Chapter I: Preface

For some years the author of this work has been collecting materials for writing the history of the French Revolution. With this object in view he has visited Paris, wishing also to become familiar with the localities rendered immortal by the varied acts of this drama--the most memorable tragedy, perhaps, which has as yet been enacted upon the theatre of time. In addition to the aids which he has thus derived from a brief sojourn in Paris, he has also found the library of Bowdoin College peculiarly rich in all those works of religious and political philosophizings which preceded and ushered in these events, and in the narratives of those contemporary historians who recorded the scenes as they occurred, or which they themselves witnessed. Governor Bowdoin, whose library was the nucleus of the present college library, seems to have taken a special interest in collecting all the writings of the French philosophers and all the works of contemporary authors bearing upon the French Revolution, including--the most important of all--full files of the Moniteur.

The writer would not take up his pen merely to repeat the story which has so often and so graphically been told before. But it is expecting too much of human nature to imagine that the struggles of an oppressed people to emancipate themselves from feudal despotism can be impartially narrated in the castles of nobles or in the courts of kings. It is inevitable that the judgment which is pronounced upon the events which such a struggle involves will be biased by the political principles of the observer. Precisely the same transaction will by one be condemned and by another applauded. He who believes in the divine right of kings to reign and in the divine obligation of the people unquestioning to obey, must condemn a people who endeavor to break the shackles of despotic power, and must applaud kings and nobles who, with all the energies of bomb-shells, sabres, and iron hoofs, endeavor to crush the spirit of democratic freedom. On the contrary, he who accepts the doctrine that sovereignty resides in the people must commend the efforts of an inthralled nation to sever the chains of servitude, and must condemn the efforts of kings and nobles to rivet those chains anew. Thus precisely the same facts will be regarded with a very different judgment according as the historian is influenced by political principles in favor of equality of rights or of aristocratic privilege. The author of this work views the scenes of the French Revolution from a republican stand-point. His sympathies are strongly with an oppressed people struggling for political and religious liberty. All writers, all men profess to love liberty.

"Despots," says De Tocqueville, "acknowledge that liberty is an excellent thing. But they want it all for themselves, and maintain that the rest of the world is unworthy of it. Thus there is no difference of opinion in reference to liberty. We differ only in our appreciation of men."[1]

To commence the history of the French Revolution with the opening of the States-General in 1789 is as unphilosophical as to commence the history of the American Revolution with the battle of Lexington. No man can comprehend this fearful drama who does not contemplate it in the light of those ages of oppression which ushered it in. It is in the horrible despotism of the old monarchy of France that one is to see the efficient cause of the subsequent frantic struggles of the people.

"The Revolution," says De Tocqueville, "will ever remain in darkness to those who do not look beyond it. Without a clear view of society in the olden time, of its laws, its faults, its prejudices, its sufferings, its greatness, it is impossible to understand the conduct of the French during the sixty years which have followed its fall."[2]

There is often an impression that the Revolution was a sudden outbreak of blind unthinking passion--a tempest bursting from a serene sky; or like a battle in the night--masses rushing blindly in all directions, and friends and foes in confusion and phrensy smiting each other. But, on the contrary, the Revolution was of slow growth, a storm which had been for centuries accumulating. The gathering of the clouds, the gleam of its embosomed fires, and the roar of its approaching thunders arrested the attention of the observing long before the storm in all its fury burst upon France. A careful historic narrative evolves order from the apparent chaos, and exhibits, running through the tumultuous scene of terror and of blood, the operation of causes almost as resistless as the operation of physical laws.

The writer has freely expressed his judgment of the transactions which he has narrated. "The impartiality of history," says Lamartine, "is not that of a mirror which merely reflects objects; it should be that of a judge who sees, listens, and decides."[3] The reader will not be surprised to find that some occurrences which historians caressed in regal courts and baronial halls have denounced as insolent and vulgar are here represented as heroic and noble.

Every generous heart will respond to the sentiment uttered, in this connection, by Thiers. "I have endeavored to stifle," he says, "within my own bosom every feeling of animosity. I alternately figured to myself that, born in a cottage, animated with a just ambition, I was resolved to acquire what the pride of the higher classes had unjustly refused me; or that, bred in palaces, the heir to ancient privileges, it was painful to me to renounce a possession which I regarded as a legitimate property. Thenceforth I could no longer harbor enmity against either party. I pitied the combatants, and I indemnified myself by admiring generous deeds wherever I found them."[4]

One simple moral this whole awful tragedy teaches. It is, that the laws must be so just as to command the assent of every enlightened Christian mind, and the masses of the people must be trained to such intelligence and virtue as to be able to appreciate good laws and to have the disposition to maintain them. Here lies the only hope of our republic.

