Chapter VI: Other Influences Summarized 216 (9)

A very dubious, if not wholly mythical, figure in Celtic literature, is the once hugely admired Ossian. Macpherson, a contemporary of Dr. Johnson, came into prominence at the time when the eighteenth century was growing weary of the “classicism” of the school of Pope, and was ready to be interested in the simple, frank, romantic world. Macpherson was a Scotsman, who pretended to have collected from manuscripts, and from the memory of Highlanders, sundry poems of a certain Ossian, a Gaelic poet of the third century. These he translated into pompous declamatory prose, attempting something like the style and imagery of the Hebraic scriptures, but overstraining both. They were received with immense enthusiasm in England, France, and Germany, and were Napoleon’s favourite odes. Unhappily the alleged originals will, for the most part, not bear the light of criticism. Johnson did not scruple to call Macpherson an impostor. That there was an Ossian is probable, but the few poems which can with tolerable safety be assigned to him belong to a much later date than Macpherson claimed. Nevertheless, though Macpherson’s Ossian may be as great an imposture as Chatterton’s _Rowley Poems_, he, no doubt, did gather from the Celtic fragments and the Celtic folklore a mass of imagery and fire of words, which came in most fitting time to lend some help in ridding the weary world of the stereotyped coldnesses of the followers of Pope.

(_d_) HEBREW INFLUENCE

For those who are not Hebrews, Hebrew literature means the Bible, and especially the old Testament of that Bible. It would be a vain pretence to attempt to show precisely how far the Bible has influenced the thought of English writers. It is not our province here to deal with morals and moral influence, however much we may recognize that, since out of the fullness of the heart the mouth speaketh, our English literature could not have been the literature it is, if the moral disposition and attitude at the back of it had been other than they are. And these have been in the largest measure determined by the Old Testament of the Hebrews.

Imagine for a moment that the Bible did not exist, that no Englishman had ever read one line of it, that the religious notions which it inculcates were without expression in any such established standard. Our way of looking at life and at things suprasensual, our maxims of conduct, our ideals of feeling, would obviously be something widely unlike those which we now entertain. A nation’s literature is the expression of a nation’s soul. Give us a different soul, and the expression will convey that difference. We cannot separate literature from moral conceptions and moral tone, and therefore, in a sense, the Hebrews have determined our literature more than all other influences combined. And there is this manifest and vastly important difference between the influence of the Bible and the influence of any other work. The Biblical thoughts have become part of our earliest, youngest, and most plastic selves. We are born into them, and brought up in them, as something natural to ourselves. The English heart and mind are now partly made of Hebrew thoughts and ideals. This fact is so obvious that we need not pursue it further. To other literatures we have looked for models to imitate and notions to borrow; to the Biblical literature we have looked for a transfusion of all our thinking.

But there is also a purely literary effect of the Bible, concerning which a few words must be said. Who can estimate the immense extent to which Biblical imagery and Biblical phrase—what one may call Biblical style and Hebrew style—have determined the style of English writers? Remember that the average English child is brought up on the Bible, that he reads, marks, learns, and inwardly digests it; that its diction and its figures of speech persist, however loosely, in his memory. What is the result? Is it not that, though in a less degree than with the Puritans, there remains, consciously or unconsciously, a habit of imitating those figures and further developing them; of imitating that diction, and carrying it into his higher forms of speech and his writings? Take the great preachers and religious prose writers from Jeremy Taylor to Cardinal Newman, and observe how their language unconsciously follows the rhythm, clothes itself in the dignity, and repeats the very phraseology, of the authorized version of the scriptures. Take poets like Milton, or mere verse-writers like Akenside, and see how their language seems to echo the language of the Testaments, Old and New.

It is true that the language of the “Authorized Version” is English and not Hebrew. None the less the imagery, the similes and metaphors, the fiery turns of exhortation and denunciation, the fervent question and the apostrophe, all these and other elements which make up style, are, apart from the rhythm, Hebrew and not English. And it is to these things we refer when we speak of the purely “literary” effect of the Bible on our writers. Quite apart from the spiritual effect which is sought for without reference to the qualities of the style, there are, all the time, powerful qualities in the Hebraic style itself, qualities often reaching to the poetical sublime. Take, for instance, the passage, “Whither shall I go then from Thy Spirit, or whither shall I go then from Thy Presence? If I climb up into heaven, Thou art there: if I go down to hell, Thou art there also. If I take the wings of the morning and remain in the uttermost parts of the sea, even there also shall Thy hand lead me, and Thy right hand shall hold me. If I say ‘Peradventure the darkness shall cover me,’ then shall my night be turned to day. Yea, the darkness is no darkness with Thee: but the night is clear as the day: the darkness and the light to Thee are both alike.” And once again: “Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew, neither rain upon you, nor fields of offerings: for there the shield of the mighty is vilely cast away, the shield of Saul, as though not anointed with oil. From the blood of the slain, from the fat of the mighty, the bow of Jonathan turned not back, and the sword of Saul returned not empty. Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in their deaths they were not divided. They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions. Ye daughters of Israel, weep over Saul, who clothed you in scarlet, with other delights; who put on ornaments of gold on your apparel. How are the mighty fallen in the midst of the battle!”

