Chapter III: Introduction (1)

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It can not be too often, or too emphatically, impressed on the minds of those who desire to read well, that they must study to acquire the same easy, graceful, and natural tone and manner in reading, which persons of education and taste use in speaking. It is important, therefore, to observe closely the manner of those who read and speak well.

But, of course, no one can be taught to read well until he has learned to articulate distinctly and pronounce his words correctly. He must also pay due attention to TIME, INFLECTION and EMPHASIS. The following rules and exercises, taken from the best sources, will be found very useful. They are made as simple and plain as possible, but are at the same time moderately full.

PRONUNCIATION.

Pronunciation is good when all the letters and syllables in every word, are uttered with due force and proper fullness of sound. To pronunciation belong _articulation_ and _accent_.

A correct _articulation_ requires that every vowel, and, of course, every syllable in a word, be uttered with fulness and distinctness.

A correct _accentuation_ requires that a peculiar stress be laid on one or more syllables of a word, and, of course, that the other syllables be pronounced with less stress, or force. In most words it is sufficient to accent one syllable. In monosyllables there can be no accent, as if _one_ syllable were pronounced with force, there would be _no_ syllable left to be passed over lightly.

ARTICULATION.

DIRECTIONS AND EXERCISES.

I. Avoid suppressing any syllable or part of a syllable.

Do not say:

fat-t’l for fa-tal
met’l ” met-al
cap’n ” cap-tain
firm’ment ” firm-a-ment
reg’lar ” reg-u-lar
trav’ler ” trav-el-er
des’late ” des-o-late
bar-r’l ” bar-rel
ev’ry ” ev-e-ry
his-t’ry ” his-to-ry
sev’ral ” sev-e-ral
b’lief ” be-lief
flut’ring ” flut-ter-ing
mem’ry ” mem-o-ry
par-tic’lar ” par-tic-u-lar
read-in’ ” read-ing
writin’ ” writ-ing
speak-in’ ” speak-ing
walk-in’ ” wal-king
mor-nin’ ” morn-ing
sli-din’ ” slid-ing
shavin’ ” sha-ving
laughin’ ” laugh-ing
fight-in’ ” fight-ing
com-man’s ” com-mands
con-si’s ” con-sists
gov-er’-ment ” gov-ern-ment
Feb’-u-ary ” Feb-ru-ary
an’ ” and
groun’ ” ground
boun’ ” bound
wa’m-er ” warm-er
ha’m-less ” harm-less

II. Avoid substituting one sound for another. Do not say:

vir-too or vir-tshoo for vir-tue (yu)
lec-ter or lec-tshoor ” lec-ture (yūr)
ed-i-cate or ed-ju-cate ” ed-u-cate (yu)
fea-tur or fea-tshoor ” feat-ure (yūr)
mois-ter or mois-tshoor ” mois-ture (yūr)
mix-ter or mix-tsher ” mix-ture (yūr)
ves-ter or ves-tshure ” ves-ture (yūr)
stat-er or stat-chur ” stat-ure (yūr)
as-soom or as-shoom ” as-sume (yume)
pur-soot or pur-shoot ” pur-suit (yute)
chil-drin or child-er-en ” child-ren
fear-luss or fear-liss ” fear-less
win-e-gar ” vin-e-gar
con-clood ” con-clude (yude)

III. Avoid adding to, or taking from the sound of the word.

Do not say:

wil-ler for wil-low
fel-ler ” fel-low
win-der ” win-dow
wid-er ” wid-ow
pil-ler ” pil-low
hol-ler ” hol-low
fol-ler ” fol-low
Ma-ri-ar ” Ma-ri-a
Sav-an-ar ” Sav-an-ah
tub-ac-cur ” to-bac-co
croc-er-dile ” croc-o-dile
hold ” old
hart ” art
high ” eye
griev-ious (yus) ” griev-ous
hein-ious ” hein-ous
wen ” when
ware ” where
witch ” which
all ” hall
appy ” happy
wile ” while
wit ” whit
wine ” whine
wey ” whey
wit ” whit
ay ” hay
elp ” help
aft ” haft
ose ” hose
ire ” higher
wist ” whist
wy ” why

IV. Avoid pronouncing words alike which are not _precisely_ alike. Do not say:

ac-cess for ex-cess
fish-er ” fis-sure
al-tar ” al-ter
gent-le ” gen-tile
mare ” may-or
e-lis-ion ” e-ly-sian
bar-on ” bar-ren
e-merge ” im-merge
em-i-grant ” imˊ-mi-grant
im-pos-tor ” im-pos-ture
ac-cede ” ex-ceed
e-lic-it ” il-lic-it
af-fect ” ef-fect
can-did ” cand-ied
ap-pos-ite ” op-pos-ite
as-sist-ance ” as-sist-ants
cease ” seize
cauf ” cough
cen-sus ” sen-ses
cents ” sense.

[See exercises on these and similar words in the author’s “Columbian Spelling Book.”]

V. Avoid blending the end of a word with the beginning of the next. Do not confound—

A _nice_ house, with An _ice_ house.
False _sights_, ” False _heights_.
The darkest _hour_, ” The darkest _tower_.
It strikes with an _awe_, ” It strikes with a _naw_.
My heart was _awed_, ” My heart was _sawed_.
A _notion_ of sweetness, ” An _ocean_ of sweetness.
There was a great _error_, ” There was a great _terror_.
My _brothers ought_ to go, ” My _brother sought_ to go.
He walked in _fields of ice_, ” He walked in _fields of vice_.
Wastes _and_ deserts, ” Waste _sand_ deserts.
Look on this _spot_, ” Look on this _pot_.
Goodness _centers_ in the heart, ” Goodness _enters_ in the heart.
Luxurious _soil_, ” Luxurious _oil_.
Chaste _stars_, ” Chased _tars_.
Such a _notion_ exists, ” Such an _ocean_ exists.
To obtain _either_, ” To obtain _neither_.
His _cry_ moved me, ” His _crime_ moved me.
The same _arrow_, ” The same _marrow_.

