Chapter III: Killing the God (9)

960 Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5 i. 456, _note_ 4; Roscher,
_Ausführliches Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. Mythologie_, i. c. 724.
Cp. Polybius, xxii. 20 (18).

961 The conjecture is that of Henzen in _Annal. d. Inst._ 1856, p. 110,
referred to in Roscher, _l.c._

962 See pp. 84, 231.

963 Article “Phrygia,” in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, ninth ed. xviii.
853.

964 xii. 5, 3.

965 The myth, in a connected form, is only known from Plutarch, _Isis et
Osiris_, cc. 13-19. Some additional details, recovered from Egyptian
sources, will be found in the work of Adolf Erman, _Aegypten und
aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 365 _sqq._

966 Le Page Renouf, _Hibbert Lectures_, 1879, p. 110; Brugsch, _Religion
und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 614; Ad. Erman, _l.c._; Ed.
Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i. § 56 _sq._

967 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13; Diodorus, i. 14; Tibullus, i. 7, 29
_sqq._

968 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8.

969 So Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 617. Plutarch, _op. cit._ 39, says four
days, beginning with the 17th of the month Athyr.

970 In the Alexandrian year the month Athyr corresponded to November.
But as the old Egyptian year was vague, that is, made no use of
intercalation, the astronomical date of each festival varied from
year to year, till it had passed through the whole cycle of the
astronomical year. From the fact, therefore, that, when the calendar
became fixed, Athyr fell in November, no inference can be drawn as
to the date at which the death of Osiris was originally celebrated.
It is thus perfectly possible that it may have been originally a
harvest festival, though the Egyptian harvest falls, not in
November, but in April; cp. Selden, _De diis Syris_, p. 335 _sq._;
Parthey on Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, c. 39.

971 Brugsch, _l.c._ For a specimen of these lamentations see Brugsch,
_op. cit._ p. 631 _sq._; _Records of the Past_, ii. 119 _sqq._ For
the annual ceremonies of finding and burying Osiris, see also
Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 2 § 3; Servius
on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 609.

972 Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 617 _sq._; Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches
Leben im Altertum_, p. 377 _sq._

973 Erman, _l.c._; Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. 68, 82; Tiele, _History of the
Egyptian Religion_, p. 46.

974 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35. ὁμολογεῖ δὲ καὶ τὰ τιτανικὰ καὶ νὺξ
τελεία τοῖς λεγομένοις Ὀσίριδος διασπασμοῖς καὶ ταῖς ἀναβιώσεσι καὶ
παλιγγενεσίαις, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὰ περὶ τὰς ταφάς.

975 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 39.

976 Tibullus, i. 7, 33 _sqq._

977 Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 621.

978 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 166.

979 Above, p. 267.

980 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73, cp. 33; Diodorus, i. 88.

981 Plutarch, _op. cit._ 31; Herodotus, ii. 38.

982 Herrera, quoted by Bastian, _Culturländer des alten Amerika_, ii.
639.

983 Lefébure, _Le mythe Osirien_ (Paris, 1874-75), p. 188.

984 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 2, § 6,
_defensores eorum volunt addere physicam rationem, frugum semina
Osirim dicentes esse; Isim terram, Tyfonem calorem: et quia
maturatae fruges calore ad vitam hominum colliguntur et divisae a
terrae consortia separantur et rursus adpropinquante hieme
seminantur, hanc volunt esse mortem Osiridis, cum fruges recondunt,
inventionem vero, cum fruges genitali terrae fomento conceptae annua
rursus coeperint procreatione generari_; Eusebius, _Praepar. Evang._
iii. 11, 31, ὁ δὲ Ὄσιρις παρ᾽ Αἰγυπτίος τὴν κάρπιμον παρίστησι
δύναμιν, ἤν θρήνοις ἀπομειλίσσονται εἰς γῆν ἀφανιζομένην ἐν τῷ
σπόρῳ. καὶ ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν καταναλισκομένην εὶς τὰς τροφάς.

_ 985 Op. cit._ 27, § 1.

_ 986 Isis et Osiris_, 21, αινῶ δὲ τομὴν ξύλου καὶ σχίσιν λίνου καὶ χοὰς
χεομένας. διὰ τὸ πολλὰ τῶν μυστικῶν ἀναμεμῖχθαι τούτοις. Again, c.
42, τὸ δὲ ξύλον ἐν ταῖς λεγομέναις; Ὀσίριδος ταφαῖς τέμνοντες
κατασκευάζουσι λάρνακα μηνοειδὴ.

987 See above, p. 304.

988 Lefébure, _Le mythe Osirien_, pp. 194, 198, referring to Mariette,
_Denderah_, iv. 66 and 72.

989 Lefébure, _op. cit._ pp. 195, 197.

990 Birch, in Wilkinson’s _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_
(London, 1878), iii. 84.

991 Wilkinson, _op. cit._ iii. 63 _sq._; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des
Alterthums_, i. §§ 56, 60.

992 Wilkinson, _op. cit._ iii. 349 _sq._; Brugsch, _Religion und
Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 621; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_,
20. In Plutarch _l.c._ Parthey proposes to read μυρίκης for μηθίδης,
and this conjecture appears to be accepted by Wilkinson, _l.c._

993 Lefébure, _Le mythe Osirien_, p. 191.

994 Lefébure, _op. cit._ p. 188.

995 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35. One of the points in which the myths
of Isis and Demeter agree, is that both goddesses in their search
for the loved and lost one are said to have sat down, sad at heart
and weary, on the edge of a well. Hence those who had been initiated
at Eleusis were forbidden to sit on a well. Plutarch, _Isis et
Osiris_, 15; Homer, _Hymn to Demeter_, 98 _sq._; Pausanias, i. 39,
1; Apollodorus, i. 5, 1; Nicander, _Theriaca_, 486; Clemens Alex.,
_Protrept._ ii. 20.

