Chapter XXXII: Conclusion (2)

Even their contents bear witness to the same fact. In fact, there are scarcely any words among those which we usually employ whose meaning does not pass, to a greater or less extent, the limits of our personal experience. Very frequently a term expresses things which we have never perceived or experiences which we have never had or of which we have never been the witnesses. Even when we know some of the objects which it concerns, it is only as particular examples that they serve to illustrate the idea which they would never have been able to form by themselves. Thus there is a great deal of knowledge condensed in the word which I never collected, and which is not individual; it even surpasses me to such an extent that I cannot even completely appropriate all its results. Which of us knows all the words of the language he speaks and the entire signification of each?

This remark enables us to determine the sense in which we mean to say that concepts are collective representations. If they belong to a whole social group, it is not because they represent the average of the corresponding individual representations; for in that case they would be poorer than the latter in intellectual content, while, as a matter of fact, they contain much that surpasses the knowledge of the average individual. They are not abstractions which have a reality only in particular consciousnesses, but they are as concrete representations as an individual could form of his own personal environment: they correspond to the way in which this very special being, society, considers the things of its own proper experience. If, as a matter of fact, the concepts are nearly always general ideas, and if they express categories and classes rather than particular objects, it is because the unique and variable characteristics of things interest society but rarely; because of its very extent, it can scarcely be affected by more than their general and permanent qualities. Therefore it is to this aspect of affairs that it gives its attention: it is a part of its nature to see things in large and under the aspect which they ordinarily have. But this generality is not necessary for them, and, in any case, even when these representations have the generic character which they ordinarily have, they are the work of society and are enriched by its experience.

That is what makes conceptual thought so valuable for us. If concepts were only general ideas, they would not enrich knowledge a great deal, for, as we have already pointed out, the general contains nothing more than the particular. But if before all else they are collective representations, they add to that which we can learn by our own personal experience all that wisdom and science which the group has accumulated in the course of centuries. Thinking by concepts, is not merely seeing reality on its most general side, but it is projecting a light upon the sensation which illuminates it, penetrates it and transforms it. Conceiving something is both learning its essential elements better and also locating it in its place; for each civilization has its organized system of concepts which characterizes it. Before this scheme of ideas, the individual is in the same situation as the [Greek: noûs] of Plato before the world of Ideas. He must assimilate them to himself, for he must have them to hold intercourse with others; but the assimilation is always imperfect. Each of us sees them after his own fashion. There are some which escape us completely and remain outside of our circle of vision; there are others of which we perceive certain aspects only. There are even a great many which we pervert in holding, for as they are collective by nature, they cannot become individualized without being retouched, modified, and consequently falsified. Hence comes the great trouble we have in understanding each other, and the fact that we even lie to each other without wishing to: it is because we all use the same words without giving them the same meaning.

We are now able to see what the part of society in the genesis of logical thought is. This is possible only from the moment when, above the fugitive conceptions which they owe to sensuous experience, men have succeeded in conceiving a whole world of stable ideas, the common ground of all intelligences. In fact, logical thinking is always impersonal thinking, and is also thought _sub species ætrnitatis_--as though for all time. Impersonality and stability are the two characteristics of truth. Now logical life evidently presupposes that men know, at least confusedly, that there is such a thing as truth, distinct from sensuous appearances. But how have they been able to arrive at this conception? We generally talk as though it should have spontaneously presented itself to them from the moment they opened their eyes upon the world. However, there is nothing in immediate experience which could suggest it; everything even contradicts it. Thus the child and the animal have no suspicion of it. History shows that it has taken centuries for it to disengage and establish itself. In our Western world, it was with the great thinkers of Greece that it first became clearly conscious of itself and of the consequences which it implies; when the discovery was made, it caused an amazement which Plato has translated into magnificent language. But if it is only at this epoch that the idea is expressed in philosophic formulæ, it was necessarily pre-existent in the stage of an obscure sentiment. Philosophers have sought to elucidate this sentiment, but they have not succeeded. In order that they might reflect upon it and analyse it, it was necessary that it be given them, and that they seek to know whence it came, that is to say, in what experience it was founded. This is in collective experience. It is under the form of collective thought that impersonal thought is for the first time revealed to humanity; we cannot see by what other way this revelation could have been made. From the mere fact that society exists, there is also, outside of the individual sensations and images, a whole system of representations which enjoy marvellous properties. By means of them, men understand each other and intelligences grasp each other. They have within them a sort of force or moral ascendancy, in virtue of which they impose themselves upon individual minds. Hence the individual at least obscurely takes account of the fact that above his private ideas, there is a world of absolute ideas according to which he must shape his own; he catches a glimpse of a whole intellectual kingdom in which he participates, but which is greater than he. This is the first intuition of the realm of truth. From the moment when he first becomes conscious of these higher ideas, he sets himself to scrutinizing their nature; he asks whence these pre-eminent representations hold their prerogatives and, in so far as he believes that he has discovered their causes, he undertakes to put these causes into action for himself, in order that he may draw from them by his own force the effects which they produce; that is to say, he attributes to himself the right of making concepts. Thus the faculty of conception has individualized itself. But to understand its origins and function, it must be attached to the social conditions upon which it depends.