ACCENT.

The remarks on _Accentuation_ in the third book of this series have already familiarized the learner with the uses of accent. He has learned how accent determines the pronunciation of words, and how it shows, in many cases, the sounds of the vowels. He has also learned, that many words are differently accented, and, of course, differently pronounced, when used as nouns, from the manner in which they are accented and pronounced, when used as verbs.

We shall not repeat what we have there explained; but we will here inform the pupil, that while all words of more than one syllable have one accented syllable, almost all words of more than three syllables have two accented syllables. These two syllables are not accented with equal force, and this makes necessary the terms _Primary Accent_, and _Secondary Accent_.

Where two syllables are accented in the same word, that which has the greater amount of stress laid upon it, receives the primary accent (generally marked ˝), and that which has the less amount of stress laid upon it, receives the secondary accent (generally marked ˊ or ˋ).

EXAMPLES.

edˊ-u-ca˝-tion
recˊ-o-mend˝
vo-cab˝-u-larˊ-y
resˊ-o-lu˝-tion
amˊ-bi-gu˝-i-ty
adˊ-mon-i˝-tion
tem˝-po-raˊ-ry
mo˝-ment-aˊ-ry
inˊ-de-pend˝-ence
conˊ-ver-sa˝-tion
satˊ-is-fac˝-tion
mat˝-ri-moˊ-ny
conˊ-se-quen˝-tial
rĕˊ-sur-rec˝-tion
morˊ-ti-fi-ca˝-tion

Observing the proper position of the accent, and paying particular attention to it, is indispensable for good reading. Those who fail to do so, always read with a drawling, monotonous tone, and cannot please their hearers. There is no precision in their pronunciation, and there can be no clearness in their enunciation. (See the “Columbian Spelling Book,” page 105, where the nature and uses of accents are treated of at considerable length.)

TIME.

The second requisite of good reading is, that due regard be paid to TIME: if the reader hurries on without making the necessary pauses, the pronunciation is not only indistinct, but the sense is often altogether lost; and if he hesitates, making pauses where none should be made, and reads without animation or spirit, the sense is equally injured, or made difficult to ascertain, and the reading is of that drawling kind to which it is so tiresome to listen.

Those who desire to become good readers, then, must pay due attention to the pauses which should be made. Pauses are of two kinds, Grammatical Pauses, which are marked by characters, and Rhetorical Pauses, which are not marked by characters, but which the sense of what you read, requires to be made. We shall first speak of the GRAMMATICAL PAUSES; they are—

The Comma (marked) ,
” Semicolon ” ;
” Colon ” :
” Period ” .
” Interrogation ” ?
” Exclamation ” !

The Parenthesis () is used to inclose some word or words which are not essential to the structure of the sentence; and the Dash (—) is used to denote a sudden breaking or turning off in the discourse or sentence.

When any of these points is met with in reading, there must be a pause of greater or less duration. You should stop at the comma about as long as you would be saying a word, or while you can draw breath; at the others you should stop a little longer, but there can be no proper time fixed upon; the sense and requirements of the sentence or clause must always determine. It is usual to stop longer at each subsequent pause marked in the table, than at the preceding one; thus, longer at the semicolon than the comma, longer at the colon than the semicolon, and so on. This cannot be given as an invariable rule, however, due attention to the sense of the passage read being the best possible, indeed, the only way in which the proper duration of the pause can be determined.

RHETORICAL PAUSES are such as the sense requires, though not marked by characters. It will be at once perceived, that the proper making of them is much more difficult to the young reader, than those of which we have just spoken; and yet, if he desires to read with grace and elegance, he cannot dispense with them. We do not think that very young learners will be benefited much by studying rules for making rhetorical pauses, (they can be made to understand their proper use and place more readily by a competent teacher,) but we give a few of the most useful and simple.

1. _The rhetorical pause should be made after the subject, or
nominative, if it consists of several words_; as—To express this
connection | two marks are used. The love of riches | is not a
virtue. The experience of want | enhances the value of plenty.

4. _The rhetorical pause should be made after the objective in
sentences of inverted construction_; as—To my mother | give my
fond remembrance. On all sides | were carnage and death. On
Linden | when the sun was low. On this side of the grave | there
is no real happiness.

EMPHASIS.

Emphasis is a peculiar stress laid on words for the purpose of distinguishing them _from_, or contrasting them _with_ other words; also for the purpose of drawing marked attention to any particular word.

EXAMPLES.

1. I spoke not _for_ | but _against_ Cæsar.

2. I did not say _here_ | but _there_.

3. You say | he is _honest_. There is not | a more _dishonest_
man | in town.

4. I care not | who is _in_ | or | who is _out_.

5. We have offended against the lord | _already_.

6. He | who cannot _bear_ a joke | should not _give_ a joke.

7. _Little_ minds | are _crushed_ by misfortune, when _great_
ones | _rise above_ it. _He_ raised a _mortal to_ the skies, |
_she_ drew an _angel down_.

8. Many mistake _love_ of virtue | for _virtue_.

Emphasis is sometimes laid only on particular syllables of a word; as—

1. What is _said_ | cannot be _un_said.

2. He will _decrease_ | but I will _in_crease.

3. There is seldom _convenience_ | without _in_convenience.

4. To _do_ | and to _un_do | are common things.

Emphasis is _slight_, _strong_, and _vehement_; as—

1. Let our motto be | _our country_, our WHOLE COUNTRY, and |
NOTHING BUT OUR COUNTRY.

3. If I was an American | as I am an Englishman, I would _never_
lay down my arms—_never_, NEVER, NEVER.

4. The _union_, it SHALL | and MUST be _preserved_.

5. RISE | _arch of the ocean_, and _queen of the west_!

6. _Romeo_, ROMEO, _wherefore_ art thou _Romeo_?

The following admirable observations on EMPHASIS are worthy of attention.

