Chapter I: Preface: By the Translator (1)

The argument of the poem by the author is the sole document that accompanies the original work; there are neither notes nor preface to the edition from which I have made my translation, and which is the only one I have ever seen. To the people of education in Scandinavia, who are well versed in the ancient mythology of their country, notes are perhaps not strictly necessary, inasmuch as this poem is based upon the Edda, which is universally read; but since, to the generality of English readers, the Edda and the Scandinavian mythology are but little, if at all familiar, I feel myself bound to furnish them with all the information on the subject that I have been able to collect from various sources; by which they will be enabled to read this poem with additional pleasure and profit.

The Scandinavian mythology, like that of all other nations, is founded on the personification and consequent adoration of the powers of nature, which may be expressed by the word “Demonism,” used in its Greek sense; to this may be added the deification of national heroes.

The first source of Demonism (I here borrow the words of Wieland in his admirable work called Agathodemon) lies in the ignorance of mankind, in the early stages of the world, of the real causes or laws by which the powers of nature act, on the one side; and on the other, in the innate propensity of man to reflect the image of the things which he can and does see, on the things which lie beyond the contact of his senses.

This induces us to personify the causes of the effects that we behold in nature; we assign to them our manner of thinking and acting, and we endow them with a form like our own, because we can conceive no higher model. Thus we give a supposed existence to an infinite number of divinities in heaven and earth, whose operations are seen and felt, though the agents themselves are unseen or unknown. Thus the earth, the sun, the moon, the stars, the sea, rivers, woods, mountains, etc., all have their peculiar divinities; and as these were considered as the cause of light or of darkness, of warmth or of cold, of fertility or of barrenness, of the eternal vicissitudes of the year, month or day, as well as of the destructive effects of storms, tempests, floods, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc., to the idea of their existence became conjoined the belief of their superhuman power. They were therefore recognised as the arbitrary rulers of nature, who had their separate principalities, circles, and districts in her empire; and as we ascribe to them our own passions, caprices, and necessities, we naturally endeavour to captivate their good will, or avert their anger, by prayers, sacrifices, presents, or penances.

On the principle of Demonism, therefore, did the earliest legislators establish the basis of their fabric of social order, civilization and religion; and it was by profiting by this innate inclination of mankind, that priests and mystagogues succeeded in consolidating their power and influence, which became necessarily augmented and enhanced by the right they arrogated to themselves of canonizing or deifying those heroes or princes, whom they were disposed to hold up as worthy of adoration, or as examples to be followed by the people.

History thus became blended with allegory and mythology; and this circumstance, combined with the total want of chronology, which seems to pervade the early records of all nations, renders it extremely difficult to give to any mythology a consistent form, proportionate in all its parts, and presenting an invariable doctrine or system of action.

Proceeding thus from a similar source, the Scandinavian polytheism has a remarkable coincidence with those of Greece, Italy, Egypt and India; and from its classification of the superior powers into good and evil genii, it bears a still more striking resemblance to the religion of the ancient Persians, the doctrine of the Magi, which admits the co-existence of, and the eternal struggle between, the two opposing principles of Good and Evil, under the types of Ormuzd and Ahrimanes.

It seems generally admitted that the Gothic mythology was introduced into the north-west of Europe by the Asar or Asiatic Goths, when, under the guidance of the historical Odin, they emigrated from the borders of the Black Sea and penetrated into Scandinavia, where they founded their empire; and had they at that time been acquainted with navigation, they would most assuredly not have stopped there, but would have invaded the British Islands, which would have afforded an easy conquest, and a more alluring resting-place, from the superior fertility of their soil, and far greater mildness of the climate.

The word _Asa_ may be derived from Asia, or both may be derived from the word As or Az,[1] which in the Zend or ancient Persian dialect (the link between the Gothic and the Sanscrit) signifies “powerful, elevated;” and may have been applied to that part of Asia bordering on Europe by its own inhabitants, as a country, _par excellence_, occupied by a super-excellent people; on the same principle that the word “Svensk” (Swedish) is derived from “Sven” (man), and denotes a man, _par excellence_; and the country itself called “_Sverige_” (empire of men, Sweden). The word Goth also is a synonyme for what is good, great, and illustrious; for in all the Teutonic and Scandinavian languages, the three words _Goth_, _good_, and _God_ spring from the same root; such has ever been the self-love and vanity of nations. The term _Jotun_ or _Jette_ may on the other hand have been the name of some rival nation, professing a different worship, and engaged in a long and obstinate warfare with the Asar or Goths, either in Asia or in Europe; and by the suggestion of national hatred, the Asar may have given the name of their enemies (the Jetter) to the destructive powers of nature, personified by the malevolent genii or giants: hence in the Icelandic, Danish and Swedish languages, the term Jotun, Jette, or Jätte, denotes a giant and implies the idea formed of this fabulous race by all nations.

The historical Odin was deified after his death, as were his wives, his sons, and immediate relations, and either their names may have been given to the benign influences of nature, or they (Odin and his relations) may have adopted the names of the gods of their Asiatic ancestors, in order to impose on their new subjects. The names of regions, places and abodes were transferred from Asia to Scandinavia; and the said names were, either previously or subsequently to the first grand immigration of the Goths into the north-west of Europe, applied by them to the supposed residences of the gods in heaven. Among the Egyptians and Greeks, the names of the Zodiac and of the constellations afford a similar and satisfactory proof of the continual re-action of earth on heaven, and of heaven on earth.[2]

The popular belief of the continual intercourse between heaven and earth, between gods, demi-gods, and heroes in the early ages of mankind, fostered and encouraged by the many ingenious allegories framed by the priests, the sole astronomers of the time, out of the movements and influences of the celestial bodies, render either hypothesis probable, and may serve to account for the many incongruities that prevail in the Scandinavian, as well as in other mythologies; it is sufficient for the comprehension of this poem, to lay down the principle, that the Asar (gods) represent the _creating_, _embellishing_, and _conservative_ powers of nature; and the Jetter (giants), on the contrary, represent the _defacing_, _corrupting_, _destructive_ powers of the same. The giants existed before the gods, inasmuch as _chaos_, _darkness_ and _confusion_ preceded _creation_, _light_ and _order_.