996 Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 645.

997 C. P. Tiele, _History of Egyptian Religion_, p. 57.

_ 998 Hibbert Lectures_, 1879, p. 111.

999 Diodorus, i. 14. Eusebius (_Praeparat. Evang._ iii. 3) quotes from
Diodorus (i. 11-13) a long passage on the early religion of Egypt,
prefacing the quotation (c. 2) with the remark γράφει δὲ καὶ τὰ περὶ
τούτων πλατύτερον μὲν ὁ Μανέθως, ἐπετετμημένως δὲ ὁ Διόδωρος, which
seems to imply that Diodorus epitomised Manetho.

1000 Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 647.

1001 Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 649.

1002 Brugsch,_l.c._

1003 Herodotus, ii. 59, 156; Diodorus, i. 13, 25, 96; Apollodorus, ii. 1,
3; Tzetzes, _Schol. in Lycophron._ 212.

_ 1004 Antholog. Planud._ 264, 1.

_ 1005 Orphica_, ed. Abel, p. 295 _sqq._

1006 Jablonski, _Pantheon Aegyptiorum_ (Frankfurt, 1750), i. 125 _sq._

1007 i. 11.

1008 See p. 310, _note_.

1009 See the _Saturnalia_, bk. i.

_ 1010 Saturn._ i. 21, 11.

1011 Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient_4 (Paris, 1886),
p. 35.

1012 Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London,
1878), iii. 353.

_ 1013 Isis et Osiris_, 52.

_ 1014 De errore profan. religionum_, 8.

1015 Lepsius, “Ueber den ersten aegyptischen Götterkreis und seine
geschichtlich-mythologische Entstehung,” in _Abhandlungen der
königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1851, p. 194
_sq._

1016 The view here taken of the history of Egyptian religion is based on
the sketch in Erman’s _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_,
p. 351 _sqq._

1017 On this attempted revolution in religion see Lepsius in _Verhandl.
d. königl. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin_, 1851, pp. 196-201; Erman,
_op. cit._ p. 355 _sqq._

1018 Tiele, _History of the Egyptian Religion_, p. 44.

1019 Tiele, _op. cit._ p. 46.

_ 1020 Ib._ p. 45.

1021 Le Page Renouf, _Hibbert Lectures_, 1879, p. 111 _sqq._

_ 1022 Hibbert Lectures_, 1879, p. 113. Cp. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne_,4
p. 35; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, i. §§ 55, 57.

1023 There are far more plausible grounds for identifying Osiris with the
moon than with the sun—1. He was said to have lived or reigned
twenty-eight years; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, cc. 13, 42. This
might be taken as a mythical expression for a lunar month. 2. His
body was rent into fourteen pieces (_ib._ cc. 18, 42). This might be
interpreted of the moon on the wane, losing a piece of itself on
each of the fourteen days which make up the second half of a
lunation. It is expressly mentioned that Typhon found the body of
Osiris at the full moon (_ib._ 8); thus the dismemberment of the god
would begin with the waning of the moon. 3. In a hymn supposed to be
addressed by Isis to Osiris, it is said that Thoth

“Placeth thy soul in the bark Ma-at,
In that name which is thine, of GOD MOON.”

And again,

“Thou _who comest to us as a child each month_,
We do not cease to contemplate thee,
Thine emanation heightens the brilliancy
Of the stars of Orion in the firmament,” etc.

_Records of the Past_, i. 121 _sq._; Brugsch, _Religion und
Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 629 _sq._ Here then Osiris is
identified with the moon in set terms. If in the same hymn he is
said to “illuminate us like Ra” (the sun), this, as we have already
seen, is no reason for identifying him with the sun, but quite the
contrary. 4. At the new moon of the month Phanemoth, being the
beginning of spring, the Egyptians celebrated what they called “the
entry of Osiris into the moon.” Plutarch, _Is. et Os._ 43. 5. The
bull Apis, which was regarded as an image of the soul of Osiris
(_Is. et Os._ cc. 20, 29), was born of a cow which was believed to
have been impregnated by the moon (_ib._ 43). 6. Once a year, at the
full moon, pigs were sacrificed simultaneously to the moon and
Osiris. Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, _Is. et Os._ 8. The relation of
the pig to Osiris will be examined later on.

Without attempting to explain in detail why a god of vegetation, as
I take Osiris to have been, should have been brought into such close
connection with the moon, I may refer to the intimate relation which
is vulgarly believed to subsist between the growth of vegetation and
the phases of the moon. See _e.g._ Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 221, xvi.
190, xvii. 108, 215, xviii. 200, 228, 308, 314; Plutarch, _Quaest.
Conviv._ iii. 10, 3; Aulus Gellius, xx. 8, 7; Macrobius, _Saturn._
vii. 16, 29 _sq._ Many examples are furnished by the ancient writers
on agriculture, _e.g._ Cato, 37, 4; Varro, i. 37; _Geoponica_, i. 6.

1024 Herodotus, ii. 42, 49, 59, 144, 156; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13,
35; _id._, _Quaest. Conviv._ iv. 5, 3; Diodorus, i. 13, 25, 96, iv.
1; _Orphica_, Hymn 42; Eusebius, _Praepar. Evang._ iii. 11, 31;
Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 287; _id._, on _Georg._ i. 166;
Hippolytus, _Refut. omn. haeres._ v. 9, p. 168; Socrates, _Eccles.
Hist._ iii. 23, p. 204; Tzetzes, _Schol. in Lycophron_, 212;
Διηγήματα, xxii. 2, in _Mythographi Graeci_, ed. Westermann, p. 368;
Nonnus, _Dionys._ iv. 269 sq.; Cornutus, _De natura deorum_, c. 28;
Clemens Alexandr. _Protrept._ ii. 19; Firmicus Maternus, _De errore
profan. relig._ 7.

1025 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 7.