“In every sentence, and clause of a sentence, there is one or more words which require to be pronounced with a greater degree of force than the other words. Without knowing and marking the _accented_ syllables in words, we cannot give them their proper pronunciation; nor can we bring out the full meaning of a sentence, unless we know and mark the _emphatic_ words. The accented syllables of words we learn by imitating the pronunciation of correct speakers; and by referring, in cases of doubt, to a dictionary in which they are given. The emphatic words in a sentence we can only learn by knowing their relative importance in it, and the precise meaning which the writer of it intended each of them to convey. In fact, if we know the meaning and drift of the sentence, we shall have no difficulty in discovering the emphatic words. In all such cases they are naturally and spontaneously suggested to us, just as they are to persons uttering or speaking their own sentiments. For even the most illiterate persons are sure, when uttering their own sentiments, to lay the proper emphasis on their words; though they may, and very often do, give them the wrong _accents_. If a laboring man, for example, were to say, “It is a spade, and not a shovel that I want,” he would be sure to pronounce the words “_spade_” and “_shovel_” with a greater degree of force than the other words; because he wishes to draw the particular attention of the person whom he addresses to the _ideas_ or things which they represent. Had he merely said, “It is a spade I want,” he would nevertheless have pronounced the word “_spade_” emphatically, because he wished it to be particularly understood that it was a _spade_, and not any other implement, such as a shovel, that he wanted. Should he say, “Is the spade broken?” he would pronounce the word “_broken_” emphatically; because his object is to obtain precise information on that point. But if he should say, “Is it the spade that is broken?” he will lay the emphasis on the word “_spade_,” and not upon “_broken_;” because, understanding that there is some implement broken, he wishes to be informed whether it is the _spade_. Again, should he say, “Is it my spade that is broken?” he will lay the emphasis on the word “_my_”; because he desires to know whether the spade that is broken is _his_ or not. Should he ask, “Who broke the spade?” he will lay the emphasis on the word “_who_;” because, being already aware that the spade is broken, his object in making the inquiry is, to learn the name of the person who broke it. And, lastly should he say, “How was the spade broken?” he will make “_how_” the emphatic word; because, in this case, he wishes to be informed of the manner or way in which the accident occurred.

“It is obvious from what has been said, that if we understand the meaning of what we read, in the same degree as a person understands the thoughts which he utters, we shall, like him, naturally and spontaneously lay the _emphasis_ on the proper words. It is equally obvious, that if we do not understand the meaning of what we read, we shall either have to pronounce all the words with the same degree of force—which would be absurd—or to run the risk of perverting the meaning of the author, by laying the emphasis on the wrong words. The following sentence will exemplify this:—“O fools and slow of heart to believe all that the prophets have written concerning me.” If we perceive that the intention of our Saviour was to reproach his disciples for their _backwardness_ in believing, we shall, in reading it, naturally lay the principal emphasis on the word “_slow_.” But if we do not see that this was the object of the speaker, the chances are we shall lay the emphasis on one of the other words, and thus change or pervert the meaning. For example, if we lay the emphasis on “_believe_,” it would imply that the disciples were reproached for _believing_; if on “_all_,” then the inference would be that they might have believed _some_ of the things which the prophets had written, but that it was foolish in them to believe _all_. If we lay the emphasis on “_prophets_,” it would imply that they might have believed _others_, but that they were fools for believing the _prophets_; if on “_written_,” the inference would be, that though they might have believed what the prophets had _said_, it was foolish in them to believe what they had _written_; and, finally, if we lay the emphasis on “_me_,” it would imply that though they might have believed what the prophets had written concerning _others_, yet they were fools for believing what they had written concerning the _Saviour_.

Even in the most familiar sentences, illustrations of this may be found. The simple question, for example: “Do you ride to town to-day?” may, by varying the position of the emphasis, be made to suggest as many different meanings as it contains words. If we lay the emphasis on “_you_,” we wish to ascertain from the person addressed, whether it is he or some other person that is to ride to town to-day; if on “_ride_,” we mean to ask him whether he purposes to ride or walk; if on “_town_,” our purpose is to inquire whether it is to the town or to the country he means to ride; and, finally, if we make “_to-day_” the emphatic word, we wish him to say whether it is to-day or to-morrow he intends to ride to town. Even the preposition “_to_,” if made emphatic, would imply, though obscurely, that we wished the person addressed to say whether he intended to ride quite as far as the town, or only part of the way.

“We shall show, by a few illustrations, the power which EMPHASIS has over accent when the sense or meaning requires it:—

1. He must _in_crease, but I must _de_crease.

2. Neither justice nor _in_justice has any thing to do with the
matter.

3. What is done cannot be _un_done.

4. Religion raises men above themselves, _ir_religion sinks them
below the brutes.

5. This corruptible must put on _in_corruption, and this mortal
must put on _im_mortality.

6. To me it was far from being an agreeable surprise; on the
contrary, it was a _dis_agreeable one.

7. Thought and language act and _re_act upon each other.

8. What fellowship hath righteousness with _un_righteousness? and
what communion hath light with darkness?

9. I shall always make nature, truth, and reason, the measures of
praise and _dis_praise.

10. A gentleman who was pressed by his friends to forgive his
daughter, who had married against his wishes, promised to do so,
but added, that he would have them remember that there was a
difference between giving and _for_giving.

“In the preceding, and in all similar cases, the position of the _accent_ is completely changed by the _emphasis_. The reason is obvious: the speaker wishes to draw the special attention of the person addressed to the contrasted parts of the words; and hence he pronounces those parts or syllables _emphatically_, the effect of which is, in such cases, to change the seat of the accent.

“This transposition of the accent takes place also in words which have a sameness of termination, even though they may not be directly opposed in sense; as in the following examples:—

1. Cataline was expert in all the arts of _sim_ulation and
_dis_simulation; covetous of what belonged to others, lavish of
his own.