With respect to the superhuman size attributed by most nations to evil spirits, it may be observed, that in darkness the terrors of mankind increase, and the shades of night magnify considerably to the visual orb every object in nature: hence to the Jetter, or evil genii, who were supposed to wander about at night doing mischief, was lent by the imagination a form gigantic in stature, and features frightful to behold. Day appears! the giants vanish! or they assume the ordinary appearance of towers, steeples, and windmills; or they become changed to wolves and bears; or they dwindle to the usual human size: but are still dangerous by their knowledge of magic, their power of effecting transformations, and by the artifices and illusions whereby they seek to mislead mankind and seduce them to the perpetration of evil. That the Jotun or Jetter, who were probably the aboriginal inhabitants of Scandinavia at the time of the Gothic invasion, should appear to the Asar to be giants in size, and as having the heads of bears, wolves, elks, or wild bulls, conjoined to human bodies, may be very easily and naturally accounted for. The Jotun race were in a very low state of civilization compared with the Asar, and were, probably, totally unacquainted with the art of tanning or weaving. They accordingly clothed themselves with the skins of beasts; and in order to increase the terrific in their exterior (an object of great importance among savage nations), they preserved the head, tail, and claws of the animals, in whose spoils they arrayed themselves; and wore its head, horns and all, as a head-dress above their own, allowing the tail to dangle behind them, while its paws crossed their breast. This must naturally have given to them the appearance, not only of a stature far above the human size, but that also of partaking of the shape and nature both of man and beast, which idea was not a little supported by the ferocity of their manners; and such was probably the origin of giantism in every country.[3]

I shall now proceed to give an outline of the cosmogony and principal events of the Scandinavian mythology, as far as they can be collected from the only authentic source extant, viz. the fragments of the poetry contained in the elder or poetic Edda, discovered and compiled by the celebrated Sæmund Sigfusson, a native of Iceland, who was born in the year 1054, and died in 1133. He was a Christian priest of extensive talents and acquirements, who made a journey to Rome, a rare occurrence, at that time, among the clergy of the north. He it was who discovered these fragments, and at once perceived their value. He compiled them, and gave them to light, with a Latin translation of his own, under the name of the Edda, which, in the Icelandic or ancient Scandinavian tongue, means “Ancestress.”

It was fortunate that this discovery was made by a man so enlightened and liberal as Sæmunder, who was free from all the prejudices which prevailed among the clergy of his time. Any poem or writing connected with the ancient polytheistic religion of the country, was at that time considered as the work of devils, and severely proscribed. The poems of the Edda, therefore, had they fallen into the hands of an ignorant or bigotted priest, would have been burnt, and lost to posterity for ever. The fragments thus collected together under the name of the Edda are, indeed, but the _disjectorum membra poetarum_; but they form the only document extant, which throws on the Scandinavian mythology a light at all to be depended on.[4]

Of importance far inferior, but still of considerable relative utility, is the younger or prosaic Edda, composed, rather than compiled, by Snorro Storleson, a learned Icelander, who was born in 1178, and was killed at Reykiaholt in 1241. This work, written in prose, may be considered as a commentary on the elder or poetic Edda, with several additions and legends, collected probably from oral tradition. It is written in a homely, story-telling style, and but for the elder Edda, would stand a chance of being considered as unimportant as a black letter romaunt or fairy tale. In the preface to it, there is a strange jumble of history, sacred and profane; a very fantastic geography; and an attempt to derive the genealogy of all the nations in Europe from the Trojans: there reigns, moreover, throughout the whole work, a total want of chronology.[5]

The most interesting part of the work, from the light it throws on the elder Edda, is the Gyllfaginning, or Conversations of King Gyllfe, who reigned over a part of Sweden at the time of Odin’s invasion. A curious appendage to the work is the “Skalde sprâket” (the language of the Skalds), which forms a sort of _Gradus ad Parnassum_ of the Icelandic poetry, in which the synonymes and epithets of all persons and things occurring in the works of the Skalds, are given with extreme accuracy. But, as I have before stated, the whole importance of Snorro Sturleson’s work is derived from the elder or poetic Edda. In the Gyllfaginning occurs the following remarkable passage:

“King Gyllfe was a prudent and very wise man; it caused him much surprize that the Asar possessed so much knowledge, that every thing yielded to their will; and he reflected whether this could proceed from their own power, or whether they derived it from the Gods, to whom they sacrificed.”

It is from the Gyllfaginning that I borrow the following account of the cosmogony, according to the Scandinavian mythology.

In the beginning when nothing existed, when there was neither earth, nor sea, nor heaven, all was Ginnungagap,[6] a vast unfathomable abyss. Towards the north of this abyss lay a world of cold and darkness called Niffelheim, in the midst of which was the source or fountain Hvergelmer. On the south of Ginnungagap lay Muspelheim, a world of heat, light and fire. From the source Hvergelmer flowed twelve rivers, called collectively Elivagor. These flowed into Ginnungagap, so far from their source, that the poisonous matter they contained congealed at length, and formed a mass of ice. On the other hand, the sparks and flames proceeding from Muspelheim, came into contact with this congealed mass; and the heat, operating on the cold, produced the giant Ymer, the grand progenitor of the race of giants. He was wicked, and so were all his race, who were called Hrimthusser. Shortly after the apparition of Ymer, arose the cow Audumbla; she nourished herself by licking the frost from the pillars of salt in Ginnungagap; and this operation produced, on the first day, a man’s hair; on the second, his whole head; on the third the entire man; this man was called Bure. Bure had a son called Bor; and this Bor, by an union with a beautiful giantess of the name of Betsla, became the father of three sons, Odin, Vil and Ve, the progenitors of the Asar race. These three brothers slew the giant Ymer, from whose body flowed so much blood, that all the giants were drowned therein, except Bergelmer and his wife, who escaped from the deluge on the top of a mountain. Bergelmer and his wife had a numerous progeny, and by them were perpetuated the giant race. Odin, Vil and Ve, having slain Ymer, proceeded to the creation of the world, as it now exists. From the limbs of Ymer, they created the earth, the mountains from his bones, the sea from his blood, the heavens from his scull; and from his eye-brows they built Midgard, name of the abode to be inhabited by the human race, and so called, because it lies in the middle region. They then from two trees, which they found on the sea-shore, created a man, called Askur, and a woman called Embla; and placed them to dwell in Midgard. From this pair descend all mankind.