1026 Herodotus, ii. 49.

1027 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35.

1028 Osiris, Attis, Adonis, and Dionysus were all explained by him as the
sun; but he stopped short at Demeter (Ceres), whom, however, he
interpreted as the moon. See the _Saturnalia_, bk. i.

1029 On Dionysus in general see Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,3 i.
544 _sqq._; Fr. Lenormant, article “Bacchus” in Daremberg et Saglio,
_Dictionnaire des Antiquités grecques et romaines_, i. 591 _sqq._;
Voigt and Thraemer’s article “Dionysus,” in Roscher’s _Ausführliches
Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, i. c. 1029 _sqq._

1030 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ v. 3, Διονύσῳ δὲ δενδρίτῃ πάντες, ὡς
ἔθος εἰπεῖν, Ἕλληνες θύουσιν.

1031 Hesychius, _s.v._ Ἔνδενδρος.

1032 See the pictures of his images, taken from ancient vases, in
Bötticher, _Baumkultus der Hellenen_, plates 42, 43, 43A, 43B, 44;
Daremberg et Saglio, _op. cit._ i. 361, 626.

1033 Daremberg et Saglio, _op. cit._ i. 626.

1034 Cornutus, _De natura deorum_, 30.

1035 Pindar, quoted by Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35.

1036 Maximus Tyrius, _Dissertat._ viii. 1.

1037 Athenaeus, iii. pp. 78 C, 82 D.

1038 Himerius, _Orat._ i. 10, Διόνυσος γεωργεῖ.

_ 1039 Orphica_, Hymn l. 4, liii. 8.

1040 Aelian, _Var. Hist._ iii. 41; Hesychius, _s.v._ Φλέω[ς]. Cp.
Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ v. 8, 3.

1041 Pausanias, i. 31, 4; _id._ vii. 21, 6 (2).

1042 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ v. 3.

1043 Pausanias, ii. 2, 6 (5) _sq._ Pausanias does not mention the kind of
tree; but from Euripides, _Bacchae_, 1064 _sqq._, and Philostratus,
_Imag._ i. 17 (18), we may infer that it was a pine; though
Theocritus (xxvi. 11) speaks of it as a mastich-tree.

1044 Müller-Wieseler, _Denkmäler der alten Kunst_, ii. pl. xxxii. _sqq._;
Baumeister, _Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums_, i. figures 489,
491, 492, 495. Cp. Lenormant in Daremberg et Saglio, i. 623; Lobeck,
_Aglaophamus_, p. 700.

1045 Pausanias, i. 31, 6 (3).

1046 Athenaeus, iii. p. 78 C.

1047 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 6.

1048 Clemens Alexandr., _Protrept._ ii. 17. Cp. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p.
1111 _sqq._

1049 Clemens Alexandr., _Protrept._ ii. 19.

1050 Clemens Alexandr., _Protrept._ ii. 18; Proclus on Plato’s Timaeus,
iii. 200 D, quoted by Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 562, and by Abel,
_Orphica_, p. 234. Others said that the mangled body was pieced
together, not by Apollo but by Rhea. Cornutus, _De natura deorum_,
30.

1051 Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 572 _sqq._ For a conjectural restoration
of the temple, based on ancient authorities and an examination of
the scanty remains, see an article by Professor J. H. Middleton, in
_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, vol. ix. p. 282 _sqq._

1052 Diodorus, iii. 62.

1053 Macrobius, _Comment. in Somn. Scip._ i. 12, 12; _Scriptores rerum
mythicarum Latini tres Romae nuper reperti_ (commonly referred to as
_Mythographi Vaticani_), ed. G. H. Bode (Cellis, 1834), iii. 12, 5,
p. 246; Origen, _c. Cels._ iv. 171, quoted by Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_,
p. 713.

1054 Himerius, _Orat._ ix. 4.

1055 Proclus, _Hymn to Minerva_, in Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 561;
_Orphica_, ed. Abel, p. 235.

1056 Hyginus, _Fab._ 167.

1057 The festivals of Dionysus were biennial in many places. See
Schömann, _Griechische Alterthümer_,3 ii. 500 _sqq._ (The terms for
the festival were τριετηρίς, τριετηρικός both terms of the series
being included in the numeration, in accordance with the ancient
mode of reckoning.) Probably the festivals were formerly annual and
the period was afterwards lengthened, as has happened with other
festivals. See W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 172, 175; 491, 533
_sq._, 598. Some of the festivals of Dionysus, however, were annual.

1058 Firmicus Maternus, _De err. prof. relig._ 6.

_ 1059 Mythogr. Vatic._ ed. Bode, _l.c._

1060 Plutarch, _Consol. ad uxor._ 10. Cp. _id._, _Isis et Osiris_, 35;
_id._, _De ei Delphico_, 9; _id._, _De esu carnium_, i. 7.

1061 Pausanias, ii. 31, 2, and 37, 5; Apollodorus, iii. 5, 3.

1062 Pausanias, ii. 37, 5 _sq._; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35; _id._,
_Quaest. Conviv._ iv. 6, 2.

1063 Himerius, _Orat._ iii. 6, xiv. 7.

1064 For Dionysus, see Lenormant in Daremberg et Saglio, i. 632. For
Osiris, see Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. 65.

1065 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35; _id._, _Quaest. Graec._ 36;
Athenaeus, xi. 476 A; Clemens Alexandr., _Protrept._ ii. 16;
_Orphica_, Hymn xxx. _vv._ 3, 4, xlv. 1, lii. 2, liii. 8; Euripides,
_Bacchae_, 99; Schol. on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 357; Nicander,
_Alexipharmaca_, 31; Lucian, _Bacchus_, 2.

1066 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 920 _sqq._, 1017.