What we are here concerned with is the way in which the diction of every English writer has been dominated from his youth up by echoes of words like these, which he received into his plastic mind in childhood, and which mix themselves with his thoughts as he shapes the words and the images of his English prose or verse.

If, indeed, we were to take our greater authors and read them through, pencil in hand; if we were to mark those words and images and turns of expression which we feel to be derived consciously or unconsciously from the English version of the Hebrew Bible, we should be amazed to find how much of purely literary strength and dignity that one book has added to our tongue.

And this Hebrew influence has existed ever since we were a nation, nay, even before. There was, indeed, no translated English Bible till the days of Wyclif, the contemporary of Chaucer; nevertheless the images and thoughts of the Latin Vulgate had become part of every good ecclesiastic, and in all preaching and exhortation the Biblical phrases were heard in English, perhaps rougher and less rhythmical than those of our own version, but still with their essential quality retained. Remember again that, still in these days, in all Christian churches, the language employed is deliberately Biblical, that the prayers are Biblical in expression, and that the language is considered the more apt and more effective in proportion as it more distinctly bears the Hebraic impress. Put all these considerations together, and it will be recognized without need of further words than on literary style, as well as on moral sentiment, the influence of the one Hebrew book has been unparalleled. Meanwhile the writings in English verse and prose which have taken their titles, their subject matter, their suggestions, or their inspiration, from the Bible, would form an interminable list.

SOME POINTS IN THE PEDIGREE OF POETRY.

SOME POINTS IN THE PEDIGREE OF EPIC VERSE.

INDEX OF AUTHORS AND WORKS

Achilles Tatius; _Leucippe and Cleitophon_, 132.

Addison, Joseph, 42, 43, 113, 114, 174, 177;
_The Campaign_, 112;
_Cato_, 79, 112, 170;
the _Spectator_, 138, 173.

Aelian, 133.

Aeschylus, 19, 21, 49, 59, 62, 72;
_Agamemnon_, 22, 66;
_Eumenides_, 20;
_Persae_, 62;
_Prometheus Bound_, 21, 62, 65.

Aesop, 33, 34, 94, 95, 129, 134.

Akenside, Mark, 254;
_Pleasures of the Imagination_, 113.

Alamanni, Luigi, 210.

Alcaeus, 16, 54, 107.

Alciphron, 35.

Alembert, Jean d’, 176.

Alfieri, Count, 210.

Alfred, King, 95, 113;
translation of Boethius, 118;
translation of Aesop, 135.

_Amadis of Gaul_, 220, 250.

_Amadis of Greece_, 220.

Ambrose, St., 117.

Ammianus, 117.

Amyot, Jacques, translation of Plutarch, 161.

Anacreon, 17, 46, 69.

Andreini, Giovanni Battista; _Adamo_, 204.

Andronicus, 78.

Apollonius, 67.

_Apollonius of Tyre_, 132.

Apuleius; _The Golden Ass_, 116, 121.

_Arabian Nights, the_, 129, 219.

Archilochus of Paros, 15, 46.

Aretino, Pietro, 95, 210.

Ariosto, Lodovico, 93, 179, 196, 197, 212, 213, 249;
_I Suppositi_, 214;
_Orlando Furioso_, 200-203.

Aristophanes, 24, 170;
_Birds_, 24, 25.

Aristophanes of Byzantium, 35.

Aristotle, 30, 31, 39, 47, 48, 57, 58, 91, 129, 130, 166, 241;
_Poetics_, 35, 57;
_Rhetoric_, 35.

Arnold, Matthew, 40, 41, 44, 57, 159, 177;
_Essays in Criticism_, 83;
_Thyrsis_, 26, 56, 68;
_Tristram and Iseult_, 251;
Works showing Greek influence, 67, 68.

Arouet, François Marie. _See_ Voltaire.

Athenaeus; _Deipnosophists_, 35.

Augustine, Saint, 71;
_City of God_, 32, 117.

Ausonius, 71, 117.

Averrhoes; translation of Aristotle into Arabic, 48, 130.

Avianus, 34.

Babrius, 34, 134.

Bacon, Lord, 33, 50, 111, 113, 162;
_Essays_, 234;
_New Atlantis_, 32.

Bandello, Matteo, 195, 211.

Barclay, Alexander; _Ship of Fools_, 237, 245.

Barclay, John, 205.

_Baron Münchhausen_, 241.

Bartas, Guillaume de Salluste du; _Semaine_, 157.

“Basoche, La,” 165.

Battista of Mantua, 89, 204, 205.

_Battle of the Frogs and Mice_, 60.

Bede; _Ecclesiastical History_, 122.