On the confines of Midgard towards the north, and separated from it by mountains of ice and snow, and dreary wastes eternally agitated by storms, lies Utgard, the domain of the giants, whose sovereign is Lok, commonly called Utgard-Lok, to distinguish him from an Asa bearing the same name. Utgard became thus the region assigned to the giant race, as Midgard was to mankind. The Asar chose for themselves a region supposed to be in the heavens above the earth, and this region they called Asagard. There they built for themselves various palaces and tenements; and dwelling therein, pass their time in joy and felicity, in banquets, tournaments, festivals, and amusements of all sorts; or they occupy themselves in conferring happiness upon, and imagining inventions useful and beneficial to the human race. They occasionally descend from Asagard to Midgard, by passing over the bridge Bifrost, when they deem it necessary to intervene immediately in the affairs of mankind, for the purpose of relieving the oppressed, or of enforcing the practice of justice and benevolence.

The giants, on the contrary, when they sally forth from their domain in Utgard, do so for the purpose of creating storms and earthquakes, and causing, either openly or insidiously, as much mischief as possible to gods and men.

I shall not in this preface enumerate the names of the different gods and goddesses, nor of their abodes and attributes; neither shall I enumerate the names of the giants, nor those of the Dvergar, of the Alfer, or of the Vaner. All these names will be found in a catalogue, alphabetically arranged, which I shall annex to this work. Neither shall I take notice, in this preface, of the various episodes of the mythology, which are introduced in the body of the poem, and explain themselves; but I shall proceed to give an account of the death of Balder,[7] as it is related in the younger or prosaic Edda.

Frigga is the wife of Odin and queen of the gods. Their son Balder, the most benevolent among the Asar, called by the Skalds “the fillet that binds together the garland of the gods,” was troubled with unpleasant dreams, portending some dreadful calamity to himself, and pregnant with mischief and ruin to the universe. He related his dreams to the Asar, and a council was held by them, in order to devise the means of averting the threatened mischief. His mother Frigga exacted an oath from all the elements, from iron and all kinds of metals, from stones, trees, beasts, birds, fishes and reptiles, that they would do no injury to Balder. When this oath was made, it was agreed upon by the Asar, that they should throw their lances at Balder, or cut at him with their swords, by way of amusement and experiment. Of course, enchanted as he was, he remained unscathed from all those assaults. This rejoiced the gods exceedingly; but there was one among the Asar, called Lok, originally of giant race, but admitted among the gods; a being of a treacherous and vacillating disposition, addicted to mockery and calumny, and inheriting from his ancestors, the giants, a strong innate disposition to mischief. It grieved him sore, that no injury could be done to Balder. He repaired to Fensal, the abode of Frigga, in the shape of a female, and related to her what had past between Balder and the other Asar at the tournament. Frigga replied: No weapon can do injury to Balder, for I have exacted an oath in his favour from all things likely to do him mischief. Lok answered: Have you really exacted an oath from all things? Frigga replied: Eastward to Valhalla grows a little plant, called the mistletoe; from it I exacted no oath, for it appeared to me so insignificant, as to be incapable of doing harm to anybody. Lok went away, dug up the plant, and made thereof a spear; he then went in search of Hædur, twin-brother of Balder, and born blind. Having found him, he asked him, why he did not join in the general amusement, and cast a weapon at Balder. Hædur replied: I am blind, and have no weapon. Lok answered: You should not be the only one among the Asar, who does not do honour to Balder; here! take this lance (giving to him the spear made of the mistletoe), and run at him with it! Hædur did so, and Balder fell down dead. The gods were inconsolable at his loss, and sent Hermod, the messenger of Odin, to Hela, the queen of death and of the shades below, into whose hands Balder had fallen, in order to supplicate his release. Hermod mounted the steed of Odin, called Sleipner, and repaired to the abode of Hela, in order to demand the restitution of Balder. Hela at first refused to release him on any condition whatsoever; but at length relenting, she said: Now is the time to prove, if Balder be really so beloved by all creatures, as ye pretend. If, therefore, every thing in nature will shed tears for Balder’s death, and demand his release, I will grant it. Hermod returned to Asagard, satisfied with the success of his mission. The Asar sent messengers all over the earth, calling upon all creatures to weep for Balder’s death; and all creatures did grieve and join in the prayer for his release from the shades of Helheim, except an old witch, by name Thock, who was sitting by the entrance of a cavern. When called upon to join in the general lamentation, she answered spitefully:

With dry tears
Doth Thock grieve
For the death of Balder;
He never did good to me
Either in life or death;
May Hela retain her prey!