2. In this species of composition, _plaus_ibility is more
essential than _prob_ability.

“From what has been said with regard to emphasis, we may draw the following general conclusion: Whenever a person wishes to bring an _idea_ prominently or forcibly under the notice of the person or persons whom he addresses, he will naturally and instinctively pronounce the _word_ which expresses it with a corresponding degree of _emphatic_ force. The degree or intensity of the emphasis will, of course, depend upon the importance of the idea to be expressed, the nature of the subject, and the feelings or emotions of the speaker. In some cases it will be _slight_, in others _strong_, and in others, _vehement_ or energetic; and hence a good general division of emphasis, with regard to its intensity, might be into three degrees, namely SLIGHT, STRONG, and VEHEMENT. Of course, there must be a great diversity in the degrees of emphasis, from the _slight_ to the _vehement_; but the general divisions which we have suggested will be quite sufficient for practical purposes—and we have no other in view.

“Though in all properly constructed sentences, every word is useful and necessary, yet in every sentence the relative importance of the words must be different. _Articles_, _Prepositions_, _Conjunctions_, and _Auxiliary_ Verbs, for example, are less important in their significations than the words which they introduce or connect—as _Nouns_, _Verbs_, _Adjectives_, and _Adverbs_. And hence it may be laid down as a general rule, that _the less important words in a sentence should be pronounced with less of force and distinctness than the more important words_. And this, as we have seen, we always do in SPEAKING; for it is to the more important words that we naturally desire to draw the special attention of the person or persons whom we address, and not to the ancillary or subordinate words.

“It may also be observed that _Pronouns_, though important parts of speech, should be classed, with regard to their pronunciation in a sentence, with the less important words, as _Articles_, _Prepositions_, and _Conjunctions_. The reason is obvious: no new idea is introduced by a _Pronoun_. It stands for, or represents, a word which has been mentioned before, and which is, consequently, already before the mind of the person addressed. _Pronouns_, therefore, should be always pronounced without emphasis, unless when some contrast or opposition is intended.[3] We shall illustrate this by a familiar sentence or two:—

If John is there, I will thank yŏu to give hĭm this book—though,
perhaps, I should give it to _you_, and not to _him_. Yŏu are
right; it is to _me_ you should give it. _You_ think so, but _I_
think differently; and so, I am sure, does _he_.

“In the foregoing sentences, the pronouns printed in _Italic_ are emphatical, because they are _antithetical_, or opposed to each other; while the other pronouns in the same sentence should be pronounced without emphasis, because no contrast or opposition is intended.

“In the same way, any of the less important parts of speech may become emphatical; as—

I told you to bring me _the_ book, not _a_ book. You were told
to put the book _on_ the table—not _under_ it. It was _and_ I
said—not _or_.

“From what has been said with regard to emphasis, it is evident that all _antithetic_ or contrasted words are emphatic; and in fact, it is usual to consider such words only as emphatic. Mr. Walker, and his followers, for example, hold that in every case of emphasis there is an antithesis expressed or implied; and that it never can be proper to give emphatic force to a word unless it stands opposed in sense to some other word expressed or understood.[4] But this is to take too narrow a view of emphasis. There are other sources of it besides contrast or antithetic relation. There may be _absolute_, as well as _antithetic_ emphasis. For example, if the _idea_ to be communicated is of peculiar or paramount importance in itself, the word expressing it should be pronounced with a corresponding degree of emphatic force; and this a person speaking his own sentiments will naturally do, particularly if he is under the influence of passion or emotion. It is evident, too, that this kind of emphasis may extend to _several words in succession_, and even to _whole clauses of sentences_. This kind of emphasis Mr. Walker himself admits under the head of “_General Emphasis_.” The following are examples:—

1. What men could do
Is done already: heaven and earth will witness,
_If Rome must fall_, that we are innocent.

2. There was a time, then, my fellow citizens, when the
Lacedæmonians were sovereign masters both by sea and land; when
their troops and forts surrounded the entire circuit of Attica;
when they possessed Eubœa, Tanagra, the whole Bœotian district,
Megara, Ægina, Cleone, and other islands; while this state had
not one ship—no, _not—one—wall_.

3. Or shall I—who was born I might almost say, but certainly
brought up, in the tent of my father—that most excellent
general!—shall I the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and
not only of the Alpine nations, but what is greater yet,
of the Alps themselves—shall I compare myself with this
_half-year-captain_,—a captain—before whom, should one place the
two armies without their ensigns, I am persuaded he would not
know to which of them he is consul.

“It is usual to subdivide _Antithetic Emphasis_ into Single, Double, and Treble Emphasis;[5] and to give rules for the proper pronunciation of _emphatic_ words in each case. But the simple principles we have adopted render all such rules superfluous; for in all cases of antithesis the antithetic terms must be either expressed or understood; if they are expressed, which is usually the case, there can be no difficulty with regard to emphasis; for when the words which are opposed to each other in the sentence are expressed in it, the mind instantly perceives the opposition between them and the voice instinctively marks it in the pronunciation. The following are examples:—

SINGLE EMPHASIS.

1. Study not so much to _show_ knowledge as to _acquire_ it.

2. He that cannot _bear_ a jest should not _make_ one.

3. We think less of the injuries we _do_, than of those we
_suffer_.

4. It is not so easy to _hide_ one’s faults, as to _mend_ them.

5. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our _stars_,
But in _ourselves_, that we are underlings.

DOUBLE EMPHASIS.

1. To _err_ is _human_; to _forgive_, _divine_.

2. Custom is the _plague_ of _wise_ men, and the _idol_ of
_fools_.

3. The _prodigal_ robs his _heir_, the _miser_ robs _himself_.

4. The pleasures of the imagination are not so _gross_ as those
of _sense_, nor so _refined_ as those of the _understanding_.

5. Grief is the counter passion of joy. The _one_ arises from
_agreeable_, and the _other_ from _disagreeable_ events—the _one_
from _pleasure_, and the _other_ from _pain_—the _one_ from
_good_, and the _other_ from _evil_.

6. _One_ sun by _day_—by _night_ _ten thousand_ shine.