Behn, Mrs. Aphra, 173.

Bellay, Joachim du, 156, 157, 192.

Benoît de Sainte-More, 134, 142;
_Roman de Troie_, 150.

_Beowulf_, 125.

Béranger, Pierre Jean de, 175.

Berkeley, George, 31.

Berni, Francesco, 201.

_Bible, the_, 117, 123, 124, 253-257.

Bidpai. _See_ Pilpay.

Bion, 6, 25, 56, 69.

_Blooms of Philosophy_, 219.

Boccaccio, 48, 49, 85, 133, 135, 149, 179, 199;
_Decameron_, 194-197, 211, 219;
other works, 196.

Bodmer, Johann Jakob, 239.

Boethius, 71, 117, 121, 122;
_De Consolatione_, 118.

Boiardo, Matteo, 199;
_Orlando Innamorato_, 200, 201, 202.

Boileau-Despréaux, Nicholas, 109, 139, 158, 159, 160, 163, 170;
_Art Poétique_, 6, 90, 159.

Bolingbroke, Viscount, 245.

_Book of Sinbad, the_, 195.

Boscan, Almogaver, 227.

Bossu, René Le, 170.

Bossuet, Jacques Bénigne, 104.

Bracciolini, Poggio, 198.

Brandt, Sebastian; _Narrenschiff_, 237, 245.

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 192.

Browning, Robert, 41, 44, 88, 213;
translations from the Greek, 22, 66.

Bruno, Giordano, 198.

Bürger, Gottfried August, 233, 241;
_Lenore_, 241.

Burke, Edmund, 104.

Burns, Robert, 15, 16, 86, 115, 137, 138, 154.

Butler, Samuel, 97;
_Hudibras_, 226, 227.

Byron, Lord, 22, 43, 65, 175, 176, 197, 211, 213, 233, 243, 245, 246;
_English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_, 97;
_Manfred_, 65.

Caesar, 75, 80, 90, 99, 108;
_Commentaries_, 100.

Calderon de la Barca, Pedro, 166, 220, 228, 229.

_Calisto and Meleboia_, or _Celestina_, 222.

Callimachus, 68, 87.

Callisthenes, 133, 134.

Calpurnius, 89.

Calverley, C. S.; translation of Theocritus, 27.

Capella, Martianus, 121, 122.

Carlyle, Thomas, 99, 100, 101, 243.

Cassiodorus, 122.

Castelvetro, 214.

Castiglione; _Cortegiano_, 210.

Cato; _On Agriculture_, 98.

Catullus, 73, 75, 80, 85, 86, 87, 108, 112, 114.

Cavalcanti, Guido, 189.

Caxton, 250;
_Esope_, 135;
_Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers_, 220.

Celsus, 98.

_Cento Novelle_, the, 195.

Cervantes, Miguel de, 224-227, 228, 230;
_Don Quixote_, 220, 224-227;
_Galatea_, 224;
_Novelas Exemplares_, 224, 225.

Chapman, George; translation of Homer, 13, 52, 60, 64.

Chateaubriand, Vicomte de, 175, 176, 177.

Chatterton, Thomas; _Rowley Poems_, 252.

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 47, 94, 99, 113, 118, 134,
135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 148, 153, 177, 179, 182, 192, 197,
211, 219, 256;
_Canterbury Tales_, 85, 111, 149, 195, 196;
_Court of Love_, 145;
_Romaunt of the Rose_, 163.

Cheke, Sir John, 49, 57.

Chénier, André, 174.

Chesterfield, Earl of, 173, 177.

Chiabrera, Gabriello, 208.

Cibber, Colley; _The Non-Juror_, 171.

Cicero, 72, 75, 80, 102-106, 107, 112, 114, 116, 121, 198;
_De Oratore_, 102;
moral treatises, 102;
orations, 104;
letters, 105, 106, 108, 113, 173.

Cino da Pistoia, 189.

Cinthio; _Hecatommithi_, 195, 211.

Claudian, 71, 117, 122.

Coleridge, S. T., 44, 245.

Collins, William, 54.

Colonna, Guido; _History of the Trojan War_, 134.

Columella, 98.

Comines, Philippe de, 161.

Comte, Isidore, 177.

Congreve, William, 54, 78, 138, 177.

Constable, Henry; _Diana_, 213.

Copland; the _Owl-glass_, 237.

Corneille, Pierre, 22, 79, 139, 158, 166, 167, 168, 170, 232.

Cowley, Abraham, 113, 207, 208;
translations of Anacreon, 17;
_Pindaric Odes_, 18, 54, 55.

Cowper, William, 53, 137, 138, 159, 164;
translation of Homer, 13, 60;
_The Task_, 90.

Crashaw, Richard, 207.

Daniel, Samuel; _Delia_, 213.