and in consequence of this solitary refusal, Hela did retain her prey, and will do so until the end of time. It was now discovered that the witch Thock was no other than Lok himself in disguise; and the gods, enraged at his treachery, inflicted on him a summary vengeance. Changing his two sons into wolves, who devour each other, the gods make a chain from their intestines, and bind therewith Lok to a sharp rock in a subterranean abode. They then place over him two enormous serpents, who drop their venom on his limbs, and he is to remain exposed to this continual torture until the end of the world. But though Lok be thus punished, the calamity springing from Balder’s death cannot be averted; from it dates the entrance of crime and misery into the world, and a state of unceasing warfare in the heavens, on the earth, and under the earth; which state is to last until the great day of Ragnarok, called the twilight of the gods. On that awful day, which is to be preceded by a severe uninterrupted winter of three years’ duration, a great battle is to be fought between the gods and giants, in which dreadful conflict giants, gods, mankind, the whole universe, in fine, are to perish in a shower of fire and blood. After the destruction of the world, a new creation is to take place under the auspices of Vidar, the god of silence and wisdom, the sole being who survives the general conflagration. It is he who is to resuscitate the gods and the human race, and to lead them to dwell in the palace of Gimle on the plains of Ida, an abode of eternal joy and felicity, where virtue and love are to reign triumphant, and vice and hatred be extinguished for ever. As the details of the destruction of the world and of its reconstruction are given in the last canto of this poem, I need not dwell on them here.[8] Besides the alphabetical catalogue, explicatory of all that remains to be known, concerning the events and personages which figure in this poem, I have annexed to each canto notes, which give the hidden sense and meaning of most of the mythes and allegories; on which subjects I have borrowed all my information from the celebrated Danish antiquarian Finn Magnussen, now living in Copenhagen, which information is to be found in his two admirable works, the one called “The elder Edda, translated with copious notes and illustrations;” the other, “The Edda doctrine explained and elucidated.” These two works afford a complete key to the mythes and allegories of the Scandinavian mythology, intricate as it is; and armed thus with his (Finn Magnussen’s) magic wand, I too may fearlessly undertake the office of Hierophant.

With respect to this poem and its author,[9] it has been observed by a modern Danish writer of some eminence: “There have been various poetical works in all the northern languages based on the legends of the Edda; but no author has woven thereof a whole, nor has so happily and poetically embodied its genius, mythes and transformations, as Œhlenschläger in his celebrated poem, The Gods of the North.”

To me it seems that he has combined in an eminent degree the peculiar excellences of three distinguished poets, of three distinct ages, viz. those of Hesiod in his Theogony, of Ovid in his Metamorphoses, and of Ariosto in his Orlando Furioso. Œhlenschläger seems to possess all the inexhaustible genius, fertility of invention, playfulness, and sly, but not ill-natured, satire of the bard of Ferrara:

“Il grande che cantò le armi e gli amori.”

Of my translation, it befits not me to speak. Like my archetype, I have adopted various metres for the different cantos, not always the same as those of the original; for I wished to take a freer scope, and not to fetter myself by an invariable adoption of the self-same metres, which would have been attended with great difficulty, inasmuch as some of them are unsuitable to the genius of the English language, which is far less laconic than the Danish. I have likewise, in a few instances, amplified my archetype, for I was determined that nothing of his should be lost; yet I trust, that even in those parts where I have most amplified, I have never departed from the meaning and spirit of the author. I can therefore never admit, that my translation, though unshackled, should be termed “a free one,” or _Bearbeitung_, as the Germans express it.

With respect to my qualifications as a translator, they are as follows: from the early age of fifteen I have been engaged in the acquisition of the language and literature of Germany; for the last twelve years, I have closely studied the Danish and Swedish languages, and I have lately attempted the Icelandic.

About eight years ago, I made a summer tour in Denmark and Sweden, and when at Copenhagen, I became acquainted with Finn Magnussen, the celebrated antiquarian, and with the poet Œhlenschläger himself, most of whose works I had previously read with unbounded admiration and delight, and among which, this poem, “The Gods of the North,” had excited my peculiar attention. Thus prepared, I determined on undertaking a metrical version of the whole of this work, one canto of which (the 12th) I had previously translated, and published anonymously in a Parisian weekly review, in 1835.

In my translation, I was further encouraged by the idea that I was thereby contributing to spread among my countrymen a taste for the mythology and general literature of Scandinavia, which is capable of furnishing to the painter or the sculptor a series of subjects not less interesting than those derived from the classic sources of Greece or Rome. I recommend, also, to the attention of scholars, the study of the Danish and Swedish languages, as the key to an historical literature extremely rich and diversified, interesting to the readers of every European nation, but more particularly so to the English reader, who is desirous of forming an intimate acquaintance with the _arcana_ of his own language, and with his own early history, laws, customs, manners, and legends. The history of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden is as captivating as a romance, and it presents an astonishing variety of the most singular events, which would afford admirable subjects for epic and dramatic poetry, as well as for the historical novel. The English reader will perceive, likewise, that the Scandinavian mythology is the fountain head of many of the most popular tales, legends, and ballads of his own country. It will interest him to mark the effect of the introduction of the Christian religion upon the Scandinavian polytheism, as therein he may trace the origin of many of our own superstitions and fabulous traditions. At the appearance of the Cross, the proud edifice of Valhalla, not seldom, alas! polluted with human gore, crumbles into dust. Asagard, with all its palaces and gardens, dissolves in air! The mighty Odin himself, the wise, the just, the beneficent Odin, degenerates into a common-place demon, liable to be exorcised by a parish priest. The Nornor, or Fates, the solemn, majestic, and impartial Nornor, though stern, yet beautiful to behold, become changed to disgusting and wrinkled witches, and figure as such in the weird sisters of Macbeth. The awful giants of Utgard sink into the ogres of a fairy tale; Thor, deprived of his belt, his hammer, his gauntlets, and his car, dwindles into Jack the Giant-killer,[10] the familiar hero of our days of childhood; and from the _graa gaas_ (grey goose), a name given to a collection of ancient legends in the Icelandic tongue, from the circumstance of great longevity being attributed to that bird, may be traced our old nursery acquaintance and monitress, Mother Goose.[11] I have only to add, that I began the translation of this poem towards the end of the year 1836, and finished it in the autumn of 1837; but I was compelled by circumstances to delay the publication of it until the present year.

