

RICHERAND: OEUVRES COMPLÈTES DE BORDEU, PRÉCÉDÉES D’UNE NOTICE SUR SA
VIE ET SUR SES OUVRAGES, 2 vols., Paris, 1818.

RICHET, A.: L’HISTOIRE DE LA CHIRURGIE, in the _Revue Scientifique_,
Nov. 19, 1892.

ROKITANSKY, CARL: PATHOLOGISCHE ANATOMIE, 3 vols., 1855. (Illustrations
in the edition of 1855, but not in the first edition.)

ROSENTHAL, J., article in the _Revue Scientifique_ of Jan. 10, 1801.

ROUX, P. J.: NARRATIVE OF A JOURNEY TO LONDON IN 1814; Translated from
the French, 2d edition, London, 1816.

SCHEUTHAUER, GUSTAV: article on CARL ROKITANSKY, in _Hirsch and Gurlt’s
Biographisches Lexikon_.

SCHULTZ, C. H., Article on HOMOEOPATHY in _Hufeland’s Journal der
Praktischen Medicin_, Bd. LXIX., No. 5.

VON SIEBOLD: VERSUCH EINER GESCHICHTE DER GEBURTSHUELFE, Berlin, 1845.

SIGMOND, GEORGE G.: ON THE EFFECTS OF MERCURY, in the _Lancet_, London,
Nov. 11, 1837.

SIMPSON: HOMOEOPATHY, ETC., 3d edition, 1853.

SPALLANZANI: MÉMOIRES SUR LA RESPIRATION; traduits de l’Italien par Jean
Senebier, Genève, 1803.

SPIESS, G. A.: J. B. VAN HELMONT’S SYSTEM DER MEDICIN, Frankfort am
Main, 1840.

SPRENGEL, KURT: HISTOIRE DE LA MÉDECINE, Paris, 1815. (Traduite de
l’Allemand par A. J. L. Jourdan.)

SUDHOFF, KARL: J. C. REIL VON DER LEBENSKRAFT, Leipzig, 1910.

TENON, M.: MÉMOIRES SUR LES HÔPITAUX DE PARIS, Paris, 1816.

TROUSSEAU, ARMAND: CLINIQUE MÉDICALE DE L’HÔTEL-DIEU DE PARIS, 3d
edition, 3 vols., Paris, 1868.

TROUSSEAU ET PIDOUX: TRAITÉ DE THÉRAPEUTIQUE ET DE MATIÈRE MÉDICALE, 9th
edition, 2 vols., Paris, 1875.

VELPEAU: TRAITMENT DES MAUX DE GORGE ET DE QUELQUES INFLAMMATIONS DES
AUTRES MEMBRANES MUQUEUSES PAR LE SULFATE D’ALUMINE ET DE POTASSE,
in the _Gazette Médicale de Paris_, 4 avril, 1835.

WUNDERLICH UND ROSER: ARCHIV FUER PHYSIOLOGISCHE HEILKUNDE, Bd. I.,
1841.

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GENERAL INDEX

A

ABDOMINAL TYPHUS, one of the early names given to typhoid fever, 202

ABERNETHY, JOHN, celebrated English surgeon of the 18th and early 19th
centuries, 131

ABRAHAM, long life of, 31

“ADVERSARIA ANATOMICA,” the title of Morgagni’s first published
treatise, 92

ALBERTINI, HYPPOLYTE, 92

ALBINUS, 35

ALCOHOL, how death is produced by, 148

ALLGEMEINE KRANKENHAUS, the, at Vienna, reorganized by the Emperor,
Joseph II., 74

ALLOPATHS, the, 26

ALSTON, 130

AMBULANCE, field, invented by Baron Larrey, 244

AMPUTATION OF LIMBS, circular, credited by the English to Cheselden,
151
credited by the French to J. L. Petit, 151

AMPUTATIONS, primary, highly recommended by Baron Larrey in military
surgery, 248

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, great stress laid by Sir Benjamin Brodie on the
importance, to surgeons, of an intimate knowledge of, 149

ANIMALCULES found in infusions, 93

ARCHIV FÜR PHYSIOLOGISCHE HEILKUNDE, founded in 1842, 54

ARSENIC, how death is produced by, 148

AUENBRUGGER, 189, 194
novum inventum of, 76

AURICLE, voluntary movements of, 87

AUSCULTATION, difficulties encountered by the physician in his efforts
to interpret correctly the significance of certain sounds heard
during, 198
modern method of, 195, 210

AUTENRIETH, associated with Reil in editing the Archives of Physiology,
20

AUTHORITIES quoted, list of, 271

“AVIS AU PEUPLE,” title of Tissot’s most popular medical treatise, 99

AYEN, DUKE OF, an enthusiastic botanist, 171

AZOTE, lifeless matter, 123

B

BAGLIVI, GIORGIO, celebrated Italian physician of the 17th century, 91

BALFOUR, a distinguished physician of Calcutta, attempted in 1818 to
establish the idea that gonorrhoea is a disease distinct from
syphilis, 153