Dante, 16, 48, 143, 145, 179, 181-191, 193, 194, 197, 199, 208, 211,
212, 215, 216, 232;
_Canzoni_, 185;
_Divine Comedy_, 5, 84, 183, 185-191;
_Vita Nuova_, 189, 190.

Da Porto, 211.

Dares Phrygius, 133.

Defoe, Daniel, 226;
_Colonel Jack_, 173, 224;
_Moll Flanders_, 173, 224.

Demetrius Phalereus, 94.

Democritus, 91.

Demosthenes, 6, 29, 30, 72, 104.

Denham, Sir John, 158.

De Quincey, Thomas, 113, 245.

Derby, Earl of;
translation of Homer, 13, 60.

Descartes, René; _Discours de la Méthode_, 173.

_Destruction of Troy, On the_, 133.

_Dictionnaire Raisonné_, the, 176.

Dictys Cretensis, 133, 134.

Diderot, Denis; the _Encyclopaedia_, 176.

Diogenes, Antonius; _Marvels beyond Thule_, 131.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 35.

Dionysius Thrax, 35.

_Dolopathos_, 133.

Donne, John, 207.

Dorset, Earl of. _See_ Sackville.

Douglas, Gawin; translation of the _Aeneid_, 111.

Drayton, Michael; _Idea_, 213.

Dryden, John, 7, 56, 60, 97, 112, 114, 137, 138, 159, 164, 166, 169,
170, 171, 173, 174, 177, 196, 234, 238;
Pindaric Odes, 54, 60;
_Of Dramatic Poesie_, 57;
_Troilus and Cressida_, 59;
translations from Latin, 112;
Dramas, 170, 171.

Dumas, Alexandre, 177;
_The Three Musketeers_, 224.

Dunbar, William, 153.

D’Urfé, Honoré, 132;
_Astrée_, 172, 222.

Dyer, John; _The Fleece_, 14, 113.

Earle, John; _Microcosmography_, 35.

Empedocles, 92.

“Enfants sans Souci,” 165.

Epicurus, 91, 92.

Erasmus, 49.

_Eulenspiegel_, 237.

Euripides, 19, 21, 59, 67;
_Alcestis_, 21, 22, 66;
_Heracles_, 66.

Fairfax, Edward; translation of Tasso, 203.

Farquhar, George, 78, 177.

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 244.

Filicaia, Vincenzo da, 208.

Fielding, Henry, 78, 177;
_Joseph Andrews_, 173, 224;
_Mock-Doctor_, 171.

Filelfo, 198;
translation of Homer, 52.

Flaubert, Gustave, 177.

Fletcher, Giles, 205;
_Licia_, 213.

Fletcher, John, 169, 196, 229;
_Fair Maid of the Inn_, 225;
_Faithful Shepherdess_, 205.

Florio, John; translation of Montaigne, 162.

Fox, Charles James, 104.

Froissart, 160.

Frontinus, 98.

Froude, J. A., 41.

Gascoigne, George; translation of Ariosto’s _I Suppositi_, 214.

Gay, John, 159;
_Fables_, 34, 174.

Geoffrey of Monmouth; _History of the Britons_, 249, 250.

George Sand, 16.

_Gesta Romanorum_, 135.

Gibbon, Edward, 100, 101, 248.

Gildas; _Destruction and Conquest of Britain_, 122, 248.

Giraldi, Giovanni Battista, surnamed Cinthio, 195, 211.

Gladstone, W. E., 104.

Goethe, 10, 108, 175, 231, 232, 233, 241-243, 245;
_Faust_, 238, 242, 243;
_Götz von Berlichingen_, 240, 241, 246;
_Lyrics_, 242;
_Werther_, 243.

Goldoni, Carlo, 210.

Gongora, Luis de, 227, 228.

Gottsched, Johann Christoph, 239.

Gower, John, 111, 134, 163, 177;
_Confessio Amantis_, 195.

Gray, Thomas, 7, 39, 53, 55, 61, 234;
_The Bard_, 61;
_Progress of Poesy_, 18, 54, 61;
translations from Statius, 85.

_Greek Anthology_, the, 28.

Greene, Richard, 205, 214;
_Friar Bacon_, 238, 245.

Gregory of Tours; _History of the Franks_, 122.

Gregory the Great; _Moralia_, 122.

Grocyn, William, 49, 199.

Guarini, Giovanni Battista, 132;
_Pastor Fido_, 205.

Guevara, Antonio de; _Golden Book of Marcus Aurelius_, 228;
_Golden Letters_, 228.

Guinicelli, Guido, 189.

_Guzman de Alfarache_, 223.

Hall, Edward; _Characterismes of Virtues and Vices_, 35, 97.

Hardy, Alexandre, 132.

Harington, Sir John, 203.

Harvey, Gabriel, 213.

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 244.

Heine, Heinrich, 32, 231, 241, 244;
_Buch der Lieder_, 242.

Heliodorus, 36;
_Aethiopica_, 131.

Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 239.

Herodotus, 28, 33, 160.