The illustrations which embellish these pages are from the artistic pencil of Mr. C.E. Doepler, who went to Paris that he might with more historical accuracy delineate both costumes and localities. To the kindness of Messrs. Goupil & Co. we are indebted for the privilege of copying the exquisite engraving of Marie Antoinette at the Revolutionary tribunal, which forms the Frontispiece.

John S. C. Abbott.

Brunswick, Maine, Nov., 1858.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: The Old Regime and the Revolution, by Alexis de Tocqueville, Introduction, p. xi.]

[Footnote 2: Ib., p. 253.]

[Footnote 3: Lamartine, History of the Girondists, i., 10]

[Footnote 4: Thiers, French Revolution, Introduction.]

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

ORIGIN OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY.

Extent of France.--Character of its early Inhabitants.--Conquest of
Gaul.--Barbarian Invasion.--The Franks.--Pharamond.--Clovis.
--Introduction of Christianity.--Clotilda.--Merovingian
Dynasty.--Fields of March.--Anecdote of Clovis.--The Parisii.--Strife
with the Nobles.--Moorish Invasion.--Charles Martel.--Pepin.--Fields
of May.--Charlemagne.--His Policy.--Feudal System.--The Church.--Rolls.
--Louis V.--Hugh Capet.--Parliament established by Philip the Fair
Page 17

CHAPTER II.

THE HOUSES OF VALOIS AND BOURBON.

The House of Valois.--Luxury of the Court and the Nobles.--Insurrection.
--Jaques Bonhomme.--Henry III.--Henry IV., of Navarre.--Cardinal
Richelieu.--French Academy.--Regency of Anne of Austria.--Palaces of
France.--The Noble and the Ennobled.--Persecution of the Protestants.
--Edict of Nantes.--Its Revocation.--Distress of the Protestants.--Death
of Louis XIV. 25

CHAPTER III.

THE REGENCY AND LOUIS XV.

State of France.--The Regency.--Financial Embarrassment.--Crimes of
the Rulers.--Recoining the Currency.--Renewed Persecution of the
Protestants.--Bishop Dubois.--Philosophy of Voltaire.--Anecdote of
Franklin.--The King's Favorites.--Mademoiselle Poisson.--Her Ascendency.
--_Parc aux Cerfs._--Illustrative Anecdote.--Letter to the King.
--Testimony of Chesterfield.--Anecdote of La Fayette.--Death of
Pompadour.--Mademoiselle Lange.--Power of Du Barry.--Death of
Louis XV. 34

CHAPTER IV.

DESPOTISM AND ITS FRUITS.

Assumptions of the Aristocracy.--Moliere.--Decay of the Nobility.
--Decline of the Feudal System.--Difference between France and the
United States.--Mortification of Men of Letters.--Voltaire,
Montesquieu, Rousseau.--Corruption of the Church.--Diderot.
--The Encyclopedists.--Testimony of De Tocqueville.--Frederic II. of
Prussia.--Two Classes of Opponents of Christianity.--Enormity of
Taxation.--Misery of the People.--"Good old Times of the Monarchy!" 45

CHAPTER V.

THE BASTILLE.

Absolute Power of the King.--_Lettres de Cachet._--The Bastille.
--Cardinal Balue.--Harancourt.--Charles of Armanac.--Constant de
Renville.--Duke of Nemours.--Dungeons of the Bastille.--_Oubliettes._
--Dessault.--M. Massat.--M. Catalan.--Latude.--The Student.--Apostrophe
of Michelet 53

CHAPTER VI.

THE COURT AND THE PARLIAMENT.

Death of Louis XV.--Education of Louis XVI.--Maurepas, Prime Minister.
--Turgot; his Expulsion from Office.--Necker.--Franklin.--Sympathy with
the Americans.--La Fayette.--Views of the Court.--Treaty with America.
--Popularity of Voltaire.--Embarrassment of Necker.--_Compte Rendu au
Roi._--Necker driven into Exile.--Enslavement of France.--New
Extravagance.--Calonne 57

CHAPTER VII.