It may be objected that we show the concept in one of its aspects only, and that its unique rôle is not the assuring of a harmony among minds, but also, and to a greater extent, their harmony with the nature of things. It seems as though it had a reason for existence only on condition of being true, that is to say, objective, and as though its impersonality were only a consequence of its objectivity. It is in regard to things, thought of as adequately as possible, that minds ought to communicate. Nor do we deny that the evolution of concepts has been partially in this direction. The concept which was first held as true because it was collective tends to be no longer collective except on condition of being held as true: we demand its credentials of it before according it our confidence. But we must not lose sight of the fact that even to-day the great majority of the concepts which we use are not methodically constituted; we get them from language, that is to say, from common experience, without submitting them to any criticism. The scientifically elaborated and criticized concepts are always in the very slight minority. Also, between them and those which draw all their authority from the fact that they are collective, there are only differences of degree. A collective representation presents guarantees of objectivity by the fact that it is collective: for it is not without sufficient reason that it has been able to generalize and maintain itself with persistence. If it were out of accord with the nature of things, it would never have been able to acquire an extended and prolonged empire over intellects. At bottom, the confidence inspired by scientific concepts is due to the fact that they can be methodically controlled. But a collective representation is necessarily submitted to a control that is repeated indefinitely; the men who accept it verify it by their own experience. Therefore, it could not be wholly inadequate for its subject. It is true that it may express this by means of imperfect symbols; but scientific symbols themselves are never more than approximative. It is precisely this principle which is at the basis of the method which we follow in the study of religious phenomena: we take it as an axiom that religious beliefs, howsoever strange their appearance may be at times, contain a truth which must be discovered.[1311]

On the other hand, it is not at all true that concepts, even when constructed according to the rules of science, get their authority uniquely from their objective value. It is not enough that they be true to be believed. If they are not in harmony with the other beliefs and opinions, or, in a word, with the mass of the other collective representations, they will be denied; minds will be closed to them; consequently it will be as though they did not exist. To-day it is generally sufficient that they bear the stamp of science to receive a sort of privileged credit, because we have faith in science. But this faith does not differ essentially from religious faith. In the last resort, the value which we attribute to science depends upon the idea which we collectively form of its nature and rôle in life; that is as much as to say that it expresses a state of public opinion. In all social life, in fact, science rests upon opinion. It is undoubtedly true that this opinion can be taken as the object of a study and a science made of it; this is what sociology principally consists in. But the science of opinion does not make opinions; it can only observe them and make them more conscious of themselves. It is true that by this means it can lead them to change, but science continues to be dependent upon opinion at the very moment when it seems to be making its laws; for, as we have already shown, it is from opinion that it holds the force necessary to act upon opinion.[1312]

Saying that concepts express the manner in which society represents things is also saying that conceptual thought is coeval with humanity itself. We refuse to see in it the product of a more or less retarded culture. A man who did not think with concepts would not be a man, for he would not be a social being. If reduced to having only individual perceptions, he would be indistinguishable from the beasts. If it has been possible to sustain the contrary thesis, it is because concepts have been defined by characteristics which are not essential to them. They have been identified with general ideas[1313] and with clearly limited and circumscribed general ideas.[1314] In these conditions it has possibly seemed as though the inferior societies had no concepts properly so called; for they have only rudimentary processes of generalization and the ideas which they use are not generally very well defined. But the greater part of our concepts are equally indetermined; we force ourselves to define them only in discussions or when doing careful work. We have also seen that conceiving is not generalizing. Thinking conceptually is not simply isolating and grouping together the common characteristics of a certain number of objects; it is relating the variable to the permanent, the individual to the social. And since logical thought commences with the concept, it follows that it has always existed; there is no period in history when men have lived in a chronic confusion and contradiction. To be sure, we cannot insist too much upon the different characteristics which logic presents at different periods in history; it develops like the societies themselves. But howsoever real these differences may be, they should not cause us to neglect the similarities, which are no less essential.

IV

We are now in a position to take up a final question which has already been raised in our introduction[1315] and which has been taken as understood in the remainder of this work. We have seen that at least some of the categories are social things. The question is where they got this character.

Undoubtedly it will be easily understood that since they are themselves concepts, they are the work of the group. It can even be said that there are no other concepts which present to an equal degree the signs by which a collective representation is recognized. In fact, their stability and impersonality are such that they have often passed as being absolutely universal and immutable. Also, as they express the fundamental conditions for an agreement between minds, it seems evident that they have been elaborated by society.

But the problem concerning them is more complex, for they are social in another sense and, as it were in the second degree. They not only come from society, but the things which they express are of a social nature. Not only is it society which has founded them, but their contents are the different aspects of the social being: the category of class was at first indistinct from the concept of the human group; it is the rhythm of social life which is at the basis of the category of time; the territory occupied by the society furnished the material for the category of space; it is the collective force which was the prototype of the concept of efficient force, an essential element in the category of causality. However, the categories are not made to be applied only to the social realm; they reach out to all reality. Then how is it that they have taken from society the models upon which they have been constructed?

It is because they are the pre-eminent concepts, which have a preponderating part in our knowledge. In fact, the function of the categories is to dominate and envelop all the other concepts: they are permanent moulds for the mental life. Now for them to embrace such an object, they must be founded upon a reality of equal amplitude.