Herrick, Robert, 15, 16, 17, 87.

Hesiod, 14, 46, 62, 90;
_Theogony_, 14;
_Works and Days_, 14.

_History of Alexander_, 134.

Homer; _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, 5, 9-13, 15, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46, 49,
59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 68, 69, 72, 81, 82, 83, 107, 134, 184, 185;
translations, 13, 49, 52, 60, 64.

Hooker, Richard, 50.

Horace, 45, 46, 72, 73, 75, 80, 85-87, 107, 110, 112, 114;
_De Arte Poetica_, 6, 90, 91, 112;
_Epistles_, 95, 112;
_Odes_, 86, 87, 88;
_Satires_, 95, 96, 97, 112.

Hrotswith, 122.

Hugo, Victor, 159, 175;
_Les Misérables_, 177;
_Notre Dame_, 177.

Hume, David, 138.

Hunt, Leigh, 213.

Iamblichus; _Babylonica_, 131.

Isidore of Seville; _Origines_, 122.

Jerome, St., 71, 117;
translation of _The Bible_, 117, 123.

Jodelle, Etienne; _Cléopâtre_, 165, 166.

John of Damascus; _Barlaam and Josaphat_, 132.

Jonson, Ben, 24, 76, 112, 113, 209, 229, 234.

Johnson, Samuel, 113, 114, 138, 159, 174, 251, 252;
_London_, 97, 113;
_Vanity of Human Wishes_, 97, 113.

Jordanes, 122.

Juvenal, 76, 95-97, 108, 112, 113.

_Kalila and Dimna_, 129, 219.

Kant, Immanuel, 244.

Keats, John, 43, 44, 63, 64, 197;
_Endymion_, 39, 63;
_Hyperion_, 22, 63;
_On first looking into Chapman’s Homer_, 13, 64.

Klinger, Friedrich Maximilian von; _Sturm und Drang_, 240.

Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, 233;
_Messias_, 239.

_Koran, the_, 128.

La Bruyère, Jean de; _Characters_, 35, 174.

La Calprenède, Gautier de, 132, 172, 222, 250;
_Cléopâtre_, 173;
_Cassandre_, 173.

Lactantius, 71, 117.

La Fayette, Madame de, 173.

La Fontaine, Jean de; _Fables_, 34, 174.

Lamartine, Alphonse, 175, 243.

Landor, W. S., 31, 113, 213;
_Hellenics_, 39, 66;
_Imaginary Conversations_, 174.

Langland, William; _Piers Plowman_, 126.

La Rochefoucauld, Duc de, 174.

_Lawyer Patelin_, 165.

Layamon; _Brut_, 249, 250.

_Lazarillo de Tormes, Life of_, 223.

Leibnitz, Baron von, 233, 244, 245.

Lesage, Alain René, 173, 220;
_Diable Boiteux_, 175, 224;
_Gil Blas_, 173, 175, 224.

Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 231, 233, 238, 239, 240, 241, 245;
_Laocoon_, 241;
_Minna von Barnhelm_, 241;
_Nathan the Wise_, 241.

Linacre, Thomas, 49, 199.

Livy; _History of Rome_, 75, 80, 99-101, 108, 111, 114.

Locke, John, 176.

Lodge, Thomas, 205;
_Phillis_, 213.

Longinus; _On Sublimity_, 35, 57, 241.

Longus; _Daphnis and Chloe_, 35, 132.

Lope de Vega, 166, 228, 229.

Loqman; _Fables_, 129.

Lorris, Guillaume de; _Roman de la Rose_, 148.

Lovelace, Richard, 17, 87.

Lucan, 71, 75, 111, 112, 114;
_Pharsalia_, 84.

Lucian, 31;
_True History_, 32, 62.

Lucilius, 95, 96.

Lucretius, 75, 80, 91-93, 108, 113, 114;
_De Rerum Natura_, 91, 92.

Luna, Alvaro de, 223.

Luther, Martin, 237, 243;
“_Ein feste Burg_,” 232;
translation of _The Bible_, 238.

Lydgate John, 111;
_Falls of Princes_, 196;
_Troy Book_, 134.

Lyly, John, 205;
_Euphues_, 206, 227.

Macaulay, Lord, 29, 99, 100, 101, 241;
_Lives of Chatham_, _Clive_, and _Hastings_, 33.

Machiavelli, 129;
_Il Principe_, 210.

Macrobius; _Saturnalia_, 117.

Macpherson, James; _Ossian_, 251, 252.

Malherbe, François, 158, 160, 163, 164, 166.

Malory, Sir Thomas; _Morte D’Arthur_, 250.

Map, Walter, 142, 151.

_Margites_, 61.

Marie de France, 142, 151.

Marini, Giovanni Battista, 207.

Marivaux, Pierre, 173;
_Marianne_, 175.

Marlowe, Christopher, 50, 111, 214;
_Dr. Faustus_, 238, 245.

Manuel, Juan; _Count Lucanor_, 219.