W. E. FRYE.

_Paris, January 1845._

[1] This may be the origin of the term _Ace_ in cards.

[2] In the prosaic Edda is this remarkable passage, wherein the name of Odin is given to Alfader, the supreme god. “We suppose that he (Odin, the god) must have been so called, for so is called the man, the greatest and the most glorious that we know, and well may mankind let him bear that name.”

[3] The figure given to the devil by the imagination of the northern nations is a confirmation of this hypothesis; whereas the Orientals give to him a more seducing form; but in modern times the least cultivated minds reject the northern type, as Göthe says in his drama of Faust:

Das nordische Phantom ist jetzt nicht mehr zu schauen,
Wo siehst du jetzt die Hörner, Schweif und Klauen?

(_Faust von Göthe._)

[4] The Eddas are written in the Icelandic tongue, then called the _Suio-Gothic_, and sometimes the _Norrana tunga_ (or Norse tongue), which was formerly the language of all Scandinavia. After the introduction of Christianity, from the connection with the Empire and the Church, this tongue became gradually deteriorated by a mixture with the German; and it is by this mixture with the German that the modern Swedish and Danish languages are formed. Iceland having been colonised by some Norwegian families previous to the corruption of the language, has thus, from its insular position, preserved the old language pure; and it is now called Icelandic, which, though a dead language for Scandinavia, is a living one in Iceland.

[5] Snorro Storleson is likewise the author of the celebrated history called _Heimkringlas_, a most valuable work.

[6] For the meaning of Ginnungagap and of all the other proper names, see the alphabetical catalogue annexed to this preface.

[7] The details of the death of Balder are not given in this Poem “The Gods of the North.” It is only alluded to in the speech of the Vala, in the last canto; but Œhlenschläger has treated the “Death of Balder” separately, and made it the subject of an admirable tragic opera, with choruses and trochaics in the Greek style.

[8] Respecting the tragic opera of Balder by Œhlenschläger, which I have also translated, Sneedorf Birch says:

“The mythe of Balder is one of the most beautiful and sublime poetical compositions, whose equal is not to be found in the Greek or Roman mythology, or perhaps in that of any other people. This mythe has besides furnished the subject of one of the finest masterpieces in the Danish literature, namely, the drama of “Balder the Good,” by Œhlenschläger.”

[9] Sneedorf Birch.

[10] Thor is called by the Scalds _Jotni-bane_, i.e. Bane of the Giants: perhaps Odin himself may be the original Jack the Giant-killer, since one of his names is Jalc.--See the Grimnismal in the poetic Edda.

[11] The French also call these tales _Les Contes de ma Mère l’Oie_.

ALPHABETICAL LIST

OF THE PROPER NAMES OCCURRING IN OR CONNECTED WITH THE POEM ENTITLED “THE GODS OF THE NORTH.”

_With the assistance of Finn Magnussen’s work Eddalæren (Doctrine of the Edda), I have composed the following alphabetical list of the proper names which occur in this poem, wherein the attributes of the several personages are given, and which should be consulted whenever a proper name occurs, since I have not thought it necessary to repeat in the notes annexed to each canto what is already given in this catalogue._

=ÆGIR= is the god of the sea, the Neptune of the Scandinavian
mythology. His dwelling was supposed to be on the island of
Hlesey, now called Lessoe, in the Cattegat. He is sometimes
called Hler Ægir. He is of a benevolent disposition; but his
consort Ran, who is of giant race, is otherwise. The etymology
of the name Ægir is from the Icelandic verb _Ægi_, to liquify,
inundate, etc.

=ALFADER= (Father of all) a name given to Odin, as king of
gods and men. It is sometimes given to a supreme unknown God,
pre-existent and superior to Odin himself.

=ALF=, plural =ALFER=, are inferior elementary divinities,
divided into two classes, viz. the white Alfer, or Alfs of
light; and the black Alfer, or Alfs of darkness. The white
Alfer are related to the Asar and Vaner, and are friendly to
mankind; they dwell with Balder in his palace of Breidablik.
The black Alfer are mischievously disposed: they are connected
with the Dvergar (dwarfs), and like them they shun the light
of day: they dwell in caverns and sally out at night only. Our
word _elf_ is derived therefrom.

=ANGURBOD=, name of a Jettinde (giantess), who, in consequence
of an amour with Asa-Lok, brought forth three frightful
offspring, viz. the wolf Fenris, the serpent Jormundgard,
commonly called the serpent of Midgard, and Hela, queen of
death and of the shades below. The word _Angurbod_ denotes
“messenger of sorrow.”

=ARILD=, Arilds-tid (time of Arild). From _Arilds-time_ is a
manner of reckoning among the Scandinavians, similar to our
expression from “Noah’s time.” It means the time when mankind
first learned the use of fire, and to have fixed habitations.
Etym.: _arne_ (hearth), _ild_ (fire), and _tid_ (time).

=ASA=, pl. =ASAR=, name given to the gods of the Scandinavian
mythology; the principal Asar are Odin, Thor, Frey, Balder,
Vidar, Ægir, etc. The word seems to be derived from the word
As or Az, which in the Zend or ancient Persian language, which
forms the link between the Gothic dialect and the Sanscrit,
means _elevated_, _powerful_, _sublime_.

=ASYNIA=, pl. =ASYNIOR=, name given to the goddesses; the
principal Asynior are Frigga, Freya, Iduna, Sif, Gefion, Nanna,
etc.