BARON, DR., biographer of Sir Edward Jenner, 111

BARTHEZ, PAUL-JOSEPH, Chancellor of the University of Montpellier, 198

BARTLETT, ELISHA, of Boston, Mass., translator of J. L. H. P.’s
biography of Dupuytren, 227

BASSI LAURA, distinguished Italian scientist, 93

BAUDELOCQUE, Professor of Obstetrics at _La Maternité_ in Paris, 254,
260
chosen to take charge of the accouchement of the Empress, Marie
Louise, 256

BAYLE, A. L. J., author of a treatise entitled “_Bibliothèque de
Thérapeutique_,” 265

BAYLE, GASPARD LAURENT, distinguished French physician, 182
(Portrait 182)

BEER, GEORG JOSEF, celebrated ophthalmologist of Vienna, Austria, 77,
231

BELL, BENJAMIN, 153

BELL, SIR CHARLES, 153
becomes one of the most celebrated surgeons of London, 154
demonstrates an important law concerning the nature of the spinal
cord nerves, 154
first person to establish the law governing centrifugal and
centripetal nerve impulses, 79
(Portrait 154)

BELL, JOHN, distinguished English anatomist, 155

BENEDICT, T. W. G., 77

BERNARD, CLAUDE, on the nature of vital force, 21
(See also under Claude Bernard)

BICHAT, MARIE FRANÇOIS-XAVIER, 162, 164, 210
devotes much time to experimental physiology, 166
(Portrait, 162)

BILLROTH, 50

BLUMENBACH, 45

BOER, Professor of Obstetrics at Vienna, 75

BOERHAAVE, 18, 35, 60
“Aphorisms,” 61
“Institutions of Medicine,” 63

BONE FORMATION, as explained by Prochaska, 80

BONNET, THÉOPHILE, author of the famous treatise on pathological
anatomy, entitled “_Sepulchretum_,” 93

BORDEU, THÉOPHILE, one of the earliest French physicians to engage in
research work, 159, 160
on the position of the glands and their action, 160
suffered greatly from gout, 161

BORSIERI, Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine at Pavia,
102

BOTANY, reasons for the enthusiastic love for this branch of science
which some men appear to possess, 172

BRAIN, injuries of, Sir Benjamin Brodie’s observations on the treatment
of, 149

BRASQUET demonstrated the erroneous nature of Broussais’ statistics,
212

BRETONNEAU, proposed the name “_Dothiénentérite_” for typhoid fever,
203

BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the
Royal College of Surgeons, London, 147
one of the leading English experimental physiologists, 148
(Portrait, 148)

BROUSSAIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH VICTOR, physician connected with the
Military Hospital at Val-de-Grâce, and, later, Professor of General
and Special Pathology and Therapeutics at the University of Paris,
55, 207
misstatements made by, hastened his downfall, 211
(Portrait, 208)
profound contempt of, for the _vis medicatrix naturae_, 211
propositions belonging to the domain of physiology, 208
propositions belonging to the domain of pathology, 209

BROUSSAISM, 208
according to A. L. J. Bayle, Broussaism greatly hindered the art of
therapeutics from making a satisfactory advance, 265
important part played by, in hindering the real advance of medical
science, 208

BRUNONIANISM, 23, 47

BUREAU D’ADRESSE OU DE RENCONTRE, 5

C

CABANIS, PIERRE-JEAN-GEORGES, 175

CAMERARIUS, ELIAS, 35

CARDIAC AND PULMONARY DISEASES, pathological anatomy of, 197

CAROTID ARTERY, first ligated by Sir Astley Cooper, 137

CATARACT operations by Prof. Beer at the _Allgemeine Krankenhaus_ in
Vienna, 77

CAVENDISH, the English chemist who confirmed Priestley’s discovery that
atmospheric air is composed of water and different acids, 120

CHARITÉ, LA, one of the larger Paris hospitals, 261

CHEREAU, 258

CHESELDEN credited by the English with having been the first to perform
the circular amputation of limbs, 151

CHEST, auscultation of, 196

CHESTERFIELD, EARL OF, 44

CHOMEL, 202

CHOPART, FRANÇOIS, widely known by his advocacy of the operation called
“Chopart’s amputation” of the foot, 220, 260

CINCHONA bark, remedial effects of, suggested to Hahnemann the doctrine
of _similia similibus_, 22

CIRCULAR amputation of limbs, 151

CISALPINE REPUBLIC, formation of, 104

CLAUDE BERNARD, 125
on the nature of vital force, 21

CLAUDE CHASTILLON, architect of the _Hôpital Saint-Louis_ at Paris, 263

CLAVICLE, fracture of, Desault’s bandage in the treatment of, 164, 223

CLINICAL teaching inaugurated in the Vienna Medical School, 66

CONDILLAC favors Locke’s philosophy, 53

COOPER, SIR ASTLEY, distinguished English surgeon of the 18th and early
19th century, 135
(Portrait 136)