THE ASSEMBLY OF THE NOTABLES.

Measures of Brienne.--The Bed of Justice.--Remonstrance of Parliament.
--Parliament Exiled.--Submission of Parliament.--Duke of Orleans.
--Treasonable Plans of the Duke of Orleans.--Anxiety of the Queen.
--The Diamond Necklace.--Monsieur, the King's Brother.--Bagatelle.
--Desperation of Brienne.--Edict for abolishing the Parliaments.
--Energy of the Court.--Arrest of D'Espremenil and Goislard.--Tumults
in Grenoble.--Terrific Hail-storm 67

CHAPTER VIII.

THE APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE.

Recall of Necker.--Reassembling the Notables.--Pamphlet of the Abbe
Sieyes.--Vote of the King's Brother.--His supposed Motive.--The Basis
of Representation.--Arrangements for the Meeting of the States.
--Statement of Grievances.--Mirabeau; his Menace.--Sympathy of the
Curates with the People.--Remonstrance of the Nobles.--First Riot.
--Meeting of the States-General.--New Effort of the privileged Classes 77

CHAPTER IX.

ASSEMBLING OF THE STATES-GENERAL.

Opening of the States-General.--Sermon of the Bishop of Nancy.--Insult
to the Deputies of the People.--Aspect of Mirabeau.--Boldness of the
Third Estate.--Journal of Mirabeau.--Commencement of the Conflict.--First
Appearance of Robespierre.--Decided Stand taken by the Commons.--Views of
the Curates.--Dismay of the Nobles.--Excitement in Paris.--The National
Assembly.--The Oath 85

CHAPTER X.

THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY.

First Acts of the Assembly.--Confusion of the Court.--Hall of the
Assembly closed.--Adjournment to the Tennis-court.--Cabinet Councils.
--Despotic Measures.--The Tennis-court closed.--Exultation of the Court.
--Union with the Clergy.--Peril of the Assembly.--The Royal Sitting.
--Speech of the King 92

CHAPTER XI.

REVOLUTIONARY MEASURES.

Speech of Mirabeau.--Approach of the Soldiers and Peril of the Assembly.
--Elation of the Queen.--Triumph of Necker.--Embarrassment of the Bishops
and the Nobles.--Letter of the King.--The Bishops and Nobles join the
Assembly.--Desperate Resolve of the Nobles.--The Troops sympathizing with
the People 99

CHAPTER XII.

THE TUMULT IN PARIS.

Marshal Broglie.--Gatherings at the Palais Royal.--Disaffection of the
Soldiers.--Imprisonment and Rescue.--Fraternization.--Petition to the
Assembly.--Wishes of the Patriots.--Movement of the Troops.--Speech of
Mirabeau.--New Menaces.--Declaration of Rights.--Dismissal of Necker.
--Commotion in Paris.--Camille Desmoulins.--The French Guards join the
People.--Terror in Paris.--Character of the King 103

CHAPTER XIII.

STORMING THE BASTILLE.

The Assembly petitions the King.--Resolves of the Assembly.--Narrative
of M. Dumont.--Scenes in Paris.--The People organize for Self-defense.
--The new Cockade.--The Abbe Lefebvre d'Ormesson.--Treachery of the
Mayor, Flesselles.--Character of De Launey, Governor of the Bastille.
--Sacking the Invalides.--The Bastille Assailed.--Assassination of De
Launey and of Flesselles 112

CHAPTER XIV.

THE KING RECOGNIZES THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY.

Rout of the Cavalry of Lambesc.--Tidings of the Capture of the Bastille
reach Versailles.--Consternation of the Court.--Midnight Interview
between the Duke of Liancourt and the King.--New Delegation from the
Assembly.--The King visits the Assembly.--The King escorted back to his
Palace.--Fickleness of the Monarch.--Deputation sent to the Hotel de
Ville.--Address of La Fayette.--La Fayette appointed Commander of the
National Guard 122

CHAPTER XV.

THE KING VISITS PARIS.

Views of the Patriots.--Pardon of the French Guards.--Religious
Ceremonies.--Recall of Necker.--The King visits Paris.--Action of the
Clergy.--The King at the Hotel de Ville.--Return of the King to
Versailles.--Count d'Artois, the Polignacs, and others leave France.
--Insolence of the Servants.--Sufferings of the People.--Persecution of
the Corn-dealers.--Berthier of Toulon.--M. Foulon.--Their Assassination.
--Humane Attempts of Necker.--Abolition of Feudal Rights 127

CHAPTER XVI.