Undoubtedly the relations which they express exist in an implicit way in individual consciousnesses. The individual lives in time, and, as we have said, he has a certain sense of temporal orientation. He is situated at a determined point in space, and it has even been held, and sustained with good reasons, that all sensations have something special about them.[1316] He has a feeling of resemblances; similar representations are brought together and the new representation formed by their union has a sort of generic character. We also have the sensation of a certain regularity in the order of the succession of phenomena; even an animal is not incapable of this. However, all these relations are strictly personal for the individual who recognizes them, and consequently the notion of them which he may have can in no case go beyond his own narrow horizon. The generic images which are formed in my consciousness by the fusion of similar images represent only the objects which I have perceived directly; there is nothing there which could give me the idea of a class, that is to say, of a mould including the _whole_ group of all possible objects which satisfy the same condition. Also, it would be necessary to have the idea of group in the first place, and the mere observations of our interior life could never awaken that in us. But, above all, there is no individual experience, howsoever extended and prolonged it may be, which could give a suspicion of the existence of a whole class which would embrace every single being, and to which other classes are only co-ordinated or subordinated species. This idea of _all_, which is at the basis of the classifications which we have just cited, could not have come from the individual himself, who is only a part in relation to the whole and who never attains more than an infinitesimal fraction of reality. And yet there is perhaps no other category of greater importance; for as the rôle of the categories is to envelop all the other concepts, the category _par excellence_ would seem to be this very concept of _totality_. The theorists of knowledge ordinarily postulate it as if it came of itself, while it really surpasses the contents of each individual consciousness taken alone to an infinite degree.

For the same reasons, the space which I know by my senses, of which I am the centre and where everything is disposed in relation to me, could not be space in general, which contains all extensions and where these are co-ordinated by personal guide-lines which are common to everybody. In the same way, the concrete duration which I feel passing within me and with me could not give me the idea of time in general: the first expresses only the rhythm of my individual life; the second should correspond to the rhythm of a life which is not that of any individual in particular, but in which all participate.[1317] In the same way, finally, the regularities which I am able to conceive in the manner in which my sensations succeed one another may well have a value for me; they explain how it comes about that when I am given the first of two phenomena whose concurrence I have observed, I tend to expect the other. But this personal state of expectation could not be confounded with the conception of a universal order of succession which imposes itself upon all minds and all events.

Since the world expressed by the entire system of concepts is the one that society regards, society alone can furnish the most general notions with which it should be represented. Such an object can be embraced only by a subject which contains all the individual subjects within it. Since the universe does not exist except in so far as it is thought of, and since it is not completely thought of except by society, it takes a place in this latter; it becomes a part of society's interior life, while this is the totality, outside of which nothing exists. The concept of totality is only the abstract form of the concept of society: it is the whole which includes all things, the supreme class which embraces all other classes. Such is the final principle upon which repose all these primitive classifications where beings from every realm are placed and classified in social forms, exactly like men.[1318] But if the world is inside of society, the space which this latter occupies becomes confounded with space in general. In fact, we have seen how each thing has its assigned place in social space, and the degree to which this space in general differs from the concrete expanses which we perceive is well shown by the fact that this localization is wholly ideal and in no way resembles what it would have been if it had been dictated to us by sensuous experience alone.[1319] For the same reason, the rhythm of collective life dominates and embraces the varied rhythms of all the elementary lives from which it results; consequently the time which it expresses dominates and embraces all particular durations. It is time in general. For a long time the history of the world has been only another aspect of the history of society. The one commences with the other; the periods of the first are determined by the periods of the second. This impersonal and total duration is measured, and the guide-lines in relation to which it is divided and organized are fixed by the movements of concentration or dispersion of society; or, more generally, the periodical necessities for a collective renewal. If these critical instants are generally attached to some material phenomenon, such as the regular recurrence of such or such a star or the alternation of the seasons, it is because objective signs are necessary to make this essentially social organization intelligible to all. In the same way, finally, the causal relation, from the moment when it is collectively stated by the group, becomes independent of every individual consciousness; it rises above all particular minds and events. It is a law whose value depends upon no person. We have already shown how it is clearly thus that it seems to have originated.

Another reason explains why the constituent elements of the categories should have been taken from social life: it is because the relations which they express could not have been learned except in and through society. If they are in a sense immanent in the life of an individual, he has neither a reason nor the means for learning them, reflecting upon them and forming them into distinct ideas. In order to orient himself personally in space and to know at what moments he should satisfy his various organic needs, he has no need of making, once and for all, a conceptual representation of time and space. Many animals are able to find the road which leads to places with which they are familiar; they come back at a proper moment without knowing any of the categories; sensations are enough to direct them automatically. They would also be enough for men, if their sensations had to satisfy only individual needs. To recognize the fact that one thing resembles another which we have already experienced, it is in no way necessary that we arrange them all in groups and species: the way in which similar images call up each other and unite is enough to give the feeling of resemblance. The impression that a certain thing has already been seen or experienced implies no classification. To recognize the things which we should seek or from which we should flee, it would not be necessary to attach the effects of the two to their causes by a logical bond, if individual conveniences were the only ones in question. Purely empirical sequences and strong connections between the concrete representations would be as sure guides for the will. Not only is it true that the animal has no others, but also our own personal conduct frequently supposes nothing more. The prudent man is the one who has a very clear sensation of what must be done, but which he would ordinarily be quite incapable of stating as a general law.

It is a different matter with society. This is possible only when the individuals and things which compose it are divided into certain groups, that is to say, classified, and when these groups are classified in relation to each other. Society supposes a self-conscious organization which is nothing other than a classification. This organization of society naturally extends itself to the place which this occupies. To avoid all collisions, it is necessary that each particular group have a determined portion of space assigned to it: in other terms, it is necessary that space in general be divided, differentiated, arranged, and that these divisions and arrangements be known to everybody. On the other hand, every summons to a celebration, a hunt or a military expedition implies fixed and established dates, and consequently that a common time is agreed upon, which everybody conceives in the same fashion. Finally, the co-operation of many persons with the same end in view is possible only when they are in agreement as to the relation which exists between this end and the means of attaining it, that is to say, when the same causal relation is admitted by all the co-operators in the enterprise. It is not surprising, therefore, that social time, social space, social classes and causality should be the basis of the corresponding categories, since it is under their social forms that these different relations were first grasped with a certain clarity by the human intellect.