=ASAGARD=, or =ASGARD=, is the region, the peculiar territory
of the gods. It was supposed to be in the heavens above
the earth, and to contain many rich domains and splendid
buildings, inhabited by the different gods and goddesses. The
most remarkable are the palace of Odin, called Valaskialf;
the celebrated banqueting hall or pavilion, called Valhalla:
Vingolf the peculiar palace and rendezvous of the Asynior, or
goddesses: Trudvang, the domain of Thor: Fensal, the palace of
Frigga: Folkvang, that of Freya: Breidablik, that of Balder,
besides many others which are given in alphabetical order.
Geographically, Asagard or Asgard was the name of a territory
and city on the northern border of the Black Sea, from whence
the Asiatic Goths originally came. The word _gaard_ in Danish,
_gard_ in Swedish, means a _walled or hedged inclosure_, and is
the root of the words _yard_, _court_ and _garden_.

=ASH=, see the word Yggdrassil.

=ASKUR= is the name of the first man: he and Embla, the
first woman, were fabricated from two trees by Bor and Bure;
according to others, by Odin, Vil and Ve. Askur and Embla were
then placed by their makers in Midgard, to dwell therein, and
perpetuate their race. Askur and Embla are in fact the Adam and
Eve of the Gothic mythology. Etym.: _askr_ (ash tree).

=ASTRILD= is the god of love: his name is not to be found in
the Edda, but it appears in several of the old Sagas. Etym.:
_Ast_, old Danish word signifying (_love_) and _ild_ (_fire_).

=AUKTHOR=, a name given to Thor: it means Thor the charioteer,
from _âka_ (to drive), Swedish verb.

=AUDUMBLA=, name of the mythologic cow formed by the Fiat of
Alfader (the quisquis deorum), at the creation of the universe.
By licking the salt rocks in Ginnungagap, she occasioned
the birth of Bure, the progenitor of the Asar race. The cow
Audumbla represents the organic power of nature acting upon
the Chaos. The word, I think, means “development,” from the
Icelandic words _aud_, particle signifying _facility_, and
_embla_ (laborious).

=BALDER= is the son of Odin and Frigga, the most beloved of
his father and mother, the most benevolent among the Asar, the
sun personified, the god of light, piety and poesy. He was
slain by his twin brother Hædur, born blind, with a branch of
the mistletoe. His fate and its consequences have been related
at length in the preliminary discourse to this poem. Balder
typifies the sun at the summer solstice, and his death the
disappearance of the sun from the horizon during the winter
months in the north, while Hædur, type of darkness, reigns. The
word in Icelandic means _brilliant_, _beautiful_, _powerful_.
Balder has an evident analogy with the _Baal_ of the Assyrians,
the _Apollo_ of the Greeks, the _Horus_ of the Egyptians, the
_Krïshna_ of the Hindoos, all of which are types of the sun in
its highest splendour.

=BAUGE=, name of a giant, who procured for Odin entrance into
the bower of Gunliod, when he sought to make himself master
of the vase containing the precious liquor called _Suttung’s
mead_, which was confided to the care of Gunliod. _Bolverk_ was
the name assumed by Odin on that occasion. _Baug_ in Icelandic
means a “ring,” and among the northern nations in the Gothic
time promises were made by holding a ring; and this mythe may
mean Odin’s seduction of Gunliod by means of a promise given on
the ring.

=BERGELMER=, name of the giant who, with his wife, were the
only ones of that race who escaped being drowned in the blood
of Ymer. He and his consort escaped on a wreck, and landed on
the top of a mountain. From these two descended the second
generation of giants. This mythe reminds one of the deluge of
Noah and that of Deucalion and Pyrrha, and the mountain, mount
Ararat; for _Bergelmer_ means the _ancient of the mountain_,
from _berg_ (mountain), and _gamla_ (old).

=BERSERK= (bare sark), name given to a sort of combatants among
the ancient Scandinavians, who affected peculiar ferocity, and
fought with their fists and teeth, in the absence of other
weapons, and in no other clothing but their shirt; hence their
name. _Berserkgang_ is a term used to signify a combat of life
and death, and is often applied to the exploits of Thor, to
denote their peculiar danger and difficulty.

=BETSLA=, name of a beautiful giantess, the wife of Bor, and
mother of Odin, Vil and Ve.

=BIFROST=, name of the vast bridge which unites heaven to
earth, and typifies the _rainbow_. Over this bridge the Asar
must pass when they descend to the world below; over it must
likewise pass the heroes slain in battle, when they ascend to
Valhalla, escorted by the Valkyrior. Etym.: from the Icelandic
words _bifa_ (to move) and _röst_ (stone). The bridge Bifrost
was supposed to be constructed of stones of various colours.

=BILSKIRNIR=, name of the palace or castle of Thor, in
Trudvang. It is tiled with copper shields, its halls are inlaid
with gold and silver, and it has five hundred and forty gates.
Etym.: Icelandic words _billd_ (aspect, image), and _skirna_
(make bright).

=BOLVERK=, name assumed by Odin when he served Bauge, disguised
as a labourer. The etymology of this word may be _böll_ (a
bolt) and _verk_ (work).

=BOR=, or Bör, name of the son of Bure; by his union with
the beautiful giantess Betsla, he became the father of the
Scandinavian triad, Odin, Vil, and Ve. Bor, in Icelandic, means
_son_. But I suspect the word to be of Hebrew origin, meaning
_beginning_; for _böra_ is precisely the Hebrew word wherewith
the first book of Genesis begins.

=BRAGUR=, or =BRAGA=, an Asa, the god of poetry and musical
declamation. At the banquets of Valhalla, he chaunts to the
sound of his harp the praises of the gods and Einherier, and
celebrates in high-flown language their virtues and warlike
deeds. He is the husband of Iduna. He is called by the poets of
the north, _Bragur hin gamle_ (_Bragur the ancient_). Etym.:
Icelandic verb _bragga_ (to adorn, to embellish). Our English
word _to brag_ comes probably from the same root.

=BREIDABLIK=, name of the palace of Balder, in Asagard; it is
tiled with pearls! Etym.: _breid_ (broad, extended), _blik_
(view).