CORVISART, JEAN-NICOLAS, 76, 186, 188, 191, 260
appointed “First Physician” to Napoleon Bonaparte, 191
refuses to wear a wig while on duty at the Necker Hospital, 188
translator of Auenbrugger’s treatise, 186
(Portrait 188)

COW-POX VIRUS, 114

CRANTZ, HEINRICH, 65

CROSS, DR. JOHN, personal observations of the service rendered at _La
Maternité_ hospital in Paris, 253, 262
testimony of, with regard to Dupuytren, 229

CRYSTALLINE LENS, method of extracting perfected by the French surgeon,
Daviel, 151

CURE, Law of, by Hahnemann, 23

CUVIER, the naturalist, x
explains why some men become so enamored with the science of botany,
172

D

DAUBENTON, celebrated French naturalist, 177

DAVIEL, 151

DE HAEN, ANTON, 53
his treatise, “_Ratio Medendi_,” 65

DELPECH, JACQUES, 233
assassinated by a former patient, 235
became famous as an authority in orthopedic surgery, 234

DEMOSTHENES, distinguished eye surgeon of Marseilles, France, 231

DEMOURS, famous French ophthalmologist, 231

DENMAN, THOMAS, English author of a treatise on obstetrics, 255

DENTAL SURGERY, distinguished French authorities in, 236

DEPHLOGISTICATED air (oxygen) discovered by Joseph Priestley, 120

DESAULT, PIERRE-JOSEPH, distinguished French surgeon, 163, 221
established a clinical school at Hôtel-Dieu of Paris, 225
introduced the practice of ligating the exposed ends of the larger
arteries immediately after an amputation, 224
inventor of Desault’s bandage, for use in the treatment of fractures
of the clavicle, 164, 223

DESCARTES, French philosopher, advocates _à priori_ reasoning in
preference to realistic philosophy, 52

DESCEMET, distinguished French botanist and anatomist, 231, 232
also successful as a practitioner in maladies of the eye, 233

“DESCEMET’S MEMBRANE,” according to Hyrtl, should be named “Duddel’s
membrane,” 87

“DE SEDIBUS ET CAUSIS MORBORUM,” the title of Morgagni’s famous work,
92

DESGENETTES, AIMÉ-NICOLAS DU-FRICHE, a distinguished French military
surgeon, 241
in the retreat of the French Army from Russia, he was taken prisoner,
but was immediately released by order of the Emperor Alexander,
242
(Portrait 242)

DESRUELLES, one of Broussais’ pupils, did not employ mercury in his
treatment of syphilis, but applied leeches locally, 211

DEVAUX, JEAN, a learned French surgeon of the 17th century, 237

DEZEIMERIS, 37, 42, 97

DIDEROT favors Locke’s philosophy, 53

DIEFFENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, 48

DIMSDALE and TRONCHIN, the two earliest European advocates of
inoculation in small-pox, 108

“DOCEO UT DISCAM,” Seneca’s motto, 159

“DOTHIÉNENTÉRITE” the name proposed by Bretonneau for typhoid fever,
203

DOUGLASS, JAMES, distinguished Scotch anatomist and surgeon of the 18th
century, 35, 132

DOUGLASS, JOHN, younger brother of James, revived the supra-pubic
operation for stone in the bladder, 132

DROWNING, case of recovery, 29

DUBLIN LYING-IN HOSPITAL, 255

DUDDEL, E., an Englishman, was the first to describe the membrane
commonly known as “Descemet’s membrane,” 87

DUMAS, CHARLES LOUIS, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine at Montpellier,
174

DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME, one of the great surgeons at the Hôtel-Dieu of
Paris, 226
founder of the _Musée Dupuytren_, 229
(Photograph of the Museum, 260)
(Portrait 226)
very successful as a clinical teacher, 228

DUVERNEYS, father and son, 35

E

ÉCOLE DE MÉDECINE, the old, of Paris, has now been transformed into a
sort of social hall for the use of all the university students, 259
(Picture of device, 262)
(Views, 258, 260)

ÉCOLES DE SANTÉ, in France, 259

ELI, the High Priest, long life of, 31

ELISHA, long life of, 31

ENGEL, DR., of Vienna, 62

ENTERIC FEVER, one of the first names given to typhoid fever, 202

ESMARCH, 49, 50

F

FACE, articulations of the bones of the, 159

FACULTÉ DE MÉDECINE, the, of Paris, was housed in 1808 in the quarters
of the _Collège de l’Académie de Chirurgie_, 258

FAUCHARD, PIERRE, author of a treatise on the surgery of the mouth, 237

FEMUR, ununited fracture of, 149
Dr. Physick’s treatment of, 149

FERRAND, distinguished French surgeon of the 18th century, 224

FISTULA IN ANO, operation for, 151

FORLI, the Academy of, 92

FOTHERGILL, JOHN, one of the most distinguished English physicians of
the 18th century, 129
Benjamin Franklin’s estimate of the man, 130
bequeathed his entire fortune to the poor, 130