In summing up, then, we must say that society is not at all the illogical or a-logical, incoherent and fantastic being which it has too often been considered. Quite on the contrary, the collective consciousness is the highest form of the psychic life, since it is the consciousness of the consciousnesses. Being placed outside of and above individual and local contingencies, it sees things only in their permanent and essential aspects, which it crystallizes into communicable ideas. At the same time that it sees from above, it sees farther; at every moment of time, it embraces all known reality; that is why it alone can furnish the mind with the moulds which are applicable to the totality of things and which make it possible to think of them. It does not create these moulds artificially; it finds them within itself; it does nothing but become conscious of them. They translate the ways of being which are found in all the stages of reality but which appear in their full clarity only at the summit, because the extreme complexity of the psychic life which passes there necessitates a greater development of consciousness. Attributing social origins to logical thought is not debasing it or diminishing its value or reducing it to nothing more than a system of artificial combinations; on the contrary, it is relating it to a cause which implies it naturally. But this is not saying that the ideas elaborated in this way are at once adequate for their object. If society is something universal in relation to the individual, it is none the less an individuality itself, which has its own personal physiognomy and its idiosyncrasies; it is a particular subject and consequently particularizes whatever it thinks of. Therefore collective representations also contain subjective elements, and these must be progressively rooted out, if we are to approach reality more closely. But howsoever crude these may have been at the beginning, the fact remains that with them the germ of a new mentality was given, to which the individual could never have raised himself by his own efforts: by them the way was opened to a stable, impersonal and organized thought which then had nothing to do except to develop its nature.

Also, the causes which have determined this development do not seem to be specifically different from those which gave it its initial impulse. If logical thought tends to rid itself more and more of the subjective and personal elements which it still retains from its origin, it is not because extra-social factors have intervened; it is much rather because a social life of a new sort is developing. It is this international life which has already resulted in universalizing religious beliefs. As it extends, the collective horizon enlarges; the society ceases to appear as the only whole, to become a part of a much vaster one, with indetermined frontiers, which is susceptible of advancing indefinitely. Consequently things can no longer be contained in the social moulds according to which they were primitively classified; they must be organized according to principles which are their own, so logical organization differentiates itself from the social organization and becomes autonomous. Really and truly human thought is not a primitive fact; it is the product of history; it is the ideal limit towards which we are constantly approaching, but which in all probability we shall never succeed in reaching.

Thus it is not at all true that between science on the one hand, and morals and religion on the other, there exists that sort of antinomy which has so frequently been admitted, for the two forms of human activity really come from one and the same source. Kant understood this very well, and therefore he made the speculative reason and the practical reason two different aspects of the same faculty. According to him, what makes their unity is the fact that the two are directed towards the universal. Rational thinking is thinking according to the laws which are imposed upon all reasonable beings; acting morally is conducting one's self according to those maxims which can be extended without contradiction to all wills. In other words, science and morals imply that the individual is capable of raising himself above his own peculiar point of view and of living an impersonal life. In fact, it cannot be doubted that this is a trait common to all the higher forms of thought and action. What Kant's system does not explain, however, is the origin of this sort of contradiction which is realized in man. Why is he forced to do violence to himself by leaving his individuality, and, inversely, why is the impersonal law obliged to be dissipated by incarnating itself in individuals? Is it answered that there are two antagonistic worlds in which we participate equally, the world of matter and sense on the one hand, and the world of pure and impersonal reason on the other? That is merely repeating the question in slightly different terms, for what we are trying to find out is why we must lead these two existences at the same time. Why do these two worlds, which seem to contradict each other, not remain outside of each other, and why must they mutually penetrate one another in spite of their antagonism? The only explanation which has ever been given of this singular necessity is the hypothesis of the Fall, with all the difficulties which it implies, and which need not be repeated here. On the other hand, all mystery disappears the moment that it is recognized that impersonal reason is only another name given to collective thought. For this is possible only through a group of individuals; it supposes them, and in their turn, they suppose it, for they can continue to exist only by grouping themselves together. The kingdom of ends and impersonal truths can realize itself only by the co-operation of particular wills, and the reasons for which these participate in it are the same as those for which they co-operate. In a word, there is something impersonal in us because there is something social in all of us, and since social life embraces at once both representations and practices, this impersonality naturally extends to ideas as well as to acts.

Perhaps some will be surprised to see us connect the most elevated forms of thought with society: the cause appears quite humble, in consideration of the value which we attribute to the effect. Between the world of the senses and appetites on the one hand, and that of reason and morals on the other, the distance is so considerable that the second would seem to have been able to add itself to the first only by a creative act. But attributing to society this preponderating rôle in the genesis of our nature is not denying this creation; for society has a creative power which no other observable being can equal. In fact, all creation, if not a mystical operation which escapes science and knowledge, is the product of a synthesis. Now if the synthesis of particular conceptions which take place in each individual consciousness are already and of themselves productive of novelties, how much more efficacious these vast syntheses of complete consciousnesses which make society must be! A society is the most powerful combination of physical and moral forces of which nature offers us an example. Nowhere else is an equal richness of different materials, carried to such a degree of concentration, to be found. Then it is not surprising that a higher life disengages itself which, by reacting upon the elements of which it is the product, raises them to a higher plane of existence and transforms them.