1067 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35; Athenaeus, _l.c._

1068 Diodorus, iii. 64, 2, iv. 4, 2; Cornutus, _De natura deorum_, 30.

1069 Diodorus, _l.c._; Tzetzes, _Schol. in Lycophr._ 209; Philostratus,
_Imagines_, i. 14 (15).

1070 Müller-Wieseler, _Denkmäler der alten Kunst_, ii. pl. xxxiii.;
Daremberg et Saglio, i. 619 _sq._, 631; Roscher, _Ausführl.
Lexikon_, i. c. 1149 _sqq._

1071 Welcker, _Alte Denkmäler_, v. taf. 2.

1072 Plutarch, _Quaest. Graec._ 36; _id._, _Isis et Osiris_, 35.

1073 Nonnus, _Dionys._ vi. 205.

1074 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profan. religionum_, 6.

1075 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 735 _sqq._; Schol. on Aristophanes, _Frogs_,
357.

1076 Hesychius, _s.v._ Ἔριφος ὁ Διόνυσος, on which there is a marginal
gloss ὁ μικρὸς αἴξ, ὁ ἐν τῷ ἔαρι φαινόμενος, ἤγουν ὁ πρώϊμος;
Stephanus Byzant. _s.v._ Ἀκρώρεια. The title Εἰραφιώτης is probably
to be explained in the same way. [Homer], _Hymn_ xxxiv. 2; Porphyry,
_De abstin._ iii. 17; Dionysius, _Perieg._ 576; _Etymolog. Magnum_,
p. 371, 57.

1077 Apollodorus, iii. 4, 3.

1078 Ovid, _Metam._ v. 329; Antoninus Liberalis, 28; _Mythogr. Vatic._
ed. Bode, i. 86, p. 29.

1079 Arnobius, _Adv. nationes_, v. 19. Cp. Suidas, _s.v._ αἰγίζειν. As
fawns appear to have been also torn in pieces at the rites of
Dionysus (Photius, _s.v._ νεβρίζειν; Harpocration, _s.v._ νεβρίζων),
it is probable that the fawn was another of the god’s embodiments.
But of this there seems no direct evidence. Fawn-skins were worn
both by the god and his worshippers (Cornutus, _De natura deorum_,
c. 30). Similarly the female Bacchanals wore goat-skins (Hesychius,
_s.v._ τραγηφόροι).

1080 Varro, _De re rustica_ i. 2, 19; Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 380, and
Servius, _ad I._, and on _Aen._ iii. 118; Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 353
_sqq._; _id._, Metam. xv. 114 _sq._; Cornutus, _De natura deorum_,
30.

1081 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 138 _sq._ ἀγρεύων αἷμα τραγοκτόνον, ὡμοφάγον
χάριν.

1082 Schol. on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 357.

1083 Hera αἱγοφάγος at Sparta, Pausanias, iii. 15, 9 (cp. the
representation of Hera clad in a goat’s skin, with the animal’s head
and horns over her head, Müller-Wieseler, _Denkmäler der alten
Kunst_, i. No. 299 B); Apollo ὁψοφάγος at Elis, Athenaeus, 346 B;
Artemis καπροφάγος in Samos, Hesychius, _s.v._ καπροφάγος; cp.
_id._, _s.v._ κριοφάγος. Divine titles derived from _killing_
animals are probably to be similarly explained, as Dionysus
αἱγόβολος, Pausanias ix. 8, 2; Rhea or Hecate κυνοσφαγής, Tzetzes,
_Schol. in Lycophr._ 77; Apollo λυκοκτόνος, Sophocles, _Electra_, 6;
Apollo σαυροκτόνος, Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 70.

1084 Porphyry, _De abstin._ ii. 55.

1085 Pausanias, ix. 8, 2.

1086 Plutarch, _Quaest. Graec._ 38.

1087 Aelian, _Nat. An._ xii. 34. Cp. W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, i. 286 _sqq._

1088 It is to be remembered that on the Mediterranean coasts the harvest
never falls so late as autumn.

1089 On Demeter as a corn-goddess see Mannhardt, _Mythologische
Forschungen_, p. 224 _sqq._; on Proserpine in the same character see
Cornutus, _De nat. deor._ c. 28; Varro in Augustine, _Civ. Dei_,
vii. 20; Hesychius, _s.v._ Φερσεφόνεια; Firmicus Maternus, _De
errore prof. relig._ 17. In his careful account of Demeter as a
corn-goddess Mannhardt appears to have overlooked the very important
statement of Hippolytus (_Refut. omn. haeres._ v. 8, p. 162, ed.
Duncker and Schneidewin) that at the initiation into the Eleusinian
mysteries (the most famous of all the rites of Demeter) the central
mystery revealed to the initiated was a reaped ear of corn.

1090 Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, ii. 532; Preller, in Pauly’s
_Real-Encyclopädie für class. Alterthumswiss_. vi. 107; Lenormant,
in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités grecques et
romaines_, i. pt. ii. 1047 _sqq._

1091 Homer, _Hymn to Demeter_; Apollodorus, i. 5; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 425
_sqq._; _id._, _Metam._ v. 385 _sqq._

1092 A third, according to Homer, _H. to Demeter_, 399, and Apollodorus,
i. 5, 3; a half, according to Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 614; _id._,
_Metam._ v. 567; Hyginus, _Fab._ 146.

1093 Schömann, _Griech. Alterthümer_,3 ii. 393; Preller, _Griech.
Mythologie_,3 i. 628 _sq._, 644 _sq._, 650 _sq._ The evidence of the
ancients on this head, though not full and definite, seems
sufficient. See Diodorus, v. 4; Firmicus Maternus, cc. 7, 27;
Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 69; Apuleius, _Met._ vi. 2; Clemens
Alex., _Protrept._ ii. §§ 12, 17.