Marot, Clément, 153-155, 157, 163, 205.

_Marseillaise, La_, 15.

Martial, 28, 71, 97, 98, 111, 112, 156.

Mason, William, 18, 54.

Massinger, Philip, 215.

Menander, 19, 24, 46, 77.

Mendoza, Diego de; _Lazarillo de Tormes_, 223.

Metastasio, 210.

Meung, Jean de, 148.

Middleton, Thomas; _Spanish Gipsy_, 225.

Milton, John, 7, 53, 68, 83, 112, 113, 136, 179, 187, 208, 211, 234,
239, 250, 254;
_Comus_, 39, 208, 209, 249;
_Epitaphium Damonis_, 249;
_Il Penseroso_, 208;
_L’Allegro_, 208;
_Lycidas_, 15, 26, 27, 56, 59, 88;
_Nativity Ode_, 59;
_Paradise Lost_, 5, 8, 22, 81, 84, 93, 185, 192, 203, 204;
_Paradise Regained_, 93, 201;
_Samson Agonistes_, 23, 59;
_Sonnets_, 208.

_Mirror for Magistrates_, the, 196.

Molière, 24, 77, 78, 139, 170, 171;
_Les Fourberies de Scapin_, 77;
other plays, 171.

Mommsen, Theodor, 231, 245.

Montaigne, Michel de; _Essais_, 33, 96, 161, 162, 172.

Montemayor, Jorge de; _Diana_, 172, 221.

Montesquieu, Baron de; _Esprit des Lois_, 176.

Moore, Thomas, 17.

More, Sir Thomas, 113, 161;
_Utopia_, 32, 39.

Morris, William, 41, 67;
_Earthly Paradise_, 67, 117;
_Jason_, 39, 67;
_translation of Homer_, 13, 60, 67.

Moschus, 6, 25, 56, 69.

_Mouthfuls of Gold_, 219.

Muqaffa, 129.

Naevius, 78.

Nash, Thomas; Jack Wilton, 224.

Nennius, 248.

Nepos, Cornelius, 99, 134.

Newman, Cardinal, 41, 254.

_Nibelungen Lied_, the, 125, 232, 235, 236.

Niebuhr, Bartholet George, 245.

North, Sir Thomas; translation of Plutarch, 33, 52, 58.

Orosius, 121, 122.

Ossian, 251, 252.

Overbury, Sir Thomas; _Characters_, 35.

Ovid, 47, 75, 80, 87, 107, 110, 114, 121, 143, 148, 156, 198;
_Amores_, 88;
_Fasti_, 88;
_Heroides_, 88, 112;
_Metamorphoses_, 93, 94, 111;
_Tristia_, 88.

Painter, William; _Palace of Pleasure_, 214.

_Palmerin, Romance of_, 220.

_Pancatantra, the_, 129.

_Parables of Sandabar, the_, 133.

Parmenides, 92.

Pascal, Blaise; _Provincial Letters_, 173.

Pausanias, 35.

Peele, George, 205.

Persius, 96.

Petrarch, 48, 49, 145, 158, 179, 189, 190, 191-194, 199, 208, 212,
213;
_Africa_, 192;
_Canzoniere_, 194;
_Sonnets_, 193, 194, 197;
_Trionfi_, 194.

Petronius; _Satyricon_, 121.

Phaedrus, 94, 134.

Phocylides, 18.

Phrynichus, 61.

Pilpay, 34, 129, 135, 219.

Pindar, 16, 17, 18, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 69, 158.

Piron, Alexis, 174.

Pitt, William, 104.

Plato, 6, 30, 31, 39, 62, 66, 102, 118, 129;
_Ideal Commonwealth_, 31.

Plautus, 24, 46, 75, 76-78, 80, 107, 111, 112, 198, 209;
_Menaechmi_, 77.

“Pléiade, the,” 155, 163, 165.

Pliny the Elder; _Natural History_, 98, 99, 121.

Pliny the Younger, 79, 105, 106, 108, 113, 173.

Plutarch, 32, 33, 62;
_Lives_, 33, 52, 58;
Amyot’s translation of, 161;
North’s translation of, 33, 52, 58.

Poliziano, Angelo, 199, 209;
_Favola di Orfeo_, 205.

Pope, Alexander, 40, 42, 43, 44, 83, 97, 109, 113, 114, 138, 158,
164, 177, 234, 251, 252;
_Dunciad_, 60;
_Essay on Criticism_, 6, 58, 60, 90, 159;
_Essay on Man_, 8, 245;
_Ode on St. Cecilia’s Day_, 54;
Pastorals, 5, 25, 26, 55, 56, 60, 112;
_Rape of the Lock_, 60, 208;
translation of Homer, 60;
other imitations of the classics, 85, 112.

Poquelin, Jean Baptiste. _See_ Molière.

Prévost d’Exiles, Abbé; _Manon Lescaut_, 175.