Thus sociology appears destined to open a new way to the science of man. Up to the present, thinkers were placed before this double alternative: either explain the superior and specific faculties of men by connecting them to the inferior forms of his being, the reason to the senses, or the mind to matter, which is equivalent to denying their uniqueness; or else attach them to some super-experimental reality which was postulated, but whose existence could be established by no observation. What put them in this difficulty was the fact that the individual passed as being the _finis naturæ_--the ultimate creation of nature; it seemed that there was nothing beyond him, or at least nothing that science could touch. But from the moment when it is recognized that above the individual there is society, and that this is not a nominal being created by reason, but a system of active forces, a new manner of explaining men becomes possible. To conserve his distinctive traits it is no longer necessary to put them outside experience. At least, before going to this last extremity, it would be well to see if that which surpasses the individual, though it is within him, does not come from this super-individual reality which we experience in society. To be sure, it cannot be said at present to what point these explanations may be able to reach, and whether or not they are of a nature to resolve all the problems. But it is equally impossible to mark in advance a limit beyond which they cannot go. What must be done is to try the hypothesis and submit it as methodically as possible to the control of facts. This is what we have tried to do.

INDEX

_Alatunja_, 327.

_Alcheringa_, or mythical period, 247.

Ambiguity of sacredness, 409 ff.;
explanation of, 412 ff.

Animal-worship, totemism not, 94, 139, 170 f.

Animism, as expounded by Tylor and Spencer, 49 ff.;
how it explains the origin of the idea of the soul, 50 f.;
of spirits, 51 f.;
their cult, 52;
and the nature-cult, 53 f.;
criticism of these theories, 55 ff.;
implies that religions are systems of hallucinations, 68;
which is its best refutation, 70.

Anthropomorphism, not found among primitives, 67 f.;
denied by Spencer, 53 ff., 65;
cannot explain totemic view of world, 235,
or primitive rites, 406 f.

Apriorism, philosophical, 14 f., 368.

Art, why principal forms of, have been born in religion, 381;
dramatic, in totemic ceremonies, 373, 380;
totemic emblems first form of, 127 and n. 4.

_Arungquiltha_, or magic force, in Australia, 197 f.;
how it enables us to understand totemic principle, 198.

Asceticism, nature of, 39, 311;
based on negative rites, 311;
essential element of religious life, 311 f.;
religious function of, 314 ff.;
sociological import of, 316;
implied in the notion of sacredness, 317,
its antagonism to the profane, 39 f., 317,
and its contagiousness, 318;
not dependent upon idea of divine personalities, 321;
positive effects of, 312 ff., 386.

Atonement for faults by rites, 385, 405, 408.

Authority, moral, of society, 207 f., 208 n. 4;
based on social opinion, 208, 213.

Beliefs, how related to rites, 101, 403;
translate social facts, 431,
what they seem destined to become, 429 ff.;
all contain an element of truth, 438.

Blood, human, sacredness of, 126, 137, 330 f.

Body, essentially profane, 262;
explanation of this, 263.

Bull-roarers, definition of, 119.

Categories of the understanding, religious origin of, 9 ff.;
social origin of, 10 ff., 439;
necessity of, explained, 17 ff.;
real function of, 440;
only social necessity for, 443;
modelled on social forms, 18 ff., 144 ff., 440.

Causality, law of, 362 ff.;
first stated in imitative rites, 363;
social origin, 363, 367 f., 443;
imposed by society, 368;
sociological theory of, and classical theories, 368 f., 443;
varying statements of, 369 and n. 1.

Charms, magic, explanation of, 356.

Church, essential to religion, 44 ff.

_Churinga_, definition of, 119;
eminently sacred character of, 120;
due to totemic mark, 122 f.;
as religious force, 198 and n. 4.

Civilizing heroes, 283 ff.;
common to whole tribe, 284;
tribal rites personified, 285;
moral rôle of, 285;
connecting link between spirits and gods, 290 f.

Clan, characteristics of, 102;
basis of simplest social system known, 96, 167;
how recruited, 106 f.;
totem as name of, 102 f.;
symbolized by totem, 206;
implied by totemism, 167;
basis for classification of natural things, 141 ff.

Classes, logical, religious origin of, 148 ff.;
in higher religions, 144;
based on social classifications, 141 ff.;
collective life basis of, 147 ff., 443.

Communion, alimentary, essential to sacrifice, 337;
found in Australia, 334 f., 337, 340;
positive effects of, 337 f.

Concept, society's rôle in the genesis of, 432 ff.;
not equivalent to general idea, 432;
distinguished from sensations, 433;
immutability of, 433;
universality of, 433;
essentially social nature of, 435;
coeval with humanity, 438;
objective truth of, 437 ff.

Contagiousness of sacredness, 222;
at basis of ascetic rites, 318 ff.;
not due to associations of ideas, 321,
but to the externality of religious forces, 323 f.;
at basis of logical classifications, 324 f.

Contradiction, idea of, religious nature of, 38 f.;
social nature of, 12 f.;
based on social life, 146;
origin of, 234 ff.

Contraries, logical, nature of primitive, 235, 238 f.

_Corrobbori_, 215 n. 2, 380.

Cosmology of totemism, 141 ff.;
in all religions, 9, 428 ff.

Cult, needed by gods, 345 ff.;
moral reasons for, 63, 346, 417 f.;
social interpretation of, 347 ff.;
real function of, 386;
periodical nature of, 63;
imitative rites first form of, 387;
æsthetic nature of, 382.

Death, insufficiency of, to make a soul into a spirit, 60 f., 398,
or give sacredness, 62.