FOUR-YEAR course adopted by Vienna School of Medicine toward end of
18th century, 74

FRANCO, PIERRE, of Lausanne, Switzerland, and Orange, France, 151, 231

FRANK, JOHANN PETER, founder of the first treatise distinctly devoted
to hygiene and medico-legal science, 17, 44

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, remarks of, concerning inoculation, 109

FRENCH PHYSICIANS, types of, who flourished about the time of the
“Reign of Terror,” 171

FRENCH REVOLUTION, Medicine at the height of the, 170

FRÈRE CÔME, 151

FRÈRE JACQUES, 151

G

GALERIA COPIALA, long life of, 30

GALVANI, ALOYSIUS, lecturer on anatomy at the University of Bologna,
103

GALVANISM, 104

GANGRENE, hospital, 235

GARIOT, JEAN-BAPTISTE, dentist to the King of Spain during the 18th
century, 238
author of a treatise on diseases of the mouth, 238

GASSER, LORENZ, 65

GASSERIAN GANGLION, a term invented by A. R. B. Hirsch, 65

GASTRITIS, one of the first names given to the disease now commonly
called “typhoid fever,” 202

GASTRO-ENTERO-CEPHALITIS, one of the first names given to typhoid
fever, 202

GAZETTE DE FRANCE, founding of the, 6

GERMANS, cultured, obliged to think, speak and write in French at the
end of the 18th century, 53

GERMANY, low state of medical affairs in, at the beginning of the 18th
century, 15, 52

GIANT, the famous Irish, whose skeleton was secured by John Hunter for
his museum in London, 145

GILLES DE LA TOURETTE, 10

GIMBERNAT, a distinguished Spanish surgeon, 137

GLANDS, position of, and their action, 160

GOETTINGEN, University of, 37

GONORRHOEA, during the 18th century, commonly believed to be one of the
manifestations of syphilis, 153

GOUDAREAU, author of a French translation of J. P. Frank’s treatise, 45

GRAECO-LATIN terminology adopted by physicians in conversation with
their patients not approved by Kant, the metaphysician, 74

GRIESINGER, WILHELM, 55

GURLT, VON, 50

GUY PATIN, 9

H

HAEN, ANTON DE, 53, 64

HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL, 22

HALL, MARSHALL, 204

HALLÉ, JEAN-NOËL, distinguished French Physician, 178
very successful in overcoming the opposition in France and Italy to
vaccination, 180

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON, 19, 34
(Portrait 34)
treatises published by, 38

HEART AND LUNGS, diseases of, full discussion of, by Laënnec, 197

HEAT-PRODUCTION in living animals, Lavoisier’s theory of, 124

HERNIA, different kinds of, 137

HIRSCH, AUGUST, 15, 52, 74
exposed the perniciousness of Broussais’ treatment, 212

HIRSCH, A. R. B., invented the term “Gasserian ganglion,” 65

HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH, of Halle, Prussia, 19, 53

HOFRATH, Aulic Councillor, 46

HOLY LAND, Prince Louis’ crusade to, in 1147, 98

HOMOEOPATHY, 22
in the city of New York in the years 1850–1870, 26

HÔPITAL SAINT-LOUIS, at Paris, 262
(Illustration, 264)

HOSPITAL work in Vienna reorganized toward end of 18th century, 74

HOSPITALS, Parisian, 261

HOSTEL DES CONSULTATIONS CHARITABLES, 8

HÔTEL-DIEU, the great hospital of Paris, 4, 261
(Illustration, 258)

HUETER, 50

HUFELAND, CHRISTOPH WILHELM, 16, 28
author of “The Art of Prolonging Life,” 16
(Portrait 28)

HUNTER, JOHN, the English anatomist and biologist, 40, 95
(Portrait 144)
younger brother of William, and a great anatomist, physiologist and
operating surgeon; also the founder of Hunter’s Museum in London,
141

HUNTER, WILLIAM, distinguished English surgeon and anatomist, 139
founder of the anatomical schools of Great Britain, 141
(Portrait 140)

HYGIENE, first journal devoted to, 17

HYPOTHESES, rather than facts, should not serve as the basis of
doctrines in either pathology or therapeutics, 33

HYRTL, JOSEPH, distinguished Professor of Anatomy at the Vienna Medical
School, 85
on the changes which take place in an artery after it has been
ligated or divided with the knife, 86
on voluntary movements of the auricle, 87

I

INFLAMMATION believed by Broussais to be at the bottom of most of the
pathological phenomena encountered in the practice of medicine, 210