Prior, Matthew, 174.

Propertius, 87, 88.

_Proverbs of Solomon, the_, 19.

Prudentius, 117, 121.

Pulci, Luigi, 199;
_Morgante Maggiore_, 200.

Puttenham, George, 212;
_Art of English Poesy_, 57.

Quevedo, Francisco de; _Life of Buscon_, 223.

Quintilian, 71, 84, 99, 102;
_Training of the Orator_, 103.

Rabelais, François; _Gargantua and Pantagruel_, 161.

Racine, Jean Baptiste, 22, 79, 132, 139, 158, 166, 168, 170.

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 50.

Ranke, Leopold von, 245.

Rapin, 170.

_Reineke Fuchs_, 236.

Richardson, Samuel, 173, 175, 177;
_Clarissa Harlowe_, 173;
_Pamela_, 173, 175.

Richter, Jean Paul, 233.

Rinnucini; _Dafne_, 210.

_Roland, the Song of_, 142.

_Roman de Renard, the_, 149, 236.

_Romance of Alexander, the_, 163.

_Romance of the Rose, the_, 111, 148, 163.

Ronsard, 156, 157, 192.

Roscommon, Earl of, 160, 177;
_Essay on Translated Verse_, 6, 57;
translation of Horace’s _Ars Poetica_, 112.

Rossetti, D. G., 190, 192.

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 139, 177;
_Confessions_, 175, 176;
_Contrat Social_, 176.

Rucellai, Giovanni, 210.

Ruskin, John, 41, 213.

Sacchetti, 195.

Sachs, Hans, 232, 237.

Sackville, Thomas, Earl of Dorset, 111, 160, 177, 214.

St. Amant, 160.

Saint-Evremond, 174.

Saint-Gelais, 157, 192.

St. Pierre, Bernadin de; _Paul et Virginie_, 175, 177.

Ste. Beuve, Charles Augustin, 177.

Sallust, 75, 99, 100, 107.

Sannazaro, 5, 25, 55, 89, 204, 205, 213;
_Arcadia_, 205, 221.

Sappho, 16, 45, 46, 54, 72, 107.

Sardou, Victorien, 77, 177.

Scarron, Paul, 173, 224.

Schelling, Friedrich von, 244.

Schiller, Friedrich, 10, 108, 231, 233, 240-242;
_Robbers_, 240;
_Song of the Bell_, 242;
_Wallenstein_, 241, 242;
_Wilhelm Tell_, 242.

Schlegel, A. W. and Friedrich von, 245.

Schopenhauer, Arthur, 231, 244.

Scott, Sir Walter, 160;
translation of Goethe’s _Götz_, 246.

Scudéry, Mademoiselle de, 132, 172, 222, 250;
_Clélie_, 173;
_Grand Cyrus_, 173.

Sedley, Sir Charles, 160.

Seneca the Elder, 98.

Seneca the Younger, 71, 72, 75, 76, 78, 79, 102, 103, 107, 111, 112,
161, 166, 198, 209;
_Moral Epistles_, 103.

Ser Giovanni; _Pecorone_, 211.

_Seven Sages, the_, 195.

_Seven Wise Masters, the_, 133.

Sévigné, Madame de, 105, 173.

Shakespeare, William, 7, 20, 24, 50, 51, 52, 59, 76, 161, 166-170,
184, 185, 193, 211, 215, 220, 227, 232, 234, 243, 245;
_Antony and Cleopatra_, 58;
_Comedy of Errors_, 77;
_Coriolanus_, 33, 58;
_Hamlet_, 171;
_King Lear_, 171;
_Love’s Labour’s Lost_, 169, 205;
_Measure for Measure_, 169;
_Romeo and Juliet_, 214;
_Sonnets_, 192, 213;
_Taming of the Shrew_, 220;
_Two Gentlemen of Verona_, 221;
_Venus and Adonis_, 111;
_Winter’s Tale_, 169;
plots taken from the Classics, 33, 52, 58, 77, 94, 111;
from the Italians, 195, 205, 214, 219, 221;
familiar with Florio’s Montaigne, 162.

Shelley, P. B., 7, 197, 213, 233, 243;
_Adonais_, 15, 26, 56, 63;
_Defence of Poetry_, 58;
_Epipsychidion_, 63;
_Hellas_, 6, 62, 63;
_Ode to a Skylark_, 8;
_Ode to Liberty_, 55, 63;
_Prometheus Unbound_, 22, 39, 62.

Shenstone, William, 5.

Sheridan, Richard, 78;
_School for Scandal_, 171.

_Ship of Drunkards, the_, 237.

Sidney, Sir Philip, 50, 55, 161, 192, 213, 214;
_Arcadia_, 39, 56, 205, 221;
_Defence of Poesie_, 57, 214;
Sonnets, 213.

Simonides, 16, 17, 27, 54, 69.

Smollett, Tobias, 177;
_Peregrine Pickle_, 224;
_Roderick Random_, 173, 224.