Deity. See _Gods_, _Spiritual Beings_.

Dreams, as origin of idea of double or soul, 50 f., 58 f., 264;
inadequacy of this theory, 56 f.;
as suggesting posthumous life, 268.

Ecstasy, in religion, explained, 226 f.

Efficacy, idea of, social origin of, 363 f.

Emblem, totem as, of clan, 206, 219 ff.;
psychological need for, 220, 230;
creates unity of group, 230;
and maintains it, 231;
incarnates collective sentiments, 232;
why primitives chose theirs in animal or vegetable worlds, 233 f.

Empiricism, philosophical, 13 f., 368.

_Ertnatulunga_, 120, 247.

Eschatology, Australian, 245, 287.

Evil spirits, 281 ff., 420.

Expiatory rites, 406 ff.

Faith, religious, nature of, 360 f., 430 f.

Family group, based on totemism, 106 n. 2.

Fear, religion not based on, 223 ff., 406.

Fetishism, 175.

Folk-lore, how related to religion, 41, 83 n. 1;
related to totemism, 90.

Force, religious, ambiguity of, 222;
why outside object in which it resides, 229;
as collective force, 221, 229;
takes form from society, 336;
represents how collective consciousness acts on individuals, 223;
idea of, precedes that of scientific force, 203 f., 363;
collective force as prototype of physical force, 365.
See _Sacred_, _Totemic Principle_.

Formalism, religious, explanation of, 35;
first form of legal, 35 f.

Free-will, doctrine of, how explained, 271 f.

Games, born in religion, 381 and n. 1.

Gods, religions without, 30 ff.;
in Australia, 285 ff.;
immortal, 286;
creators, 287;
benefactors, 287;
connected with initiation rites, 288;
international character of, 288, 294 f., 425 ff.;
of indigenous origin, 289 f.;
developed form of civilizing heroes, 290 f., 295;
closely connected with totemic system, 191, 291 f.;
first conceived in tribal assemblies, 293;
expressions of tribal unity, 294, 426.

Hair, human, sacredness of, 64, 137 f.

Hazing, sociological import of, 313 n. 4.

Ideal, the, in religion, 420 ff.;
formation of, a natural and necessary product of collective life, 422.

Idealism, essential, of social and religious worlds, 228, 345, 347.

Imitative Rites, 351 ff.;
in Australia, 351 ff.;
based on so-called sympathetic magic, 355 ff.;
distinguished from charms, 356;
reasons for, 357 ff.;
material efficacy attributed to, 359;
explained by moral efficacy of, 359 f.;
first expression of law of causality, 363;
original form of cult, 387.

Immortality of soul, idea of, not established for moral purposes, 267;
nor to escape annihilation, 267;
influence of dreams, 268;
but this not enough to account for doctrine, 268;
doctrine of, invented to explain origin of souls, 268 f.,
and expresses the immortality of society, 268 f.;
moral value of, an after-thought, 269;
doctrine of future judgment in Australia, 245, 287;
influence of mourning upon, 402 f.

Individual totem, 157 ff.;
relations of, to individual, 158 f.;
his _alter ego_, 159;
individual, not a species, 160;
how related to collective totem, 161;
how acquired, 161 ff.;
how related to _genius_, 279;
origin of, 280 f., 281 n. 1.
See _Totemism, Individual_.

Individualism, religious, 157 ff., 172 ff., 179 f.;
importance attributed to, by some, 45 ff., 172;
how explained, 424 f.

Infinite, conception of, in religion, 74;
not equivalent to sacred, 85;
the, not characteristic of religion, 25.

Initiation into tribe by religious ceremonies, 39, 384;
no special rites for, 385 n. 2.

Interdictions, or taboos, various sorts of, 300 ff.;
forms of, in Australia, 302 ff.;
of touch, 302;
of eating, 303;
of seeing, 304;
of speech, 305;
sexual, 304 and n. 1;
of all temporal activity on certain days, 306 f., 334;
ideas at the basis of, 308;
positive effects of, 309 ff.;
implied in notion of sacredness, 317.

_Intichiuma_, 326 ff.;
description of among the Australians, 327-336;
as elementary form of sacrifice, 336;
material efficacy expected of, 331, 333;
alimentary communion in, 334 f., 337;
imitative elements in, 353;
commemorative nature of, 371 f.;
used for initiating young men into tribe, 385 and n. 1.

Knowledge, theory of. See _Apriorism_, _Empiricism_, _Sociological_.

Language, importance of, for logical thought, 75 ff., 434;
social character of, 434.

Logic, related to religion and society, 234, 237 ff.;
basis for, furnished by society, 18 ff., 148, 431 ff.

Magic, based on religious ideas, 42 ff., 361 f., 362 n. 1;
distinguished from religion, 43 ff.;
hostility of, towards religion, 43;
sympathetic, 355 ff.

Majesty, essentially religious nature of idea of, 62, cf. 213.

Man, sacred character of, 134,
explained, 221 f.;
partakes of nature of totemic animal, 134 ff.;
sacred to varying degrees, 138 ff.;
double nature of, 263 f., 444 ff.

Mana, of the Melanesians, 194 f. See _Totemic Principle_.

Matrimonial classes, definition of, 109.

Metempsychosis, not found in Australia, 169, cf. 261 f.

Mourning, 390 ff.;
nature of, determined by etiquette, 391;
especially severe for women, 391 ff., 400 ff.;
anger as well as sorrow expressed in, 393;
how related to vendetta, 394;
not the expression of individual emotions, 397,
but a duty imposed by group, 397;
classic interpretation of, unsustainable, 398 f.;
not connected with ideas of souls or spirits, 398, 401;
social interpretation of, 399 ff.