_ 1094 Mythol. Forschungen_, p. 292 _sqq._

_ 1095 Etymol. Magnum_, p. 264, 12 _sq._

1096 O. Schrader, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_2 (Jena, 1890),
pp. 409, 422; V. Hehn, _Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere in ihrem
Uebergang aus Asien_,4 p. 54. Δηαί is doubtless equivalent
etymologically to ζειαί, which is often taken to be spelt, but this
seems uncertain.

1097 Hesiod, _Theog._ 971; Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio, i. pt. ii.
p. 1029.

1098 W. Mannhardt, _Mythol. Forsch._ p. 296.

_ 1099 Ib._ p. 297.

_ 1100 Ib._ p. 297 _sq._

_ 1101 Ib._ p. 299.

_ 1102 Ib._ p. 300.

_ 1103 Ib._ p. 310.

1104 W. Mannhardt, _Mythol. Forsch._ p. 310 _sq._

_ 1105 Ib._ p. 316.

_ 1106 Ib._ p. 316.

_ 1107 Ib._ p. 316 _sq._

1108 See above, pp. 16 _sq._, 286 _sq._

1109 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 317.

_ 1110 Ib._ p. 317 _sq._

_ 1111 Ib._ p. 318.

1112 W. Mannhardt, _Mythol. Forsch._ p. 318.

_ 1113 Ib._ p. 318 _sq._

1114 Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_, p. 306.

1115 W. Mannhardt, _M. F._ p. 319.

_ 1116 Ib._ p. 320.

1117 Mannhardt, _Mythol. Forsch._ p. 321.

_ 1118 Ib._ pp. 321, 323, 325 _sq._

_ 1119 Ib._ p. 323; Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p.
219, No. 403.

1120 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 325.

_ 1121 Ib._ p. 323.

_ 1122 Ib._

_ 1123 Ib._ p. 323 _sq._

1124 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 324.

_ 1125 Ib._ p. 320.

_ 1126 Ib._ p. 325.

1127 See abbove, p. 83 _sqq._

1128 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 324.

_ 1129 Ib._ p. 324 _sq._

_ 1130 Ib._ p. 325.

1131 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 327.

_ 1132 Ib._ p. 328.

1133 Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, _s.v._ “Maiden”; W.
Mannhardt, _Mythol. Forschungen_, p. 326.

1134 Communicated by my friend Prof. W. Ridgeway, of Queen’s College,
Cork.

1135 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 328.

_ 1136 Ib._

_ 1137 Ib._ p. 328 _sq._

_ 1138 Ib._ p. 329.

_ 1139 Ib._ p. 330.

1140 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 330.

_ 1141 Ib._ p. 331.

_ 1142 Ib._ p. 331.

_ 1143 Ib._ p. 332.

1144 Hutchinson, _History of Northumberland_, ii. _ad finem_, 17, quoted
by Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 20, Bohn’s ed.

1145 Quoted by Brand, _op. cit._ ii. 22.

1146 W. Mannhardt, _Mythol. Forsch._ p. 333 _sq._

_ 1147 Ib._ p. 334.

_ 1148 Ib._ p. 334.

1149 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 336.

_ 1150 Ib._ p. 336.

_ 1151 Ib._ p. 336; _Baumkultus_, p. 612.

1152 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 28.

1153 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

_ 1154 Ib._; Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_, p. 87;
Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 20, Bohn’s ed.; Chambers’s _Book
of Days_, ii. 377 _sq._ Cp. _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 50.

1155 Brand, _op. cit._ ii. 21 _sq._

_ 1156 Folk-lore Journal_, vi. 268 _sq._

1157 From information supplied by Archie Leitch, gardener, Rowmore,
Garelochhead.

1158 Communicated by Mr. Macfarlane of Faslane, Gareloch.

1159 Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, _s.v._ “Maiden.”

1160 W. Gregor, in _Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. 533 (485 B);
_id._, _Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_, p. 182. An old
Scottish name for the Maiden (_autumnalis nymphula_) was
_Rapegyrne_. See Fordun, _Scotichron._ ii. 418, quoted in Jamieson’s
_Dict. of the Scottish Language_, _s.v._ “Rapegyrne.”

1161 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 30; _Folk-lore Journal_, vii.
50.

1162 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._; Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus
Sachsen und Thüringen_, p. 160 _sq._

1163 See above, p. 83 _sqq._

1164 Above, pp. 333, 344.

1165 Above, p. 307.

1166 Above, p. 67 _sqq._

1167 Above, pp. 334, 335.

1168 Above, pp. 334, 345.

1169 See above, p. 335 _sq._

1170 Above, p. 340; cp. Kuhn, _Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und
Märchen_, ii. No. 516.

1171 Above, pp. 336, 337, 345.

1172 See above, p. 9 _sqq._

1173 Above, p. 341.

1174 Above, p. 338.

1175 Above, p. 334, cp. 335.

1176 Above, pp. 334, 345.

1177 Above, p. 344 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Korndämonen_, pp. 7, 26. Amongst
the Wends the last sheaf, made into a puppet and called the Old Man,
is hung in the hall till next year’s Old Man is brought in.
Schulenburg, _Wendisches Volksthum_, p. 147. In Inverness and
Sutherland the Maiden is kept till the next harvest. _Folk-lore
Journal_, vii. 50, 53 _sq._ Cp. Kuhn, _Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche
und Märchen_, ii. Nos. 501, 517.

1178 Acosta, _Hist. of the Indies_, v. c. 28, vol. ii. p. 374 (Hakluyt
Society, 1880).

1179 W. Mannhardt, _Mythol. Forsch._ p. 342 _sq._ Mannhardt’s authority
is a Spanish tract (_Carta pastoral de exortacion e instruccion
contra las idolatrias de los Indios del arçobispado de Lima_) by
Pedro de Villagomez, Archbishop of Lima, published at Lima in 1649,
and communicated to Mannhardt by J. J. v. Tschudi.