FORMING THE CONSTITUTION.

Arming of the Peasants.--Destruction of Feudal Charters.--Sermon of the
Abbe Fauchet.--Three Classes in the Assembly.--Declaration of Rights.
--The Three Assemblies.--The Power of the Press.--Efforts of William Pitt
to sustain the Nobles.--Questions on the Constitution.--Two Chambers in
one?--The Veto.--Famine in the City.--The King's Plate melted.--The
Tax of a Quarter of each one's Income.--Statement of Jefferson 141

CHAPTER XVII.

THE ROYAL FAMILY CARRIED TO PARIS.

Waning Popularity of La Fayette.--The King contemplates Flight.--Letter
of Admiral d'Estaing.--The Flanders Regiment called to Versailles.--Fete
in the Ball-room at Versailles.--Insurrection of the Women; their March
to Versailles.--Horrors of the Night of October 5th.--The Royal Family
conveyed to Paris 155

CHAPTER XVIII.

FRANCE REGENERATED.

Kind Feelings of the People.--Emigration receives a new Impulse.--The
National Assembly transferred to Paris.--The Constituent Assembly.
--Assassination of Francois.--Anxiety of the Patriots.--Gloomy Winter.
--Contrast between the Bishops and the laboring Clergy.--Church
Funds seized by the Assembly.--The Church responsible for the Degradation
of the People.--New Division of France.--The Right of Suffrage.--The
Guillotine.--Rabaud de St. Etienne 165

CHAPTER XIX.

THE KING ACCEPTS THE CONSTITUTION.

The King visits the Assembly.--His Speech.--The Priests rouse the
Populace.--The King's Salary.--Petition of Talma.--Views of Napoleon.
--Condemnation and Execution of the Marquis of Favrus.--Spirit of
the New Constitution.--National Jubilee.--The Queen sympathizes
with the Popular Movement.--Writings of Edmund Burke 175

CHAPTER XX.

FLIGHT OF THE KING.

Riot at Nancy.--Prosecution of Mirabeau.--Issue of Assignats.--Mirabeau's
Interview with the Queen.--Four political Parties.--Bishops refuse to
take the Oath to the Constitution.--Character of the Emigrants.--The
King's Aunts attempt to leave France.--Debates upon Emigration.
--Embarrassment of the Assembly.--Death of Mirabeau.--His Funeral.
--The King prevented from visiting St. Cloud.--Duplicity of the King.
--Conference of the Allies.--Their Plan of Invasion.--Measures for the
Escape of the King.--The Flight 188

CHAPTER XXI.

ARREST OF THE ROYAL FUGITIVES.

Arrival at Varennes.--The Party arrested.--Personal Appearance of the
King.--The Guards fraternize with the People.--Indignation of the Crowd.
--The Captives compelled to return to Paris.--Dismay of M. de Bouille.
--Excitement in Paris.--The Mob ransack the Tuileries.--Acts of the
Assembly.--Decisive Action of La Fayette.--Proclamation of the King.
--The Jacobin Club.--Unanimity of France 200

CHAPTER XXII.

RETURN OF THE ROYAL FAMILY FROM VARENNES.

Proclamation of Marat.--Three Commissioners sent to meet the King.
--Address to the Nation from the Assembly.--The slow and painful Return.
--Conversation between Barnave and the Queen.--Brutality of Petion.
--Sufferings of the Royal Family.--Reception of the King in Paris.
--Conduct of the Queen.--Noble Avowal of La Fayette.--Statement of the
King.--Menace of Bouille 214

CHAPTER XXIII.

COMMOTION IN PARIS.

The Remains of Voltaire removed to the Pantheon.--Decision of the
Assembly on the Flight of the King.--Thomas Paine.--Views of the
Constitutional Monarchists.--Message from La Fayette to the King of
Austria.--The Jacobins summon the Populace to the Field of Mars.--Mandate
of the Jacobins.--The Crowd on the Field of Mars dispersed by the
Military.--Completion of the Constitution.--Remarkable Conversation of
Napoleon.--The King formally accepts the Constitution.--Great, but
transient, Popularity of the Royal Family 222

CHAPTER XXIV.

THE APPROACH OF WAR.