7. The foulest stain and scandal of our nature
Became its boast—_one_ murder makes a _villain_,
_Millions_ a _hero_.

TREBLE EMPHASIS.

1. _He_ raised a _mortal_ to the _skies_,
_She_ drew an _angel_ _down_.

2. A _friend_ cannot be _known_ in _prosperity_; and an _enemy_
cannot be _hidden_ in _adversity_.

3. The difference between a madman and a fool, is that the
_former_ reasons _justly_ from _false_ data; and the _latter_
_erroneously_ from _just_ data.

4. Flowers of rhetoric in sermons or serious discourses are like
the blue and red flowers in corn, _pleasing_ to _those_ who come
only for _amusement_, but _prejudicial_ to _him_ who would reap
the _profit_.

5. Had you rather Cæsar were _living_, and _die_ all _slaves_,
Than that Cæsar were _dead_, to _live_ all _freemen_?

“In such cases as the preceding, it is obvious that there can be no difficulty with regard to EMPHASIS; because the words which are opposed to each other in the sentence are expressed. But when only one of the contrasted terms is expressed, as in the following examples, the careless or injudicious reader is apt to overlook its _antithetic_ import, and will consequently fail to give it the emphatic pronunciation which is necessary to bring out the full meaning of the sentence.

1. A _child_ might understand it. [The antithesis implied or
suggested in this sentence is obviously—not merely a _man_ or a
person of _mature_ judgment, but even a _child_.]

2. Exercise and temperance will strengthen even an _indifferent_
constitution. [That is, not merely an _ordinary_ or _good_
constitution, but even an _indifferent_ one.]

3. _He_ that _runs_ may read. [That is, not merely a person who
walks, and who has therefore leisure to observe, but even _he_
that runs.]

4. We know the passions of men: we know how dangerous it is to
trust the _best_ of men with too much power. [That is, not merely
_bad_ or _ordinary_ men, but even the _best_ of men.]

5. _Tubal._ One of them showed me a ring which he had of your
daughter for a monkey.

_Shylock._ Out upon her! Thou torturest me, Tubal: it was my
turquoise,—I would not have given it for a _wilderness_ of
monkeys. [That is, so far from giving it for _one_ monkey, I
would not have given it for a _whole wilderness_ of monkeys.]

6. Can a _Roman_ senate long debate
Which of the two to choose, slavery or death!

[That is, _other_ senates may, but can a _Roman_ one?]

7. Curse not the king, no, not in thy _thought_. [That is, not
merely in _words_ or _audibly_, but even in thy _thought_.]

8. And think not to say among yourselves, We have Abraham to our
father: for I say unto you, That God is able of these _stones_
to raise up children unto Abraham. [That is, not merely from the
_seed_ or _descendants_ of Abraham, but even from these _stones_.]

9. By the faculty of a lively and picturesque imagination, a man
in a _dungeon_ is capable of entertaining himself with scenes
and landscapes, more beautiful than any that can be found in the
whole compass of nature. [That is, not only when he is _absent_
from beautiful scenes, but even in a _dungeon_.]

10. A man of a polite imagination is let in to a great many
pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving; he can
converse with a _picture_, and find an agreeable companion in
a _statue_. [That is, he can converse even with a _picture_,
and find an agreeable companion even in a _statue_, which are
pleasures unknown to the vulgar or uneducated.]

“It is obvious, that in each of the preceding examples there is an antithesis implied or understood; and the only rule necessary in such cases is, to pronounce the words which imply it with such a degree of emphatic force as will best bring out the full meaning of the sentence. And this every reader will naturally do, if he keeps in mind, and puts into practice, the great and fundamental rule for GOOD READING, namely, _Understand what you read, and read it as if you understood it._”

INFLECTION.

In speaking or reading, the voice must either rise or fall, if it do not continue in the same uniform tone. This rising and falling, or upward and downward sliding of the voice, is called INFLECTION.

When the voice rises, it is, of course, called the _rising inflection_, and when it falls, the _falling inflection_.

When the voice, instead of either rising or falling, continues during the utterance of several words in the same tone, it is called a _monotone_. That falling of the tone which usually takes place at the end of a sentence or paragraph is termed a _cadence_.

The voice sometimes rises and falls, or falls and rises, on the same word or syllable. This is called a _circumflex_.

The inflections are generally marked thus:

Rising Inflection, (ˊ)
Falling Inflection, (ˋ)
Cadence, (ˋ)
Circumflex, (ˇ)

The following rules will assist the learner in determining the inflections. They are as few and as simple as possible, and can be understood with very little effort, particularly by the aid of a competent teacher.

I. Whenever the voice must be suspended without the sense being complete, the _rising inflection_ should be used.

EXAMPLES.

1. No man can rise above the infirmities of naˊture, unless he is
assisˊted by God.ˋ

2. To acquire knowˊledge is the duty of man.

3. Shame being lostˊ, all virtue is lost.

4. Fathˊers, Senators of Romeˊ, arbiters of naˊtions, to you I
fly for refuge.

5. Poor were the expectations of the modˊest, the virˊtuousˊ, and
the goodˊ, if the reward of their labors were expected only from
man.

6. An honest manˊ, (as the poet has saidˊ,) is the noblest work
of God.

II. At the end of a sentence, and in all places where the sense is complete, the _falling inflection_ should be used.

EXAMPLES.

1. Peace will soon be estabˋlished; confidence will come with
peaceˋ; capˋital will follow conˋfidence; employment will
increase with capˋital; educationˊ will be diffuˊsed, and virtue
will grow with educaˋtion.

2. It is of the last importance to season the passions of a child
with devoˋtion; which seldom dies in a mind that has received an
early tincˋture of it.

3. Temˊperance, by fortifying the mind and bodˊy, leads to
hapˋpiness.

4. Sincerity is to speak as we thinkˋ, to do as we pretend and
professˋ, to perform and make good what we promˋise, and really
to be what we appearˋ to be.