Mystery in religion, 25;
idea of, not primitive, 25;
absent from many religions, 29.

Myths, essential element of religious life, 82;
distinguished from fables, 83 n. 1;
as work of art, 82, 101;
interpret rites, 101, 130;
as a society's representation of man and the world, 375.

_Nanji_, rock or tree, 250 f.

Naturism, as expounded by Max Müller, 73 ff.;
seeks to establish religion in reality, 73;
teaches that gods are personifications of natural phenomena, 73;
distinguishes between religion and mythology, 81;
but makes religion a fabric of errors, 79 ff.;
cannot account for origin of sacredness, 84 ff.

Negative rites, nature of, in Australia, 302 ff.;
see also _Interdictions_;
positive effects of, 309 ff.;
as preparation for positive rites, 310 f.;
basis of asceticism, 311;
in mourning, 390.

_Nurtunja_, 124;
as rallying-centre for group, 125.

Oblations, essential to sacrifice, 341;
this denied by Smith, 340 f.;
found in Australia, 341 f.;
vicious circle implied in, 340 f.,
explained, 344 ff.;
profound reasons for, 344 f.

_Orenda_, of the Iroquois, 193 f., 198.
See _Totemic Principle_.

Origins, definition of, 8 n. 1.

Pantheism, totemic, 153 f.

Part equal to whole, religious principle that, explained, 229;
in magic, 229 n. 3;
in sacrificial communions, 338.

Personality, idea of, double origin of, 270;
impersonal elements in, 271;
its alleged autonomy explained, 271;
importance of social elements in, 272;
represented by individual totem, 280.

Phratry, definition of, 107 ff.;
predecessor of clan, 108 and n. 9, 109, 145;
as basis for classifications of natural things, 141 ff., 145.

Piacular rites, definition of, 389;
distinguished from ascetic rites, 396;
based on same needs as positive rites, 399-403;
material benefits expected of, 404 f.;
as expiation for ritual faults, 405 f.;
social function of, 407 f.

_Pitchi_, 334.

Primitives, definition of, 1 n. 1;
best studied in Australia, 95;
why especially important for us, 3 ff.

Profane, absolute distinction of, from sacred, 38 f.

Ratapa, or soul-germs, 251, 252.

Recreative elements of religion, 379 ff., 382 f.

Reincarnation of souls, doctrine of, in Australia, 169, 250, 253 f.,
256, 265.

Religion, must have a foundation in reality, 2, 70, 225;
none are false, 3, 417, 438;
real purpose of, 416;
eternal elements of, 427 ff.;
as source of all civilization, 9, 70, 223, 418 f., 419 n. 1;
source of science and philosophy, 9, 203, 238, 325, 362 ff.;
so-called conflict of, with science, 416 ff.;
speculative functions of, 430;
recreative and æsthetic elements of, 379 ff.;
as pre-eminent expression of social life, 419 ff.;
said to be characterized by supernatural, 24 ff.,
or by idea of spiritual beings, 29 ff.;
not based on fear, 223 ff.,
but happy confidence, 224;
characterized by that which is sacred, 37;
distinguished from magic, 42 ff.;
none proceeds on any unique principle, 41;
importance of primitive, 3 ff.;
totemism most elementary form of, 167 f.;
definition of, 47.

Representative rites, 370 ff.;
value of, for showing real reasons for cult, 371, 378 f.;
as dramatic representations, 373, 376 ff., 380;
moral purpose of, evident, 375;
expect no material benefits, 377 ff.

Respect, inspired by society, 207 f.

Rites, how related to beliefs, 101;
totemic principle attached to, 200;
social function of, 226;
material efficacy attributed to, due to moral efficacy of, 346, 359 f.;
moral and social significance of, 370 ff.;
reasons for, as given by Australians, 371;
as form of dramatic art, 373, 380;
æsthetic nature of, 381;
interchangeability of, 384 ff.

Sacred, the, characteristic of all that is religious, 37;
not characterized by its exalted position, 37,
but by its distinction from the profane, 38;
superimposed upon its basis, 229;
created by society, 206 ff.
See _Totemic Principle_;
double nature of, 301, 320, 409 ff.

Sacrifice, forms of, in Australia, 327 ff., 336;
see _Intichiuma_;
theory of Robertson Smith of, 336 ff., 340;
alimentary communion essential part of, 337;
how this strengthens one's religious nature, 337 f.;
sacrilege inherent in, explained, 338 f.;
oblations essential to, 341;
why gods have need of, 38, 346;
social function of, 347 ff.

Science, so-called conflict of, with religion, 416 ff., 430, 445;
religious origin of, 9, 203, 238, 325, 362 ff.;
supplants religious speculation, 429 ff.;
but cannot do so completely, 431;
authority of, 208, 431.

Sexual totems, 165 f.

Social life, basis for religious representations, 221, 316, 347;
rhythm of, and religion, 219, 349;
model for philosophical representations, 18, 19 n. 2, 144 ff.

Society, how forms of, determine character of religion, 94, 196 f., 234;
characterized by institutions, 366 n. 1;
ideal nature of, 288, 345, 420 ff., 422 f.;
not an illogical or a-logical being, 444;
how it recasts animal nature into human nature, 66;
how it arouses sensations of divine, 206 ff.,
of dependence, 206 f.,
of respect, 207,
of moral authority, 207 f.,
of an external moral force, 209,
of kindly external forces, 212,
of the sacred, 212 ff., 218;
stimulating and sustaining action of, 209 ff.;
how it gives men their most characteristic attributes, 212;
how it exists only through its individual members, 221, 347;
how this gives men their sacred character, 221 f.;
foundation of religious experience, 418.