Sentiments of the King and Queen upon the Constitution.--The Legislative
Assembly.--Its democratic Spirit.--The King's Speech.--Painful Scene.
--The Queen plans Escape.--Riot in the Theatre.--Infatuation of the
Aristocrats.--Insult to the Duke of Orleans.--Embarrassment of the
Allies.--Replies to the King from the European Powers.--The Emigrants at
Coblentz.--The King's Veto.--Letters of the King to his Brothers.--Their
Replies.--Cruel Edicts.--Petion chosen Mayor.--The King visits the
Assembly.--Rise of the Republican Party 236

CHAPTER XXV.

AGITATION IN PARIS, AND COMMENCEMENT OF HOSTILITIES.

Death of Leopold.--Assassination of Gustavus.--Interview between
Dumouriez and the Queen.--Discussion in the Assembly.--The Duke of
Brunswick.--Interview of Barnave with the Queen.--Interview between
Dumouriez and the King.--Dismissal of M. Roland.--The Palace invaded.
--Fortitude of the King.--Petion, the Mayor.--Affecting Interview of
the Royal Family.--Remarks of Napoleon 246

CHAPTER XXVI.

THE THRONE ASSAILED.

Angry Interview between the King and the Mayor.--Decisive Action of La
Fayette.--Expectations of the Queen.--Movement of the Prussian Army.
--Efforts of the Priests.--Secret Committee of Royalists.--Terror in
the Palace.--The Queen's View of the King's Character.--Parties
in France.--Energetic Action of the Assembly.--Speech of Vergniaud 262

CHAPTER XXVII.

THE THRONE DEMOLISHED.

The Country proclaimed in Danger.--Plan of La Fayette for the Safety of
the Royal Family.--Measures of the Court.--Celebration of the Demolition
of the Bastille.--Movement of the Allied Army.--Conflicting Plans of the
People.--Letter of the Girondists to the King.--Manifesto of the Duke of
Brunswick.--Unpopularity of La Fayette.--The Attack upon the Tuileries,
Aug. 10th.--The Royal Family take Refuge in the Assembly 271

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE ROYAL FAMILY IMPRISONED.

Tumult and Dismay in the Assembly.--Storming the Tuileries.--Aspect of
the Royal Family.--The Decree of Suspension.--Night in the Cloister.
--The second Day in the Assembly.--The Royal Family Prisoners.--Third
Day in the Assembly.--The Temple.--The Royal Family transferred to the
Temple 286

CHAPTER XXIX.

THE MASSACRE OF THE ROYALISTS.

Supremacy of the Jacobins.--Their energetic Measures.--The Assembly
threatened.--Commissioners sent to the Army.--Spirit of the Court Party
in England.--Speech of Edmund Burke.--Triumphant March of the Allies.
--The Nation summoned _en masse_ to resist the Foe.--Murder of the
Princess Lamballe.--Apology of the Assassins.--Robespierre and St. Just.
--Views of Napoleon 295

CHAPTER XXX.

THE KING LED TO TRIAL.

Assassination of Royalists at Versailles.--Jacobin Ascendancy.--The
National Convention.--Two Parties, the Girondists and the Jacobins.
--Abolition of Royalty.--Madame Roland.--Battle of Jemappes.--Mode of
Life in the Temple.--Insults to the Royal Family.--New Acts of Rigor.
--Trial of the King.--Separation of the Royal Family.--The Indictment.
--The King begs for Bread 308

CHAPTER XXXI.

EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI.

Close of the Examination.--The King's Counsel.--Heroism of Malesherbes.
--Preparations for Defense.--Gratitude of the King.--The Trial.
--Protracted Vote.--The Result.--The King solicits the Delay of Execution
for three Days.--Last Interview with his Family.--Preparation for Death.
--The Execution 318

CHAPTER XXXII.

THE REIGN OF TERROR.

Charges against the Girondists.--Danton.--The French Embassador ordered
to leave England.--War declared against England.--Navy of England.
--Internal War.--Plot to assassinate the Girondists.--Bold Words of
Vergniaud.--Insurrection in La Vendee.--Conflict between Dumouriez and
the Assembly.--Flight of Dumouriez.--The Mob aroused and the Girondists
arrested.--Charlotte Corday.--France rises _en masse_ to repel the
Allies.--The treasonable Surrender of Toulon 331

CHAPTER XXXIII.

EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE AND MADAME ELIZABETH.