INOCULATING for the small-pox, 108

INSOMNIA defined by A. von Haller, 39

IRRITABILITY AND SENSIBILITY, distinction between these terms, 38

ISAAC, long life of, 31

ISHMAEL, long life of, 31

ITALY, Medicine in, 89

J

JACQUIN, NICOLAUS JOSEPH, 65

JAEGER, F., one of the distinguished Vienna ophthalmologists, 77

JAHR’S Manual of Homoeopathic Medicine, 26

JENNER, SIR EDWARD, discoverer of vaccination as a means of protection
against small-pox, 110
(Portrait 110)
receives a grant of £10,000 from the English Parliament, 115

JESUIT ORDER gradually excluded from the control of affairs in the
Vienna University, 66

J. L. H. P., sketches of French medical men by, 207

JOINTS, diseases of, researches of Sir Benjamin Brodie respecting, 148,
149

JONET, MARIE, _Sage-Femme Jurée_ at the Chatelet Hospital in Paris, 256

JOSEPH, FATHER—Leclerc du Tremblay, 8

JOSEPH, son of Jacob, long life of, 31

JOSEPH II., EMPEROR, successor of his mother, Maria Theresa, 71

JOSHUA, long life of, 31

JOURDAIN, ANSELME-LOUIS-BERNARD-BRECHILLET, distinguished French dental
surgeon of the 18th century, 238

K

KANT, IMMANUEL, the famous Prussian metaphysician, 74

KATZENJAMMER, 35

KAUNITZ, PRINCE, Imperial Austrian Chancellor, 62

KORN, GEORG, 48, 52

L

LACHAPELLE, VEUVE, Associate Midwife-in-Chief of Hôtel-Dieu, 256

LAËNNEC, RENÉ THÉOPHILE HYACINTHE, inventor of the modern method of
auscultation, 195
on the pathological anatomy of diseases of the chest, 83
treatise of, on auscultation, 197
(Portrait 196)

LANGENBECK, VON, 48, 49

LARREY, BARON JEAN-DOMINIQUE, distinguished French military surgeon,
and inventor of an improved type of field ambulance, 243, 244
advocated strongly primary amputations in military surgery, 248
great resourcefulness of, under difficulties, 247
highly commended by the Emperor Napoleon, 247
(Portrait 244)
showed his high character when the French troops retreated during the
Russian campaign, 245

LASSUS, 260

LATIN, barbaric, employed by the Germans in their university lectures
at the end of the 18th century, 53

LAUGIER, ROBERT, 65

LAUSANNE, in 1765, still recognized the Bernese Government as its
overlord, 100

LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT, invented the term “oxygen” and described
its full significance, 120, 122.
(For portrait see Frontispiece.)
discovered the important fact that all organic bodies are composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, 123
credited with having formulated the chemical theory of respiration,
125
discovered also that all the acids contain oxygen, 120
formulates the theory of heat-production in living animals, 124
Government collector of taxes in the early part of his career, 122
guillotined on May 8, 1794, 124
maintains that combustion represents simply the combination of the
two elements, carbon and oxygen, 123
one of the first to cultivate experimental physiology, 168
proves that the act of respiration in animals is a species of
combustion, in the course of which oxygen combines with certain
elements of the body to form water and carbonic acid, 123
proves also that Stahl’s doctrine of animism, as well as the
phlogiston theory, is untenable, 123

LE CLERC, biographer of Dupuytren, 226

LECLERC DU TREMBLAY, Capucin monk, known as “His Gray Eminence,” 4

LE DRAN, distinguished French surgeon, 36

LEIPZIG, battle of, 21

LEMONNIER, LOUIS GUILLAUME, a French physician who ardently cultivated
the science of botany, 171
life saved from the violence of the mob in 1782, 173

LIARD, value of the, 6

“LIFE, THE ART OF PROLONGING,” title of famous treatise written by
Hufeland, 28

LITHOTOMIA DOUGLASSIANA, 133

LIVIA, long life of, 30

LIVRE, value of the, 8

LOANING money to the poor at a low rate of interest (Renaudot’s
saggestion), 5

LOCHER, MAXIMILIAN, 68

LOCKE, JOHN, the English philosopher, 52

LONGEVITY, instances of exceptional, 30

LOUDON, Western France, birthplace of Renaudot, 3
(Views of city and vicinity, 4)

LOUIS, ANTOINE, celebrated Parisian surgeon, 203

LOUIS, CHARLES A. P., Chief of Clinic at the Paris _École de Médecine_,
187, 203, 210
(Portrait 204)

LOUIS PHILIPPE, Duke of Orleans, 109

LOUIS XIII, 4, 6

LOUVAIN, High School of, 59

LUCEIA, long life of, 30

LUECKE, 50

M

MACKENZIE, the distinguished ophthalmologist, 77

MAGENDIE, one of the first French scientists to cultivate experimental
physiology, 168
on the difficulties of interpreting correctly the significance of
certain sounds heard during auscultation, 198

MAHON, P. A. O., 260

MAKROBIOTIK, the Art of Prolonging Life, Hufeland’s famous treatise,
16, 28

MARIA THERESA, Empress of Germany, 61
beneficent interference on the part of, in behalf of a higher
standard of medical education, 66, 68, 94