_Song of Widsith, the_, 125.

Sophocles, 6, 19, 20, 59, 68;
_Philoctêtes_, 21.

_Spectator, the_, 138, 173.

Spenser, Edmund, 5, 41, 43, 44, 50, 51, 52, 56, 59, 60, 89, 93, 154,
192, 208, 234, 249, 250;
_Amoretti_, 190, 213;
_Astrophel_, 56, 58;
_Daphnaida_, 56, 58;
_Eclogues_, 111;
_Faerie Queene_, 42, 58, 111, 197, 200, 201, 203;
_Shepheard’s Calender_, 25, 26, 55, 56, 58, 221;
_Sonnets_, 213.

Staël, Madame de, 175.

Statius, 47, 84, 85, 111, 114;
_Thebaid_, 84, 111.

Steele, Sir Richard, 174, 177.

Sterne, Laurence, 32, 161.

Strabo, 35.

Straparola, Giovanni Francesco, 211.

_Stratagems of Women, the_, 219.

Suckling, Sir John, 17, 87.

Suetonius, 99, 100;
_Lives of the Twelve Caesars_, 100.

Surrey, Earl of, 111, 153, 179, 192, 193, 212;
Sonnets, 212, 213;
translation of Virgil, 111, 214.

Swift, Jonathan, 161, 174, 226;
_Battle of the Books_, 62;
_Gulliver’s Travels_, 32, 62;
_Tale of a Tub_, 62.

Swinburne, A. C., 41, 54;
_Atalanta in Calydon_, 22, 67.

Sylvester, J.; _Week of Creation_, 157.

_Syntipas_, 133.

Tacitus, 76, 100, 101, 108, 117.

Tasso, Torquato, 132, 179, 196, 197, 203, 204, 208, 211, 213;
_Aminta_, 204;
_Gerusalemme Liberata_, 81, 200, 203;
_Il Mondo Creato_, 204.

Tassoni Alessandro; _La Secchia Rapita_, 208.

Taylor, Jeremy, 112, 254.

Tennyson, Lord, 7, 41, 44, 58, 67-69, 83, 109;
_Idylls of the King_, 251;
_In Memoriam_, 8, 15, 57;
_Lotus-Eaters_, 39, 69;
_Œnone_, 57, 69;
Tithonus, 69;
translations from Homer, 13;
_Ulysses_, 69.

Terence, 24, 46, 75, 76-78, 80, 107, 112, 122, 209;
_Phormio_, 77.

Tertullian, 71, 117.

Theocritus; _Idylls_, 6, 25, 26, 27, 40, 46, 55, 56, 59, 62, 63, 68,
69, 89, 107, 112, 204;
translation of, 27.

Theodore of Tarsus, 131.

Theognis, 18.

Thomson, James, 197.

Thucydides, 29, 62.

Tibullus, 87, 156.

_Tottell’s Miscellany_, 213.

Trapassi, Pietro, called Metastasio, 210.

Trissino, Gian Giorgio, 166, 214;
_Sofonisba_, 210.

Turbervile, George, 205.

Tusser, Thomas; _Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry_, 14.

Tyrtaeus, 15.

Uhland, Ludwig, 231.

Valla, Lorenzo, 198.

Vanbrugh, Sir John, 177;
_The Mistake_, 171.

Varro, 98.

Vega, Garcilaso de la, 227.

Villon, François, 153-155, 163.

Vincent of Beauvais, 133.

Virgil, 45, 72, 73, 75, 79, 80, 85, 107, 110, 111, 114, 116, 121,
143, 188, 198;
_Aeneid_, 5, 81-84, 93, 111, 112, 185, 186, 203, 214;
_Eclogues_, 25, 26, 55, 89, 90, 111, 112, 204;
_Georgics_, 90, 113.

Voiture, Vincent, 160.

Voltaire, 32, 139, 168, 176, 239;
_Candide_, 175;
_Henriade_, 174;
_Zaïre_, 174.

_Vulgate, the_, 47, 117, 120.

Wace, Robert; _Geste des Bretons_, 150, 249.

_Wacht am Rhein, Die_, 15.

Waller, Edmund, 17, 87, 137, 158, 160.

Walpole, Horace; _Letters_, 105, 113, 173, 177.

Walter of Oxford, 249.

Watson; _Passionate Century of Love_, 212.

Way, A. S.; translation of Homer, 13.

Webster, John, 215.

Wieland, Christoph Martin, 233, 239.

Winckelmann, 245.

Wordsworth, William, 43, 44, 115, 175, 233;
_Excursion_, 93;
_Ode on the Intimations of Immortality_, 31;
translations from Chiabrera, 208.

Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 111, 153, 179, 192, 212.

Wycherley, William, 138, 177;
_The Plain Dealer_, 171.

Wyclif, John; translation of _The Bible_, 46, 47, 256.

Xenophanes, 92.

Zola, Emile, 177.

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