1180 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique_,
iii. 40 _sqq._

1181 H. M. Elliot, _Supplemental Glossary of Terms used in the North
Western Provinces_, edited by J. Beames, i. 254.

1182 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_,2 i. 187,
192 _sqq._

1183 E. B. Cross, “On the Karens,” in _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, iv. 309.

1184 See above, p. 346.

1185 Veth, _Java_, i. 524-526.

1186 Homer, _Od._ v. 125 _sqq._; Hesiod, _Theog._ 969 _sqq._

1187 See above, p. 343 _sq._

1188 It is possible that a ceremony performed in a Cyprian worship of
Ariadne may have been of this nature. Plutarch, _Theseus_, 20, ἐν δὴ
τῇ θυσίᾳ τοῦ Γορπιαίου μηνὸς ἱσταμένου δευτέρα κατακλινόμενον τινα
τῶν νεανίσκων φθέγγεσθαι καὶ ποιεῖν ἄπερ ὠδινοῦσαι γυναῖκες. We have
already seen grounds for regarding Ariadne as a goddess or spirit of
vegetation (above, p. 104). If, however, the reference is to the
Syro-Macedonian calendar, in which Gorpiaeus corresponds to
September (Daremberg et Saglio, i. 831), the ceremony could not have
been a harvest celebration, but may have been a vintage one. Amongst
the Minnitarees in North America, the Prince of Neuwied saw a tall
strong woman pretend to bring up a stalk of maize out of her
stomach; the object of the ceremony was to secure a good crop of
maize in the following year. Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in
das innere Nord-Amerika_, ii. 269.

1189 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 468 _sq._, 480 _sqq._; _id._,
_Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 288 _sq._; _id._, _Mythologische
Forschungen_, pp. 146 _sqq._, 340 _sqq._; Van Hoëvell, _Ambon en de
Oeliasers_, p. 62 _sq._; Wilken, in _Indische Gids_, June 1884, pp.
958, 963 _sq._ Cp. Marco Polo, trans. Yule,2 i. 212 _sq._

1190 See above, p. 335 _sq._

1191 Cp. Preller, _Griech. Mythol._3 i. 628, _note 3_. In Greece the
annual descent of Proserpine appears to have taken place at the
Great Eleusinian Mysteries and at the Thesmophoria, that is, about
the time of the autumn sowing. But in Sicily her descent seems to
have been celebrated when the corn was fully ripe (Diodorus, v. 4),
that is, in summer.

1192 Homer, _Hymn to Demeter_, 401 _sqq._; Preller, _l.c._

1193 In some places it was customary to kneel down before the last sheaf,
in others to kiss it. W. Mannhardt, _Korndämonen_, 26; _id._,
_Mytholog. Forschungen_, p. 339; _Folk-lore Journal_, vi. 270.

1194 Above, p. 332 _sq._

1195 In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, she is represented as controlling
the growth of the corn. See above, p. 331.

1196 See above, pp. 305 _sqq._, 309 _sqq._

1197 Pauly, _Real-Encyclopadie der class_. _Alterthumswiss._ v. 1011.

1198 Above, p. 105 _sq._

1199 Diodorus, i. 14, ἔτι γὰρ καὶ νῦν κατὰ τὸν θερισμόν τούς πρώτους
ἀμηθέντας στάχυς θέντας τοὺς ἀνθρώπους κόπτεσθαι πλησίον τοῦ
δράγματοσ κ.τ.λ. For θέντας we should perhaps read σύνθεντας, which
is supported by the following δράγματος.

1200 Herodotus, ii. 79; Pollux, iv. 54; Pausanias, ix. 29; Athenaeus, 620
A.

1201 Brugsch, _Adonisklage und Linoslied_, p. 24.

1202 Above, p. 355.

1203 Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 249 _sq._

1204 Homer, _Il._ xviii. 570; Herodotus, ii. 79; Pausanias, ix. 29;
Conon, _Narrat._ 19. For the form Ailinus see Suidas, _s.v._;
Euripides, _Orestes_, 1395; Sophocles, _Ajax_, 627. Cp. Moschus,
_Idyl._ iii. 1; Callimachus, _Hymn to Apollo_, 20.

1205 Conon, _l.c._

1206 W. Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 281.

1207 Pausanias, _l.c._

1208 Pollux, iv. 54; Athenaeus, 619 F, 620 A; Hesychius, _svv._ Βῶρμον
and Μαριανδυνὸς θρῆνος.

1209 The story was told by Sositheus in his play of _Daphnis_. His verses
have been preserved in the tract of an anonymous writer. See
_Scriptores rerum mirabilium_, ed. Westermann, p. 220; also
Athenaeus, 415 B; Schol. on Theocritus, x. 41; Photius, Suidas, and
Hesychius, _s.v._ _Lityerses_; Apostolius, x. 74. Photius mentions
the sickle. Lityerses is the subject of a special study by Mannhardt
(_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 1 _sqq._), whom I follow.

1210 Pollux, iv. 54.

1211 In this comparison I closely follow Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 18
_sqq._

1212 Cp. above, p. 340. On the other hand, the last sheaf is sometimes an
object of desire and emulation. See p. 336. It is so at Balquhidder
also, _Folk-lore Journal_, vi. 269; and it was formerly so on the
Gareloch, Dumbartonshire, where there was a competition for the
honour of cutting it, several handfuls of standing corn being
concealed under sheaves.—(From the information of Archie Leitch. See
note on p. 345).

1213 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 19 _sq._

1214 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 20; Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen
Mythologie_, ii. 217.

1215 Above, p. 346 _sq._

1216 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 22.

1217 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 22.

_ 1218 Ib._ p. 22 _sq._

_ 1219 Ib._ p. 23.

_ 1220 Ib._ p. 23 _sq._

_ 1221 Ib._ p. 24.

1222 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 24.

_ 1223 Ib._ p. 24.

_ 1224 Ib._ p. 24 _sq._

_ 1225 Ib._ p. 25.