MARIANNE, ARCHDUCHESS, 61

MARSHALL, HALL], 204

MATERNITÉ, LA, the great French midwifery school at Paris, 253

MEDICAL literature, German, low state of, at the beginning of the 18th
century, 15

MEDICAL periodical, the first French, 7

MEDICI, MARIE DE’, 4

MEMBRANA DESCEMETII erroneously so named, 87

MERCURIAL SALIVATION, frequency of, before Van Swieten’s time, 68

MERCURY, red oxide of, when heated, produces oxygen (Priestley), 120

MIDWIFERY as taught at _La Maternité_, the great French midwifery
school, 253

MILITARY SURGERY, 241

MONRO, 130

MONTPELLIER, views of, 198, 200, 202

MONTS-DE-PIÉTÉ, when first established at Paris, 5

MONUMENT erected in Hôtel-Dieu in honor of Desault and Bichat, 167, 192

MORGAGNI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, one of the greatest anatomists of the 18th
century, 91
teachings of, 210

MOSES, long life of, 31

MOUSE, alive, case of swallowing of, 32

MOUTH, surgery of the, 237

MUELLER, JOHANNES, 154

MUELLER, WILLIBALD, author of Van Swieten’s biography, 63

N

NAPOLEON at the University of Pavia in 1805, 96

“NATURE cures disease” (Hufeland), 33

NECKER, MADAME, founder of a hospital in Paris, 188

NEWSPAPER, the, first founded in Paris, France, 5

NORTON, MRS. CHARLES F., Librarian, Transylvania College, Lexington,
Kentucky, ix

“NOSOGRAPHIE PHILOSOPHIQUE,” Pinel’s celebrated treatise, 202

“NOVUM INVENTUM,” the, of Auenbrugger, 76

O

O’BRIEN, the celebrated Irish giant, 145

OFFICIERS DE SANTÉ, 259

OPHTHALMOLOGY, one of the first specialties to take root in Vienna, 77

“ORGANON of the Rational Art of Healing,” Hahnemann’s great work, 22,
23, 25

ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY, 234

OS UNGUIS, perforation of, by Woolhouse, 151

OXYGEN, the full significance of which term was made known to the world
by Lavoisier some time after Priestley’s discovery, 120

P

PAGEL, statement of, with regard to Broussais, 207

PALATE, the art of remedying defects of the, 237

PANNUS, first correct description of, by Beer, of Vienna, 78

PARÉ, AMBROISE, 224

PATHOGENIC fever, one of the early names given to typhoid fever, 202

PATHOLOGICAL propositions advanced by Broussais, 209

PAVIA, University of, 45
Maria Theresa, Empress of Germany, takes a strong interest in its
prosperity, 94

PERCUSSION method of Auenbrugger, 193

PÈRE POTENTINE, 188

PETERSEN, 55

PETIT, J. L., famous surgeon of Paris, 162, 215
credited by the French with having been the first to perform the
circular amputation of limbs, 151
(Portrait 216)
successful treatment of a case of hemicrania, 217
trephining of skull for subdural abscess resulting from middle-ear
inflammation, 217

PETIT, MARC-ANTOINE, celebrated French surgeon, 162

PETIT-RADEL, 183

PHLOGISTON theory of Stahl, 120

PHYSICK, DR., of Philadelphia, treatment of ununited fracture of the
femur by, 149

PHYSIOLOGICAL propositions advanced by Broussais, 208

PHYSIOLOGY, animal and vegetable, 95
experimental, cultivated largely by Bichat, 166
experimental, first cultivated by Albrecht von Haller, 168

PIARROU DE CHAMOUSSET, who built a hospital in which every patient had
a bed to himself or herself, 263

PINEL, PHILIPPE, author of the work entitled “_Nosogrophie
Philosophique_,” 202, 260

POLICE, Medical, 44

POPE’S description of travelling among the Alps, 121

POTT, PERCIVAL, famous English surgeon, the first to publish a complete
memoir of the disease now commonly known as “Pott’s disease of the
spine,” 133

PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH, discoverer of “dephlogisticated air” (oxygen), 120
also discovered that respiration takes place more easily, and that
combustion progresses more actively, in the presence of this gas,
120
house at Birmingham, England, burned by rioters, 122
in 1794 emigrates to Pennsylvania, 122

PRIMAE LINEAE PHYSIOLOGIAE, the title of the first systematic treatise
on physiology, 38

PROCHASKA, GEORG, 79
his explanation of bone formation, 80
ideas of, with regard to the nature of vital force, 79

PULMONARY and cardiac diseases, pathological anatomy of, 177

PUSCHMANN, 3, 45, 75, 85

PUTRIDITY alone, according to Peter Frank, not the cause of typhoid
fever, but rather the vehicle of a special _contagium vivum_, 203