=BURE=, father of Bor, and progenitor of the Asar race: his
production, effectuated by the cow Audumbla, has been already
related in the translator’s preface. _Bure_ in Icelandic
has the same meaning as Bör, i.e. son. Both the words come
probably from the Hebrew or Zend, and mean the same thing, viz.
_origin_ or _beginning_.

=DAG= (day), the son of Delling.

=DELLING=, name of the father of Dag (day); the word means
_division_.

=DISA=, pl. =DISAR=; name given to the Asynior, or goddesses.
This word is evidently of Persian origin.

=DISARSAL= (hall of the Disar), name often given to the palace
of Vingolf, the peculiar place of reunion for the goddesses in
Asagard.

=DOVRE=, name of a chain of mountains in Norway, which seems to
bear the same relation to Asagard as the natural mount Olympus
in Greece bears to the mythological one.

=DRAPA= means _funeral dirge_, or song of the _apotheosis_. In
it were celebrated the funeral ceremonies of a deceased hero,
his glorious actions recapitulated, and his elevation to the
rank of an Einherier and admission into Valhalla triumphantly
announced. The English word _dirge_ comes, perhaps, from the
Icelandic and Swedish verb _dyrka_ (to adore).

=DRUPNER=, name of a magic ring fabricated for Odin by the
dwarfs, at the command of Asa-Lok. This ring had the faculty
of dropping eight other rings on every ninth night: by this
is typified the change of the moon and its phases. When Odin
placed the ring Drupner on the bosom of his son Balder, when he
laid his corpse upon the funeral pile, he whispered a secret in
his ear. This may allude to the promise of resurrection, but
none knew the secret, save Odin himself. The placing of the
ring Drupner (the moon) on the bosom of Balder (the sun) may
typify the eclipse of the sun by the moon intervening. Etym.:
from the Icelandic verb _driupa_ (to drop, or distil).

=DVERG=, pl. =DVERGAR= (Dwarf), mythological beings, of
short stature, who dwelt in caverns and were skilful in the
fabrication of metallic instruments. They are unable to bear
the glare of the sun, and prefer to rove about at night. From
this circumstance, and from their being at times disposed to
mischief, they are considered as related to the giants; but
they are employed both by gods and giants to make armour and
other instruments for them. They are represented as being of an
exceedingly timorous disposition.

=DWARFS=, see =DVERG=.

=EIKTHYRNIR=, name of the mythological stag which stands on
the roof of the portal of Valaskialf, and from whose antlers
springs a fountain which furnishes water to all the rivers of
the earth. Etym.: _eikt_ (vigils), _hyrnir_ (horns).

=EINHERIER=, name given to mortal warriors deified for their
valour, and admitted among the Asar; they are constant guests
at the banquets of Valhalla. Their occupations and amusements
are thus described in the prosaic Edda: “Every day they dress
themselves in their armour, go out on horseback to fight, and
cut at one another; thus they pass their time. But when the
hour of repast approaches, they ride home to the palace, and
take their seats at the banquet.” In the elder or poetic Edda,
in the chapter called the Vaftrudnismal, are the following
words concerning them:

“All the Einherier
In Odin’s domain,
Fight together daily,
And choose their prey of death:
From the battle they ride afterwards
To drink beer with the Asar,
And to feast on the flesh of Sâhrimner,
In joy and amity.”

Etym.: _einn_ (one, unique), and _heria_ (to bear arms).

=EIR=, name of an Asynia, whose office it is to heal the wounds
of the Einherier, when they are first admitted into Valhalla,
by squeezing into their wounds the juice of the beet. She is,
in fact, the goddess of medicine.

=ELDIR=, name of Ægir’s purveyor; he is supposed to dwell under
the famous whirlpool of Malstrom, and to break in pieces with
his club every bark that is engulfed therein. Etym.: _eld_
(fire), and may allude to the subterranean fire supposed to be
under Malstrom, and to cause its effervescence.

=ELIVAGOR= is, mythologically, the collective name of the
rivers that flow from the source Hvergelmer, in Ginnungagap.
Geographically, Elivagor is thought to mean the mouth of the
White Sea. Etym.: _elf_ (a stream), and _vaga_ (to wander).

=ELYERHOY=, name of a hill or barrow in the island of Sealand
(Denmark), so called from its being the supposed habitation of
_alfs_ or _elves_. In Danish, _hoi_ means _height_.

=EMBLA=, name of the first woman, according to the Scandinavian
mythology. See Askur. _Embla_ means _laborious_, _productive_.

=FENRIS=, name of the mythologic wolf, begotten by Asa-Lok on
the witch or giantess Angurbod. He is malignant, frightful to
behold, and his nostrils vomit fire. His presence inspired the
gods with such terror, that they endeavoured to bind him with
chains of iron and copper; but these he easily burst asunder;
they then had resource to a stratagem, and succeeded in binding
him with a magic chain, which was composed as follows: of the
noise of cat’s feet, of the beards of women, of the breath of
birds, of the saliva of fish, of the nerves of bears, and of
the roots of mountains. This chain he could not break. The
Asar then cast him down into Niffelheim, and placed him at the
gate of Helheim, the residence of Hela. There he is to remain
chained until Ragnarok; he will then break his chain, join in
the battle of the giants against the gods, and devour Odin; but
he will be afterwards himself slain by Vidar. By Fenris wolf is
typified the subterranean fire, which it is supposed will one
day occasion the conflagration of the universe. Etym.: _Fenia_
(giantess or sorceress), _risi_ (to spring from).

=FENSAL=, name of the palace of Frigga, in Asagard. Probable
etym.: _fengisall_ (happy in acquiring riches).

=FIALAR=, name of the mythologic cock which is to crow at
Ragnarok, to excite the gods and giants to combat. _Fiallar_,
in Icelandic, means _cock_.