5. The consequences of intemperance are disgraceˋ, povˋerty,
disease, and premature deathˋ.

6. I could not treat a dogˋ ill. Unkindness seldom produces other
than evil effectsˋ.

III. When a question is asked by an interrogative word, the word which asks the question, as well as all other important words in the question, takes the _falling inflection_.

EXAMPLES.

1. Whatˋ will you do in the day of visitaˋtion?

2. Whereˋby shall I knowˋ this? Howˋ shall the manifestaˋtion be
madeˋ?

3. Whoˋ do men say that I amˋ? Whomˋ do they represent me to beˋ?

4. Whoˋ is here so braveˋ that he would be a bondˋman?

5. Whatˋ have I doneˋ that you should give me this cruel
treatmentˋ?

6. Whyˋ bendest thou in stormˋ; whyˋ lower thy headˋ?

IV. When a question is asked commencing with a verb, the previous rule is reversed, and all the important words in the question, particularly the last, take the _rising inflection_.

EXAMPLES.

1. Is the windˊ blowˊing? Is the sunˊ shinˊing? Is it rainˊing?
Is it snowˊing?

2. Do I loveˊ? dost thou loveˊ? do we loveˊ?

3. Are you coldˊ? Is he poorˊ? Is she vainˊ?

4. Has he not involˊved himself by his improvˊidence?

5. Has that poorˊ man been cheatˊed? has his povˊerty been no
protecˊtion?

EXCEPTION.—_When the question defies contradiction, and is only interrogatory in form, being really an assertion, the falling inflection is used: as—_

6. Are not the happy rareˋ? Are not the good the most hapˋpy?

7. Does he not possessˋ this world’s goodsˋ as if he possessed
them notˋ?

8. How fewˋ can we find whose activˋity has not been misappliedˋ?

V.—Words that are contrasted with one another have opposite inflections; and answers have, generally, opposite inflections to the questions.

EXAMPLES.

1. We see the moteˋ in anothˊer’s eye, but cannot discern the
beamˊ in our ownˋ.

2. He strikes othˊers but hurts himselfˋ.

3. We should judge by the heartˋ rather than the headˊ.

4. Did he act justˋly or unjustˊly? He acted justˊly, not
unjustˋly.

5. Did he say trueˋ or untrueˊ. He said trueˊ, not untrueˋ.

6. I am more inclined to be gladˋ than sorˊry, to loveˋ than
to hateˊ, to make friendsˋ than to deserve foesˊ, to be a good
friendˊ than a bad enemyˋ.

VI.—When words express pity, joy, or grief, they take the _rising inflection_; and in all language expressive of tender emotion the _rising inflection_ predominates.

EXAMPLES.

1. Ohˊ dearˊ me. Oh genˊtle sleepˊ, nature’s soft nurseˊ.

2. Piˊty, kindˊ gentlemen, friendsˊ of humanityˊ.

3. Ohˊ, my lordˊ, let me speak a word in thy earˊ.

4. I am thy fathˊer—oh, my sonˊ! my sonˊ!

5. Poor Maˊry. How my heartˊ bled to see her angˊuish, when she
looked upon her departed childˊ.

6. Ohˊ that I knewˊ how I could consoleˊ her, how I could bring
peaceˊ to her mind.ˋ

VII.—When words express denunciation, reproach, violent passion, or dignified emotion, they take the falling inflection.

EXAMPLES.

1. You wrong me evˋery way—you wrongˋ me, Brutus.

2. Revengeˋ, _revengeˋ_, Timotheus cries.

3. Let no man dareˋ speak ill of my departed fatherˋ.

4. Oh wretched manˋ. Oh unhapˋpy sinner.

5. Wretchˋ that I amˋ, whereˋ shall I goˋ?

6. Avauntˋ and quit my sightˋ. Let the earth hideˋ thee. Begoneˋ!

7. What a splendid piece of workˋmanship is manˋ.

8. Behold the child of purˋity arrayed in her inˋnocence.

9. Oh, dearˋest to my soulˋ—now goneˋ, alasˋ, from my sight. Woeˋ
is me, that my sojourning is prolongˋed.

VIII.—In a commencing series, of three or four numbers, the last number or numbers of the series, and in a concluding series, the last but one, generally takes the _rising inflection_, and all the other take the _falling inflection_.

EXAMPLES.

1. Honorˋ, virˋtue, and truthˊ, distinguish himˋ.

2. He is distinguished by honˋor, virˊtue, and truthˋ.

3. Haˋtreds, dissenˋtions, disˋcords, and warsˊ are produced by
ambiˋtion.

4. You have a friend who will pityˋ, supportˋ, defendˊ, and
relieveˋ you.

5. The wind and rain are oˋver; calm is the morn of dayˋ; the
clouds are divided in heavˊen; over the green hills flies the
inconstant sunˋ.

6. A true friend unbosoms freeˋly, advises justˋly, assists
readˋily, takes all paˊtiently, and continues a friend
unchangeˋably.

7. A good disposiˋtion, virtuous princiˋples, a liberal
educaˋtion, and industrious habˊits, are passports to happiness
and honˋor.

8. Hapˋpiness and honorˊ are the reward of a good disˋposition,
virtuous prinˋciples, a liberal educaˊtion, and industrious
habˋits.

9. If you look about youˊ, and consider the lives of othˊers as
well as your ownˋ; if you think how few are bornˋ with honˊor,
and how many dieˊ without nameˊ or childˋren; how little beautyˋ
we seeˊ, and how few friendsˊ we hearˋ of; how many diseasesˊ
and how much povˋerty there is in the worldˊ, you will admireˊ,
instead of repinˋing at God’s provˋidence.

CIRCUMFLEX INFLECTION.

In a circumflex the voice is made to bend so that it falls and rises, or rises and falls, during the utterance of a single sound. Circumflex inflection is used in expression of bitter irony or reproach.

EXAMPLES.