Sociological theory of knowledge, 13, 15 ff., 18 ff., 144 ff., 203 f.,
234 ff., 269 ff., 321 ff., 362 ff., 431 ff., 439 ff.

Soul, idea of, found in all religions, 240;
various representations of, 241 ff.;
relation of, to body, 242 ff.;
after death, 244 ff.;
origin of, according to the Arunta, 247 ff.;
reincarnation of, 250, 253 ff., 265;
as totemic principle incarnate in the individual, 248 ff., 254 ff.,
259 ff.;
or parts of totemic divinity, 65, 249;
close relations of, with totemic animal, 259 f;
sacred character of, 262;
notion of, founded in reality, 262 f.;
represents the social part of our nature, 262 f.;
reality of our double nature, 263 f., 444 ff.;
coeval with notion of mana, 266 f.;
how a secondary formation, 266;
idea of immortality of, explained, 267 ff., see _Immortality_;
how related to idea of personality, 269 ff., see _Personality_;
distinguished from spirit, 273;
form in which human force is represented, 366;
social elements of, 366;
how employed to explain mourning, 401;
origin of idea of, according to animism, 50 f.

Space, category of, religious and social origin of, 11 f., 441 and n. 1.

Spirits, distinguished from souls, 273;
from ghosts, 274;
related to Roman _genius_, 275;
relations of, to things, 275 f.;
how derived from idea of soul, 277 f.;
objective basis of idea of, 280 f.;
spirits of evil, 281 f., 420;
animistic theory of origin of, 51 f.

Spiritual beings, as characteristic of religion, 29;
absent from many religions, 30, 137,
or strictly religious rites, 35;
not sufficient to explain religion, 35.
See _Soul_, _Spirits_.

Spiritualism, Lang's theory of, as origin of idea of soul, 60 n. 1.

Suffering, religious rôle of, in inferior societies, 312 ff.;
believed to give extra strength, 314;
how this idea is well founded, 315.

Supernatural, the, as characteristic of religion, 24 ff.;
conception of, quite modern, 26;
not the essential element of religion, 28.

Sympathetic magic, so-called, at basis of imitative rites, 355 ff.;
fundamental principles of, 356;
why this term is inexact, 361 f.

Taboo, derivation of word, 300. See _Interdictions_.

Tattooings, totemic, 117, 232.

Time, category of, religious and social origin of, 10 f., 440 f.,
441 n. 1.

Totality, concept of,
could never be suggested by individual experience, 441;
related to concepts of society and divinity, 442 n. 1.

Totem, derivation of word, 103;
as name of clan, 102 f.;
nature of things serving as, 103 ff.;
species, not individuals, 104 f.;
how inherited, 106 ff.;
of phratries, 107 ff., 112;
of matrimonial classes, 109 ff.;
as emblem or coat-of-arms of group, 113;
religious nature of, 119;
relations of, with men and things, 150;
sub-totems, 151;
individual totems, 157 ff.;
symbol of totemic principle of clan, 206;
clan inseparable from, 167.

Totemic animals,
interdiction against eating by men of that clan, 128 ff.;
or by those of other clans of the same phratry, 131 and n. 1;
and against killing, 132;
less sacred and powerful than totemic emblems, 133;
related to men, 134, 139, 259 ff.;
sacredness of, due to resemblance to emblem, 222.

Totemic emblem, as collective emblem, 113;
sacred character of, 122, 126;
conventional nature of, 126 f.;
more sacred and powerful than totemic animal, 133;
as first form of art, 127 n. 4.

Totemic principle, or Mana,
cause of the sacredness of things, 62 ff., 188, 199 f.;
totem material representation of, 189, 206;
as a force, 190;
as source of moral life of clan, 190;
compared to totemic god, 189;
personified in gods of higher religions, 191, 199, 291 f.;
as Wakan, 192 f.;
as Orenda, 193 f.;
as Mana, 194 f.;
ubiquity of, 189, 193, 194;
multiformity of, 193;
used in magic, 198, 201 f.;
attached to rites, words, etc., 200;
as representation of clan, 206, 214 ff.;
first conceived in the midst of great social effervescence, 218 f.;
how it comes to be symbolized by totem, 219 ff.

Totemic system, unity of, 295 f.;
work of whole tribe, 154 f., 283, 295.

Totemism, early theoricians of, 88 ff.;
Australia as classic land of, 93 f.;
importance of American, 96 f.;
as most elementary religion, 88, 167;
former universality of, unimportant, 95;
religious nature of, unquestionable, 167;
not animal-worship, 139, 170 f.,
nor nature-cult, 171 f.;
contains all the elements of the religious life, 415;
conceptional totemism, inadequacies of, 180 ff.

Tribe, totemic system work of whole, 154 f., 283, 295;
unity of, expressed by great gods, 294 f.

Universalism, religious, 294 f.;
how explained, 425 ff.

Vendetta, how related to rites of mourning, 394.

_Wakan_, or "great spirit" of Sioux, 192 f., 195 f., 199.
See _Totemic Principle_.

_Waninga_, 124.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In the same way, we shall say of these societies that they are primitive, and we shall call the men of these societies primitives. Undoubtedly the expression lacks precision, but that is hardly evitable, and besides, when we have taken pains to fix the meaning, it is not inconvenient.