PYTHAGORAS, views of, with regard to eating, physical exercise, etc.,
31

R

RASORI’S THERAPEUTIC METHOD resembles that of Broussais, 212

“RECHERCHES PHYSIOLOGIQUES SUR LA VIE ET LA MORT” (Bichat), 167

REIL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, 17, 19
on the diagnosis and treatment of fevers, 20
on “vital force,” 20

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS, tolerance of, increased by the French Revolution, 53

RENAUDOT, THÉOPHRASTE, founder of the first French newspaper, 3
his sons, Isaac and Eusebius, 8, 10
(Statue, 8)

RESPIRATION, Lavoisier’s chemical theory of, 125

RICHELIEU, CARDINAL, 4
(Portrait, 6)

RICHET, A., opinion of, with regard to J. L. Petit’s qualifications as
a surgeon, 215

ROKITANSKY, CARL, Professor of Pathological Anatomy in the Vienna
Medical School, 81, 92, 93
called by Rudolf Virchow “the Linnaeus of pathological anatomy,” 84
contributions of, to medical literature, 82

ROSAS, ANTON, the distinguished Vienna ophthalmologist, 77, 231

ROUX, well-known French surgeon, report of, regarding the condition of
English surgery in the early part of the 19th century, 151

ROUX, PROFESSOR, member of the Paris _Faculté de Médecine_, visits
London in 1814 for the purpose of ascertaining by personal
observation how the English surgeons are dealing with the more
important problems in surgery, 150

S

SABATIER, RAPHAËL-BIENVENU, distinguished French surgeon of the 18th
century, 218, 260

SACOMBE, DR., charges Baudelocque with criminal practice in performing
the operation of Caesarian section, 255
both the courts and public opinion promptly judged this charge to be
an infamous calumny, 255

SAINT-LOUIS, HÔPITAL, at Paris, 262

SALIVATION, mercurial, frequency of, before van Swieten’s time, 68

SALPÉTRIÈRE, LA, one of the larger hospitals at Paris, 261

SANITATION, house and municipal, first treatise upon, published in
Germany toward the end of the 18th century, 44

SANTÉ, ÉCOLES DE, 259

SANTÉ, OFFICIERS DE, 259

SARAH, Abraham’s wife, long life of, 31

SCARPA, ANTONIO, the Italian anatomist, 46, 96
refusal of, to take the oath of allegiance to the newly established
Cisalpine Republic, 96

SCHEELE, WILLIAM, also mentioned as a discoverer of oxygen, 120

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN CAMPAIGN, 48

SCOPOLI, 46

SENEBIER, JEAN, of Geneva, Switzerland, 95

SENECA’S MOTTO, “_Doceo ut discam_,” 159

SENSIBILITY AND IRRITABILITY, the distinction between these terms, 38

“SEPULCHRETUM,” title of Bonnet’s famous treatise, 93

SIMILIA SIMILIBUS, believed by Hahnemann to be a general law of
healing, 22

SIMPSON, JAMES J., Professor of Midwifery in the University of
Edinburgh, 25

SINGLE BEDS, the establishment of, as the only desirable ones in
hospitals, 263

SLEEP, von Haller’s definition of the term, 39

SLOW NERVOUS FEVER, one of the first names given to typhoid fever, 202

SMALL-POX, earliest mention of, by Rhazes, in A. D. 922, 107
measures adopted for the control of, 107

SOMNAMBULISM DEFINED by von Haller, 40

“SORE-THROAT, PUTRID,” epidemic of, in 1746, 130

SPALLANZANI, LAZARUS, distinguished Italian biologist, 93
letter of, concerning Dr. Tissot, 102

SPINA BIFIDA first successfully treated by Sir Astley Cooper, 138

SPRENGEL, 42, 155, 255

STAGNANT WATER, minute organisms found in, 95

STAHL, GEORG ERNST, 53
phlogiston theory of, 120

STAHLISM, 23

STANISLAS AUGUSTUS, King of Poland, a great admirer of Dr. Tissot, 99

STENO, DUCT OF, operation for perforating, 151

STETHOSCOPE, as perfected by Laënnec, 196

STOERCK, ANTON, 65, 71

STOLL’S “APHORISMS,” 190

STONES, shape of, affected by running water, 94

STROMEYER, 48

SUDHOFF, on character of Johann Christian Reil, 21

SUPERSTITION diminished by the French Revolution, 53

SUPRAPUBIC OPERATION for stone in the bladder revived by John Douglass,
132

SURGEONS, ENGLISH, pleasant relations among, 152

SURGERY, the golden age of, in France, 213

SURGICAL ANATOMY taught with great success by Desault, 223

SWISS PHYSICIANS of prominence during the 18th century, 34

SYLVIUS, attempt of, to inaugurate clinical teaching at the University
of Leyden, 67

SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES, 166

SYPHILIS affecting an entire family, 200

T

TENON’S CRITICISMS on _Hôtel-Dieu_ and _Hôpital Saint-Louis_ at Paris,
263

TERENTIA, long life of, 30

THÉOPHRASTE RENAUDOT, founder of the first French newspaper, 3

THORACENTESIS very frequently performed by Auenbrugger of Vienna, 76

TISSONI, original name of Tissot, 97

TISSOT, SAMUEL-AUGUSTE-ANDRÉ-DAVID, Swiss physician of Italian origin,
41, 97, 135
amusing incident at Lausanne relating to, 101
visit to Paris, 101

TRANSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY at Lexington, Kentucky, IX

TRAUBE, LUDWIG, 54

TRAUTSON, ARCHBISHOP, 66

TRENDELENBURG, 50

TRONCHIN, THÉODORE, of Geneva, Switzerland, 98, 108

TROUSSEAU, ARMAND, author of the treatise entitled “Clinique de
l’Hôtel-Dieu,” 269;
and also (in association with Hermann Pidoux) of a treatise on
materia medica and therapeutics, 266
(Portrait 266)

TUBERCULOUS DEPOSITS in the lungs, diagnosed by auscultation, 210

TYPHOID FEVER, the term finally decided upon for this disease, 203
contagiousness of, 204
early studies of, 202
first names given to the disease, 202

V

VACCINATION, for the prevention of small-pox, introduced by Jenner in
1796, 110
picture of a medal commemorating the discovery of, 108

VALLISNIERI, ANTONIO, distinguished Italian naturalist, 93

VALSALVA, ANTONIUS, 92

VAN SWIETEN, GERHARD, 19, 59
as a medical reformer, 63
commentaries of, on Boerhaave’s teachings, 61
composition of, 69
contributions of, to medical literature, 68, 69
liquor, use of, in the treatment of syphilis, 68
(Portrait 60)

VARICOSE VEINS of the leg, Sir Benjamin Brodie’s treatment of, 149

VARIOLAE VACCINAE, an inquiry into the causes and effects of the, 114

VEGETABLE POISONS, experiments made by Sir Benjamin Brodie on the
different modes in which death is produced by, 148

VELPEAU (Portrait 268)

VENTES _à grâce troque ou rachapt_, 5

VESALIUS, 83

VICQ-D’AZYR, FELIX, distinguished French anatomist and physiologist,
130, 177

VIENNA, revival of medical science at, in early part of the 18th
century, 16

VIENNA SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, 57 reorganization of, 64 scheme of teaching adopted by, in 1780, 73

VITAL FORCE, memoir on, by Reil, 20
explained by Prochaska, 79
nature of, 21

VOLTA, 46

VOLTAIRE, 263
advocates the teachings of John Locke, 52

VON GRAEFE, C. F., the distinguished ophthalmologist, 77

VON GRAEFE, KARL, director of the Surgical Clinic of Berlin, 48

VON HALLER, ALBRECHT, 19, 34, 38, 95, 101
the first to cultivate experimental physiology, 168

VON LANGENBECK, 48, 49

VON WALTHER, PHILIP, 77

W

WAKEFULNESS DEFINED by von Haller, 39

WATER, INFECTED, drinking of, mentioned by Galen as the cause of
various epidemic fevers, 202

WHEELER, translator of Hahnemann’s “Organon,” 22

“WHITE INFLAMMATION,” Boerhaave’s, 183

WILLIAMS MEMORIAL PUBLICATION FUND, VII

WINSLOW, distinguished anatomist, 36

WOOLHOUSE, the first surgeon to perform the operation of perforating
the _os unguis_, 151

WUNDERLICH, KARL AUGUST, 54

Z

ZIMMERMANN, JOHANN GEORG, 41

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Footnotes

-----

Footnote 1:

The _liard_ was a small copper coin worth at that time one-quarter of
a _sou_. The latter coin was about as large as a silver quarter of a
dollar or a one-shilling piece (English money).

Footnote 2:

The view of the small town of Loudun (see opposite page 4), which has
been copied from a photograph of quite recent date, shows that Gilles
de la Tourette’s hope has already been realized.

Footnote 3:

See Haller’s comments on Boerhaave’s personality, at bottom of page
445 of “The Growth of Medicine.”

Footnote 4:

In the city of Leipzig alone there were no fewer than 30,000 wounded
and sick soldiers belonging to all the different nations engaged in
the war.

Footnote 5:

The following quotations are from Wheeler’s English Translation of the
Organon.

Footnote 6:

Several weeks after I had sent my completed manuscript to New Haven I
received, from a London dealer in second-hand books, a catalogue in
which the following item appears:—

Haller (Albrecht von) First Lines of Physiology. Translated
from the Third Latin Edition. To which is added a Translation
of the Index composed for the Edinburgh Edition printed under
the Inspection of Dr. William Cullen. Edinburgh, 1801.

It is evident, therefore, that I was in error when, after a very
limited search, I was led to believe that no English version of the
“_Primae Lineae_” exists, and accordingly I ventured to translate a
few brief selections of the text.—A. H. B.

Footnote 7:

To make sure that any errors rightly chargeable to me as translator
shall not be imputed to von Haller I will add here the original Latin
text.—A. H. B.