1. They offer us their protecˋtion. Yĕs, sŭch protection as
vŭltures give to lămbs—covering and devouring themˋ.

2. Gone to be mărried! gone to swĕar a pĕace! gone to be frĭends!

3. He dâres not touch a hâir of Catalineˋ.

4. I may do what I shall be sorˋry for. You hâve done what you
shoûld be sorˋry for.

5. So this is yŏu. How glăd I am to meet so trŭe a friend.

MONOTONE.

In a monotone the voice neither rises nor falls during the utterance of a succession of words. It is generally used in pronouncing grand and solemn passages.

EXAMPLES.

1. _The bell strikes one._ We _take no note of time but from its loss. To give it_, then, _a tongue is wise in man. As if an angel spoke, I feel the solemn sound. If heard aright, it_ is the _knell of my departed hours_.

Who would fardells bear,
To groan and sweat under a weary life,
_But that the dread of something after death_
_That undiscovered country from whose bourne_
_No traveler returns_,—puzzles the will
And makes us _rather bear the ills we have_
Than _fly to others which we know not of_.

3. I flew towards her; my arms were already unclosed to clasp her, when, suddenly, _her figure changed—her face grew pale—a stream of blood gushed from her bosom. ’Twas Evelina._

The _cloud-capped towers_, the _gorgeous palaces_,
The _solemn temples_, the great globeˊ itselfˋ—
Yea, _all which it inherit shall dissolve_,
And, _like the baseless fabric of a vision_,
Leaveˊ not a wreck behindˋ.

PARENTHESIS AND PARENTHETICAL CLAUSES.

A parenthesis is an explanatory clause introduced into a sentence. Parenthesis might be omitted in reading without injuring the grammatical construction of the sentence. The tone employed in reading parenthetical clauses, should, generally, be lower than that in which the other parts of the sentence are read. The monotone is most suitable for parenthesis, but when inflections are used, as they sometimes are in short clauses, the inflection should be the same as that used at the pause immediately preceding the parenthesis, which is generally the _rising inflection_.

EXAMPLES.

1. Rememˊber (continued she with a sighˊ) your dearˊ absent
friendˋ.

2. Know then, this truthˊ, (enough for man to knowˊ,)
Virtue aloneˋ is happiness belowˋ.

3. Nothing can be greatˊ the contemplation of which is not greatˋ
(says Longinusˋ).

4. On the one handˊ, are the divine approbaˊtion and immorˋtal
honˋor; on the othˊer, (remember and bewareˊ,) are the stings of
conˋscience and endless inˋfamy.

5. Genˊtlemen, if I make out this case by evˊidence, (and if I
do not, forget every thing you have heard, and reproach me for
having abused your honest feelˊings,) I have established a claim
for damˊages that has no parallel in the annals of fashionable
intrigueˋ.

The expressions _said I_, _continued he_, _so to speak_, _then_, _except_, _nevertheless_, _therefore_, _yet_, _notwithstanding_, etc., are read in a lower tone, like parenthesis, and with the _falling inflection_, as:

Justice, _said heˋ_, will carry it.
Though he was rich, _yetˋ_, for our sakes he became poor.
Though deep, _yet clearˋ_; though gentle, _yetˋ_ not dull.
I love every one of them, _exceptˋ_ the old crone.
He was, _so to speakˋ_, the lion of the tribe.

TONE.

Tone differs from accent and emphasis, but may be said to be nearly allied to inflection. Tone is not confined to words, but to whole passages, and is intended to convey to the minds of the hearers the passions and feelings which are supposed to have influenced the writer or speaker.

Nothing can contribute more to beautiful and expressive reading than the use of the tones most suitable to the matter read. Nor is the correct language of emotion, the appropriate sound with which certain passages should be uttered, of very difficult attainment. The smallest child finds tones to express its various feelings, and there can be no great difficulty in the reader’s ascertaining the emotions under which the author spoke or wrote, and making his tones such as give best expression to those emotions.

But in this, as in other matters, there should be moderation. Every thing artificial and theatrical should, in reading ordinary compositions, be avoided. We recommend Murray’s rule to the learner: “In reading, let your tones of expression be borrowed from those of common speech, but, in some degree, more faintly characterized. Let those tones which signify any disagreeable passion of the mind be more faint than those which indicate agreeable emotion; and, on all occasions, preserve yourselves from being so far affected with the subject as to be able to proceed through it with an easy and masterly manner, which has its good effects in this as well as in every other art.”

EXPRESSION AND ENERGY.

The following observations on Expression and Energy are taken from Vandenhoff’s “Plain System of Elocution:”

EXPRESSION.

“Expression is the modulating or regulating the organ of the voice to tones of gentleness or force, according to the nature and degree of feeling, or passion, expressed in words. Expression is the natural language of emotion. It is, in Elocution, to a certain extent, a vocal imitation of passion. But this must be done without “aggravating the voice” (as Bottom has it.) It is a grace which requires the nicest management; and cannot be achieved but with the best cultivation of _ear_ and _voice_; in order to catch and re-echo the tones of the heart to the ears and hearts of others.

“Expression, therefore, is a refinement on Intonation: they go hand in hand: we cannot think of the one without the other. Intonation gives the voice volume and power; expression uses and adopts it to the feeling of the moment.

ENERGY.

“Energy is intimately allied to the two preceding graces of Elocution; to which it adds force, intensity, and earnestness. As Expression is variety of Intonation, Energy may be called the _Emphasis of Expression_.

“It is the life, the soul, the animating spirit. Without it, the speaker may be correct, and even agreeable, by a due observance of rule; but if he lack _energy_, he will be listened to without interest; his voice will fall powerless on the ear, and neither “awake the senses,” nor “stir the blood.”

“Energy, it is true, depends somewhat on individual temperament and constitution. But even where natural or physical energy is deficient, an _energetic manner_ may be acquired by practice and exercise under judicious direction; just as the muscular powers may be improved, and bodily vigor increased, even in a feeble frame, under a course of training and well-regulated exercise.