=FINNAFENG=, name of the cook of Ægir, god of the sea; he is
slain by Asa-Lok for refusing him admittance to Ægir’s banquet.
The etymology may be from the Icelandic words _fina_ (a piece
of flesh), _fenge_ (a capture).

=FOLKVANGUR= or =FOLKVANG=, name of the palace of Freya in
Asagard, into which are admitted, after death, faithful lovers
and virtuous women.

=FORSETE=, an Asa, the son of Balder, and god of justice; he
dwells in his palace Glitner. He often descends to earth,
to sit in judgment, and hear causes under the shade of the
ash-tree Yggdrassil, near the fountain of Urda. He is the son
of Balder, inasmuch as justice proceeds from light; and as Urda
is the Norna or destiny of the past, it is from her fountain
(i.e. consulting the records of the past) that he acquires
experience. The etymology of this word is _for_ (before), and
_sete_ (set), ergo _præses_, _president_.

=FREY=, or =FREYR=, is the god of liberty, joy and fecundity;
he is the son of Niord, and brother of Freya. He is invoked for
sunshine and good crops. He represents the sun at the winter
solstice. The new year’s feast was instituted to do him honour;
it was the day of his birth, and a season of festivity and joy.
He was the owner of a magic sword, but falling in love with
Gerda, a beautiful damsel of Jotun race, he gave it away to her
father, in order to obtain his consent to their union. He is to
be slain by Surtur at Ragnarok. Etym.: _frei_ (free), _friò_
(seed). It is remarkable that in Egypt the sun was called
_Phré_. The Swedish word _fröid_ (joy) is probably derived from
the name of this god.

=FREYA= is the Venus of the Scandinavians, the goddess of love,
beauty, pleasure and fecundity; she is the sister of Frey,
and daughter of Niord. She is the most beautiful of all the
Asynior. She was married to Odur; but when the goddess Iduna,
with her golden vase containing the fruit of immortality, was
stolen from Asagard, Freya, in common with the other Asar,
lost her youth and beauty; and Odur, disgusted at the change,
fled from her embraces. On the deliverance of Iduna, Freya
recovered her youth and beauty, but her Odur never returned.
She wandered all over the earth in search of him, but in vain.
She weeps continually for his loss, and sheds tears of gold.
When she travels, it is in a golden car, drawn by two black
cats. Freya has two daughters, Siofna and Hnos, both remarkable
for their beauty and gentleness. The Dutch word _fraai_
(handsome), is derived probably from Freya.

=FRIGGA= is the wife of Odin, the queen of the gods, the Juno
and Ceres of the Scandinavian mythology. She sometimes typifies
the earth, as Odin does the heavens; they become thus identic
with the Ουρανος and Γη of the Greeks. She is pleased with
offerings of fruits and flowers, and is herself extremely
generous and beneficent. The constellation “Orion’s belt,” is
termed by the Scalds the “spinning-wheel of Frigga.” She is the
mother of Balder, Hædur, Thor, etc. The etymology of Frigga is
_friò_ (seed), _gà_ (to take care of).

=FULLA=, name of an Asynia, the handmaid and confidante of
Frigga, and guardian of her jewels and wardrobe. She hands
round the plates to the guests at the banquet of Valhalla.
Her name typifies _abundance_; _voll_, _full_, in the German
and English languages, and _fuld_, _full_, in the Danish and
Swedish, all meaning the same thing, are probably derived
therefrom.

=GARDERIKE=, name given by the ancient Scandinavians to a part
of Russia.

=GARM=, name of the mythologic dog, who remains chained at the
cavern of Gnypa, until Ragnarok; he will then break his chain,
and fight with Tyr; both will perish.

=GAUTHIOD= (Gothland), a name of Sweden.

=GEFION=, an Asynia, the goddess of virginity, herself a
virgin; she receives in her domain in Asagard women, who
die unmarried. She is the founder of the island of Sealand
(Denmark), which was supposed to have been formerly joined
to the continent of Sweden, and which, at her request, was
ploughed around, separated from the mainland, and dragged
into the Ocean by the sons of Gyllfe, who, to please her,
transformed themselves into oxen, and performed the said
service.

=GEIRSODD= means “point of a lance.” The historical Odin, when
on his death-bed, cut his veins with the point of a lance,
assuring his surviving followers and companions, that those
who died on the field of battle, or in this manner covered
with blood, would meet him in Valhalla, and partake of all
the delights of the immortals. Hence the natural death by old
age or sickness, called emphatically _strâ död_ (death on
the straw), was looked upon as ignominious by the northern
warriors, and as exposing them to the danger of falling into
the clutches of Hela. They, in consequence, when they felt
their end approaching, either by old age or sickness, opened
their veins, and bled to death; this was called _cutting runes
to Odin_, or otherwise _geirsodd rita_ (to scratch with the
point of a lance); and this, as they believed, ensured them
admission into Valhalla.

=GERDA=, a beautiful damsel of Jotun race, daughter of the
giant Gymer. She was united to Frey with the consent of all
the gods, and admitted among the Asynior. She was renowned for
her beauty, piety and virtue. Finn Magnussen thinks that Gerda
is a type of the _aurora borealis_, which replaces the light
of the sun in winter, in the extreme northern regions; Frey
himself typifying the sun. Others suppose that Gerda typifies
the earth, and her amour with Frey the relationship between the
earth and the sun.

=GESTUR=, name of a blind giant who proposes riddles and
enigmas to Skirnir on his journey to the world below, for the
purpose of visiting Gerda.

=GIALLAR=, name of the horn of Heimdal, which he blows, to give
notice to the gods of those who arrive at, and attempt to cross
the bridge Bifrost. Etym.: Icelandic verb _gala_ (to sing, to
call out). The English verb _call_, and the Swedish and Danish
verbs _kalla_, _kalde_, come from the same root.