Marie Antoinette in the Temple.--Conspiracies for the Rescue of the Royal
Family.--The young Dauphin torn from his Mother.--Phrensy of the Queen.
--She is removed to the Conciergerie.--Indignities and Woes.--The Queen
led to Trial.--Letter to her Sister.--The Execution of the Queen.--Madame
Elizabeth led to Trial and Execution.--Fate of the Princess and the
Dauphin 345

CHAPTER XXXIV.

THE JACOBINS TRIUMPHANT.

Views of the Girondists.--Anecdote of Vergniaud.--The Girondists brought
to Trial.--Suicide of Valaze.--Anguish of Desmoulins.--Fonfrede and
Ducos.--Last Supper of the Girondists.--Their Execution.--The Duke of
Orleans; his Execution.--Activity of the Guillotine.--Humane
Legislation.--Testimony of Desodoards.--Anacharsis Cloots.
--The New Era 353

CHAPTER XXXV.

FALL OF THE HEBERTISTS AND OF THE DANTONISTS.

Continued Persecution of the Girondists.--Robespierre opposes the
Atheists.--Danton, Souberbielle, and Camille Desmoulins.--The _Vieux
Cordelier_.--The Hebertists executed.--Danton assailed.--Interview
between Danton and Robespierre.--Danton warned of his Peril.--Camille
Desmoulins and others arrested.--Lucile, the Wife of Desmoulins.
--Letters.--Execution of the Dantonists.--Arrest and Execution of Lucile.
--Toulon recovered by Bonaparte 361

CHAPTER XXXVI.

FALL OF ROBESPIERRE.

Inexplicable Character of Robespierre.--Cecile Regnault.--Fete in honor
of the Supreme Being.--Increase of Victims.--The Triumvirate.--Suspicions
of Robespierre.--Struggle between Robespierre and the Committee of Public
Safety.--Conspiracy against Robespierre.--Session of the 27th of July.
--Robespierre and his Friends arrested.--Efforts to save Robespierre.
--Peril of the Convention.--Execution of Robespierre and his Confederates
375

CHAPTER XXXVII.

THE THERMIDORIANS AND THE JACOBINS.

The Reign of Committees.--The _Jeunesse Doree_.--The Reaction.--Motion
against Fouquier Tinville.--Apotheosis of Rousseau.--Battle of Fleurus.
--Brutal Order of the Committee of Public Welfare.--Composition of the
two Parties.--Speech of Billaud Varennes.--Speech of Legendre.--The
Club-house of the Jacobins closed.--Victories of Pichegru.--Alliance
between Holland and France.--Advance of Kleber.--Peace with Prussia.
--Quiberon.--Riot in Lyons 389

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

DISSOLUTION OF THE CONVENTION.

Famine in Paris.--Strife between the Jeunesse Doree and the Jacobins.
--Riots.--Scene in the Convention.--War with the Allies.--A new
Constitution.--Insurrection of the Sections.--Energy of General
Bonaparte.--Discomfiture of the Sections.--Narrative of the Duchess of
Abrantes.--Clemency of the Convention.--Its final Acts and Dissolution,
and Establishment of the Directory 398

CHAPTER XXXIX.

THE DIRECTORY.

Constitution of the Directory.--Distracted State of Public Affairs.--New
Expedition to La Vendee.--Death of the Dauphin.--Release of the Princess.
--Pacification of La Vendee.--Riots in London.--Execution of Charette.
--Napoleon takes command of the Army of Italy.--Thefirst Proclamation.
--Triumphs in Italy.--Letter of General Hoche.--Peace with Spain.
--Establishment of the Cispadane Republic.--Negotiations with England.
--Contemplated Invasion of Ireland.--Memorials of Wolfe Tone.--Deplorable
State of Public Affairs.--Description of Napoleon.--Composition of the
Directory 411

CHAPTER XL.

THE OVERTHROW OF THE DIRECTORY AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONSULATE.

Proclamation of Napoleon.--March into Austria.--Letter to the Archduke
Charles.--Preliminaries of Peace.--Union of Parties against the
Directory.--Triumph of the Directory.--Agency of Napoleon.--Severe
Measures of the Directory.--Indignation of Napoleon.--Dictatorship of
the Directory.--Dismay of the Royalists.--Treaty of Campo Formio.
--Napoleon's Address to the Cispadane Republic.--Remarks of Napoleon.
--Plan for the Invasion of India.--Expedition to Egypt.--New Coalition.
--Rastadt 421

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.