1226 Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 223.

1227 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 25 _sq._

1228 C. A. Elliot, _Hoshangábád Settlement Report_, p. 178, quoted in
_Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. Nos. 8, 168.

1229 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 31.

_ 1230 Ib._ p. 334.

1231 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 330.

_ 1232 Ib._

_ 1233 Ib._ p. 331.

_ 1234 Ib._ p. 335.

_ 1235 Ib._ p. 335.

1236 Above, pp. 335, 341, 350.

1237 W. Mannhardt, _Korndäm._, p. 26.

1238 Above, p. 343.

1239 W. Mannhardt, _M. F._ p. 50.

_ 1240 Ib._ p. 50 _sq._

1241 See above, pp. 286 _sq._, 333, 337, 340, 341.

1242 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 32 _sqq._ Cp. _Revue des Traditions
populaires_, iii. 598.

1243 W. Mannhardt, _Mythol. Forsch._ p. 35 _sq._

_ 1244 Ib._ p. 36.

1245 For the evidence, see _ib._ p. 36, _note_ 2. The idea which lies at
the bottom of the phrase seems to be explained by the following
Cingalese custom. “There is a curious custom of the threshing-floor
called ‘Goigote’—the tying of the cultivator’s knot. When a sheaf of
corn has been threshed out, before it is removed the grain is heaped
up and the threshers, generally six in number, sit round it, and
taking a few stalks, with the ears of corn attached, jointly tie a
knot and bury it in the heap. It is left there until all the sheaves
have been threshed and the corn winnowed and measured. The object of
this ceremony is to prevent the devils from diminishing the quantity
of corn in the heap.” C. J. R. Le Mesurier, “Customs and
Superstitions connected with the Cultivation of Rice in the Southern
Province of Ceylon,” in _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_,
N.S., xvii. (1885) 371. The “key” in the European custom is probably
intended to serve the same purpose as the “knot” in the Cingalese
custom.

1246 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 39.

1247 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 39 _sq._

_ 1248 Ib._ p. 40. For the speeches made by the woman who binds the
stranger or the master, see _ib._ p. 41; Lemke, _Volksthümliches in
Ostpreussen_, i. 23 _sq._

1249 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 41 _sq._

1250 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 42.

_ 1251 Ib._ p. 42. See above, p. 343. In Thüringen a being called the
Rush-cutter used to be much dreaded. On the morning of St. John’s
Day he was wont to walk through the fields with sickles tied to his
ankles cutting avenues in the corn as he walked. To detect him,
seven bundles of brushwood were silently threshed with the flail on
the threshing-floor, and the stranger who appeared at the door of
the barn during the threshing was the Rush-cutter. Witzschel,
_Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 221. With the
_Binsenschneider_ compare the _Bilschneider_. Panzer, _Beitrag zur
deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 210 _sq._

1252 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 47 _sq._

_ 1253 Ib._ p. 48. To prevent a rationalistic explanation of this custom,
which, like most rationalistic explanations of folk-custom, would be
wrong, it may be pointed out that a little of the crop is sometimes
left on the field for the spirit under other names than “the Poor
Old Woman.” Thus in a village of the Tilsit district, the last sheaf
was left standing on the field “for the Old Rye-woman.” _M. F._ p.
337. In Neftenbach (Canton of Zürich) the first three ears of corn
reaped are thrown away on the field “to satisfy the Corn-mother and
to make the next year’s crop abundant.” _Ib._ In Thüringen when the
after-grass (_Grummet_) is being got in, a little heap is left lying
on the field; it belongs to “the Little Wood-woman” in return for
the blessing she has bestowed. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und
Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 224. At Kupferberg, Bavaria, some corn
is left standing on the field when the rest has been cut. Of this
corn left standing, they say that “it belongs to the Old Woman,” to
whom it is dedicated in the following words—

“We give it to the Old Woman;
She shall keep it.
Next year may she be to us
As kind as this time she has been.”

_M. F._ p. 337 _sq._ These last expressions are quite conclusive.
See also Mannhardt, _Korndämonen_, p. 7 _sq._ In Russia a patch of
unreaped corn is left in the field and the ears are knotted
together; this is called “the plaiting of the beard of Volos.” “The
unreaped patch is looked upon as tabooed; and it is believed that if
any one meddles with it he will shrivel up, and become twisted like
the interwoven ears.” Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p.
251. In the North-east of Scotland a few stalks were sometimes left
unreaped for the benefit of “the aul’ man.” W. Gregor, _Folk-lore of
the North-East of Scotland_, p. 182. Here “the aul’ man” is probably
the equivalent of the Old Man (_der Alte_) of Germany.

_ 1254 M. F._ p. 48.

_ 1255 Ib._ p. 48 _sq._

_ 1256 Ib._ p. 49.

_ 1257 Ib._ p. 49 _sq._; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § 400;
Töppen, _Aberglaube aus Masuren_,2 p. 57.

1258 The explanation of the custom is Mannhardt’s. _M. F._ p. 49.

_ 1259 Odyssey_, xvii. 485 _sqq._ Cp. Plato, _Sophist_, 216 A.

1260 For throwing him into the water, see p. 374.

1261 Cieza de Leon, _Travels_, translated by Markham, p. 203 (Hakluyt
Society, 1864).

1262 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique_,
i. 274; Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, ii. 340.

1263 Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_, ii. 639 (quoting
Herrara). See above, p. 307.

1264 E. James, _Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky
Mountains_, ii. 80 _sq._; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, v. 77
_sqq._; De Smet, _Voyages aux Montagnes Rocheuses_, nouvelle ed.
1873, p. 121 _sqq._ The accounts by Schoolcraft and De Smet of the
sacrifice of the Sioux girl are independent and supplement each
other.