“Even in narration, what force, what reality can be given to a description by a speaker who, as it were, throws himself into the scene, and by the vivacity and energy of his delivery brings the action graphically before your eyes, hurries you into the heat of it, and makes you feel as if personally engaged in what is so stirringly related to you as in that beautiful description, in Shakspeare’s _Henry IV._, of the gallant Prince Henry and his comrades armed for battle:

“All furnish’d, all in arms,
Glitt’ring in golden coats like images;
As full of spirit as the month of May,
And gorgeous as the sun at midsummer;
Wanton as youthful goats, wild as young bulls.
I saw young Harry,—with his beaver on,
His cuises on his thighs, gallantly arm’d,—
Rise from the ground like feathered Mercury,
And vaulted with such ease into his seat,
As if an angel dropp’d down from the clouds,
To turn and wind a fiery Pegasus,
And witch the world with noble horsemanship!

“Unless this description, full of poetic imagination and coloring as it is, be delivered with warmth, _energy_, and a tone of enthusiasm, it will fall very short of its due impression; and thus the poet will be deprived, by the speaker’s coldness, of the full appreciation, by the hearer, of the exquisite beauty of the picture.

“But the force of his elocution must be greatly increased, and the expression must be changed, become impassioned, and raised almost to _fierceness_, to produce the full effect of _Hotspur’s_ heroic and inspiring answer: which breaths the highest enthusiasm of confident and daring valor, undaunted resolution, and impatient thirst of glory.

“It must therefore be marked with all the _energy_ that the reader can command.

HOTSPUR’S EAGERNESS FOR BATTLE.

Let them come!
They come like sacrifices in their trim,
And to the fire-eyed maid of smoky war,
All hot, and bleeding, will we offer them!
The mailed Mars shall on his altar sit
Up to the ears in blood. I am on fire,
To hear this rich reprisal is so nigh,
And yet not ours! Come, let me take my horse,
Which is to bear me like a thunderbolt
Against the bosom of the Prince of Wales:
Harry to Harry shall, hot horse to horse,
Meet, and ne’er part till one drop down a corse!

“Thus we see that Intonation, Energy, and Expression are kindred graces: united and embodied in full force and with just discrimination, they reach the climax of the power of Elocution, the acmé of its art—PASSION.

“In conclusion, I take leave to add, that I shall indeed feel proud if this feeble attempt of mine may have the effect of awaking the reader’s interest, exciting, and in some degree aiding him in the cultivation of an art, on which the Orator’s success so much depends.”

ON READING OF VERSE.

The following remarks on reading verse are by the same writer:

“In the reading of verse, we must observe

1. Time and rhythm.

2. Melody and cadence.

“1. By _time_, I mean the regulation of the pulsation and movement of sound by the voice, to the regulated metrical accentuation (or rhythm), and construction of the verse.

“Time and rhythm are therefore inseparable and mutually dependent: one belongs to the Poet, the other to the Elocutionist.

“English verse consists of the arrangement at regular intervals of accented and _un_accented—or, heavy and light—syllables. This regular arrangement makes the _rhythm_ of the verse: the number of syllables employed in a line makes the _metre_ of the verse.

“Now if, in reading verse, we do not _regularly_ mark the pulsation of the accented syllables,—according to their arrangement in the rhythm—at due intervals of sound, we shall break the rhythm by reading _out of time_.

“For example, in the Ode of Dryden, on Cecilia’s Day, occurs this couplet; which I now mark according to the _regular_ rhythmical division and accentuation.

“But to read the first line of the couplet thus, (accenting _the_ and not accenting _bare_) would be to sacrifice all the force of the line, in order to produce an unmeaning _sing-song_ by equipulsation of sound.

“We must, therefore, by art, reconcile the strength of the line with the music of the verse; and thus divide and accent it in delivery.

On the bareˊ | earthˊ | exposedˊ | he liesˊ.

“Sometimes the poet himself will, purposely, break the regularity of his rhythm for expression and effect; the Elocutionist, in such cases, must aid that effect by marking and _timing_ the pulsation of sound accordingly. As in the following lines from Pope:

1. _Smooth_ˊ flow the waves, the zephyrs gently play.

2. _Wide_ˊ and more wide the floating rings advance,
_Fill_ˊ all the wat’ry plain, _and to the mar_gin dance.

3. Amphion there the loud creating lyre
_Strikes_ˊ, and behold a sudden Thebes aspire!

4. _Fame_ˊ sits aloft, and points them out their course.

5. _Bright_ˊ as the sun, her eyes the gazers strike.

6. _All_ˊ are but parts of one stupendous whole,
Whose body Nature is, and God the soul;
That chang’d through all, and yet is all the same,
_Great_ˊ in the earth, as in the ethereal frame,
_Warms_ˊ in the sun, _refreshes_ in the breeze,
_Glows_ˊ in the stars, and _blossoms_ in the trees,
_Lives_ˊ thro’ all life, _extends_ through all extent,
_Spreads_ˊ undivided, _operates_ unspent,
_Breathes_ˊ in our soul, _informs_ our mortal part, &c.

“The _Italicised_ words indicate the departure from the _regular_ rhythm in these lines; most of which commence with a heavy syllable, for force and effect. This the reader must mark by pulsation of voice,—a prolongation of sound, or a rest, on the commencing heavy syllable, with a lighter enunciation of the succeeding unaccented syllables.

“The occurrence of several successive unaccented syllables, lessening the due number of accents in any line, must be balanced by a short rest to supply the place of the deficient accent (_as in the_ 5_th and_ 6_th lines of the_ 6_th example._) By these means the due time of the verse will be preserved, and its movement will _echo_, (as it were,) or, at all events, aid and strengthen the sense.

“The above verses will accordingly be read with the division and accentuation following:

1. Smoothˊ | flow the wavesˊ, | the zephˊyrs gent | ly playˊ.

4. Fameˊ | sits aloftˊ, | and pointsˊ | them outˊ | their course.

5. Brightˊ | as the sunˊ, | her eyesˊ | the gaˊ | zers strikeˊ.

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The fourth progressive readerChapter III: Introduction (1)

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