1265 Labat, _Relation historique de l’Ethiopie occidentale_, i. 380.

1266 John Adams, _Sketches taken during Ten Voyages in Africa between the
years 1786 and 1800_, p. 25.

1267 P. Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves_, p. 132.

1268 Arbousset et Daumas, _Voyage d’exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie
du Cap de Bonne-Esperance_, p. 117 _sq._

_ 1269 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 721.

1270 Major S. C. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India_, p. 113
_sq._; Major-General John Campbell, _Wild Tribes of Khondistan_, pp.
52-58, etc.

1271 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 56.

1272 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 115 _sq._

_ 1273 Ib._ p. 113.

1274 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 117 _sq._; J. Campbell, p. 112.

1275 S. C. Macpherson, p. 118.

1276 J. Campbell, p. 54.

_ 1277 Ib._ pp. 55, 112.

1278 S. C. Macpherson, p. 119; J. Campbell, p. 113.

1279 S. C. Macpherson, p. 127. Instead of the branch of a green tree,
Campbell mentions two strong planks or bamboos (p. 57) or a slit
bamboo (p. 182).

1280 J. Campbell, pp. 56, 58, 120.

1281 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288, quoting Colonel Campbell’s
Report.

1282 J. Campbell, p. 126. The elephant represented the Earth Goddess
herself, who was here conceived in elephant-form; Campbell, pp. 51,
126. In the hill tracts of Goomsur she was represented in
peacock-form, and the post to which the victim was bound bore the
effigy of a peacock, Campbell, p. 54.

1283 S. C. Macpherson, p. 130.

1284 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288, referring to Colonel
Campbell’s Report.

1285 S. C. Macpherson, p. 129. Cp. J. Campbell, pp. 55, 58, 113, 121,
187.

1286 J. Campbell, p. 182.

1287 S. C. Macpherson, p. 128; Dalton, _l.c._

1288 J. Campbell, pp. 55, 182.

1289 J. Campbell, p. 187.

1290 J. Campbell, p. 112.

1291 S. C. Macpherson, p. 118.

1292 Above, pp. 383, 384.

1293 Above, pp. 334, 335.

1294 Above, pp. 333, 344, 345.

1295 Above, p. 372.

1296 Above, p. 374.

1297 Above, pp. 286 _sq._, 337, 340, 374.

1298 Above, p. 374.

1299 W. Mannhardt, _Korndämonen_, p. 5.

1300 Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_, p. 98.

1301 Above, p. 376 _sq._

1302 Above, p. 235.

1303 Above, p. 299.

1304 Above, p. 68.

1305 I do not know when the corn is reaped in Phrygia; but considering
the high upland character of the country, harvest is probably later
there than on the coasts of the Mediterranean.

1306 Above, p. 364 _sq._

1307 Above, p. 365.

1308 Hesychius, _s.v._ Βῶρμον.

1309 Apollodorus, ii. 6, 3.

1310 The scurrilities exchanged in both ancient and modern times between
vine-dressers, vintagers, and passers-by seem to belong to a
different category. See W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 53 _sq._

1311 Above, p. 282 _sqq._

1312 Above, p. 283 _sq._

1313 Above, pp. 381, 384, 389.

1314 For this fact of the probable correspondence of the months, which
supplies so welcome a confirmation of the conjecture in the text, I
am indebted to my friend Professor W. Robertson Smith, who furnishes
me with the following note: “In the Syro-Macedonian calendar Lous
represents Ab, not Tammuz. Was it different in Babylon? I think it
was, and one month different, at least in the early times of the
Greek monarchy in Asia. For we know from a Babylonian observation in
the Almagest (_Ideler_, I. 396) that in 229 B.C. Xanthicus began on
February 26. It was therefore the month before the equinoctial moon,
not Nisan but Adar, and consequently Lous answered to the lunar
month Tammuz.”

1315 Above, p. 364.

1316 Apollodorus, ii. 5, 11; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, iv. 1396;
Plutarch, _Parall._ 38. Herodotus (ii. 45) discredits the idea that
the Egyptians ever offered human sacrifices. But his authority is
not to be weighed against that of Manetho (Plutarch, _Is. et Os._
73), who affirms that they did.

1317 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, i. § 57.

1318 Diodorus, i. 88; Plutarch, _Is. et Os._ 73; cp. _id._, 30, 33.

1319 Above, pp. 307, 383, 391.

1320 Festus, _s.v._ _Catularia_. Cp. _id._, _s.v._ _rutilae canes_;
Columella, x. 343; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 905 _sqq._; Pliny, _N. H._
xviii. § 14.

1321 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 207, No. 362;
_Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. 343.

1322 Above, pp. 384, 389.

1323 Above, pp. 381, 383.

1324 Plutarch, _Is. et Os._ 18.

1325 Plutarch, _Is. et Os_. 22, 30, 31, 33, 73.

1326 Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (ed.
1878), iii. 81.

1327 Pausanias, i. 22, 3, viii. 5, 8, viii. 42, 1

1328 Cornutus, _De nat. deor._ c. 28.

1329 Hone, _Every-day Book_, ii. c. 1170 _sq._

1330 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p.
372 _sq._, referring to Mrs. Bray’s _Traditions of Devon_, i. 330.

1331 Hone, _op. cit._ ii. 1172.

1332 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 20 (Bohn’s ed.); Burne and
Jackson, _op. cit._ p. 371.

1333 Burne and Jackson, _l.c._

1334 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 185.

1335 See above, p. 345.

1336 W. Mannhardt, _Myth. Forsch._ p. 185.

_ 1337 Ib._

_ 1338 Revue des Traditions populaires_, ii. 500.

1339 Above, p. 343.

1340 U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_,
pp. 166-169; Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_, p. 104 _sq._;
Kuhn, _Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen_, ii. Nos. 491,
492; Kuhn und Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_,
p. 395, No. 97; Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen
Gauen_, p. 256, No. 340.