Chapter VIII: The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals (8)

118 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),
i. 113-117; _id._, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras,
1906), pp. 192-196; Captain H. Harkness, _Description of a Singular
Aboriginal Race inhabiting the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills_
(London, 1832), p. 133; F. Metz, _The Tribes inhabiting the
Neilgherry Hills_, Second Edition (Mangalore, 1864), p. 78; Jagor,
“Ueber die Badagas im Nilgiri-Gebirge,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner
Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_ (1876), pp. 196 _sq._ At the Badaga
funerals witnessed by Mr. E. Thurston “no calf was brought near the
corpse, and the celebrants of the rites were satisfied with the mere
mention by name of a calf, which is male or female according to the
sex of the deceased.”

119 H. Harkness, _l.c._

120 J. W. Breeks, _An Account of the Primitive Tribes and Monuments of
the Nīlagiris_ (London, 1873), pp. 23 _sq._; W. H. R. Rivers, _The
Todas_ (London, 1906), pp. 376 _sq._

121 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western
Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) pp. 927 _sq._ In other
parts of North-Western India on the eleventh day after a death a
bull calf is let loose with a trident branded on its shoulder or
quarter “to become a pest.” See (Sir) Denzil C. J. Ibbetson, _Report
on the Revision of Settlement of the Panipat Tahsil and Karnal
Parganah of the Karnal District_ (Allahabad, 1883), p. 137. In
Behar, a district of Bengal, a bullock is also let loose on the
eleventh day of mourning for a near relative. See G. A. Grierson,
_Bihār Peasant Life_ (Calcutta, 1885), p. 409.

M26 Evils transferred to human beings in India and elsewhere.

122 W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_ (Amsterdam, 1900), p. 83;
_Hymns of the Atharva-Veda_, translated by Maurice Bloomfield
(Oxford, 1897), pp. 308 _sq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol.
xlii.).

123 M. N. Venketswami, “Telugu Superstitions,” _The Indian Antiquary_,
xxiv. (1895) p. 359.

124 A. Grünwedel, “Sinhalesische Masken,” _Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie_, vi. (1893) pp. 85 _sq._

125 J. G. Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834),
pp. 104 _sq._ I have modernised the spelling.

126 J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (December 1882), p. 232.

M27 Sins and misfortunes transferred to human scapegoats in New Zealand
and Manipur. Annual eponyms in Manipur. Eponymous magistrates as
public scapegoats.

127 Rev. Richard Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand and its
Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 101.

128 T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 302; _id._, _The
Meitheis_ (London, 1908), pp. 106 _sq._

129 T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 302.

130 T. C. Hodson, _The Meitheis_ (London, 1908), pp. 104-106.

131 Compare _The Dying God_, pp. 116 _sq._

M28 Indian story of the transference of sins to a holy man.

_ 132 The Jataha or Stories of the Buddha’s former Births_, vol. v.,
translated by H. T. Francis (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 71 _sq._

M29 Transference of evils to human scapegoats in Uganda.

133 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 342.

M30 Transference of sins to a Brahman in Travancore. Transference of
sins to a Sin-eater in England.

134 Rev. S. Mateer, _Native Life in Travancore_ (London, 1883), p. 136.

135 J. Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (Folk-lore Society,
London, 1881), pp. 35 _sq._

136 Bagford’s letter in Leland’s _Collectanea_, i. 76, quoted by J.
Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 246 _sq._, Bohn’s edition (London,
1882-1883).

137 In _The Academy_, 13th Nov. 1875, p. 505, Mr. D. Silvan Evans stated
that he knew of no such custom anywhere in Wales; and the custom
seems to be now quite unknown in Shropshire. See C. S. Burne and G.
F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), pp. 307 _sq._

138 The authority for the statement is a Mr. Moggridge, reported in
_Archaeologia Cambrensis_, second series, iii. 330. But Mr.
Moggridge did not speak from personal knowledge, and as he appears
to have taken it for granted that the practice of placing bread and
salt upon the breast of a corpse was a survival of the custom of
“sin-eating,” his evidence must be received with caution. He
repeated his statement, in somewhat vaguer terms, at a meeting of
the Anthropological Institute, 14th December 1875. See _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, v. (1876) pp. 423 _sq._

M31 Transference of sins to a sin-eater in India.

139 J. A. Dubois, _Mœurs des Peuples de l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), ii. 32
_sq._

140 R. Richardson, in _Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 86, § 674 (May,
1884).

_ 141 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 86, § 674, ii. p. 93, § 559
(March, 1885). Some of these customs have been already referred to
in a different connexion. See _The Dying God_, p. 154. In Uganda the
eldest son used to perform a funeral ceremony, which consisted in
chewing some seeds which he took with his lips from the hand of his
dead father; some of these seeds he then blew over the corpse and
the rest over one of the childless widows who thereafter became his
wife. The meaning of the ceremony is obscure. The eldest son in
Uganda never inherited his father’s property. See the Rev. J.
Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 117.

_ 142 Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. p. 179, § 745 (July, 1886).

143 E. Schuyler, _Turkistan_ (London, 1876), ii. 28.

M32 Transference of sins in Tahiti.

144 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 401 _sqq._

145 The Welsh custom of “sin-eating” has been interpreted by Mr. E. S.
Hartland as a modification of an older custom of eating the corpse.
See his article, “The Sin-eater,” _Folk-lore_, iii. (1892) 145-157;
_The Legend of Perseus_, ii. 291 _sqq._, iii. p. ix. I cannot think
his interpretation probable or borne out by the evidence. The Badaga
custom of transferring the sins of the dead to a calf which is then
let loose and never used again (above, pp. 36 _sq._), the Tahitian
custom of burying the sins of a person whose body is carefully
preserved by being embalmed, and the Manipur and Travancore customs
of transferring the sins of a Rajah before his death (pp. 39, 42
_sq._) establish the practice of transferring sins in cases where
there can be no question of eating the corpse. The original
intention of such practices was perhaps not so much to take away the
sins of the deceased as to rid the survivors of the dangerous
pollution of death. This comes out to some extent in the Tahitian
custom.

M33 Transference of evils in ancient Greece. The transference of warts.
Transference of sickness in Scotland, Germany, and Austria.

146 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 86.

147 Plato, _Laws_, xi. 12, p. 933 B.

148 Ἐφημερὶς ἀρχαιολογική, 1883, col. 213, 214; G. Dittenberger,
_Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 802, lines 48 _sqq._ (vol.
ii. pp. 652 _sq._).

149 Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xxxiv. 102. A similar cure is
described by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxii. 149); you are to touch the
warts with chick-peas on the first day of the moon, wrap the peas in
a cloth, and throw them away behind you. But Pliny does not say that
the warts will be transferred to the person who picks up the peas.
On this subject see further J. Hardy, “Wart and Wen Cures,”
_Folk-lore Record_, i. (1878) pp. 216-228.

150 Z. Zanetti, _La Medicina delle nostre donne_ (Città di Castello,
1892), pp. 224 _sq._; J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_
(Paris, 1679), p. 321; B. Souché, _Croyances, présages et traditions
diverses_ (Niort, 1880), p. 19; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen
Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. 248, § 576; Dr. R. F. Kaindl,
“Aus dem Volksglauben der Rutenen in Galizien,” _Globus_, lxiv.
(1893) p. 93; J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folk-lore_
(Manchester and London, 1882), p. 157; G. W. Black, _Folk-medicine_
(London, 1883), p. 41; W. Gregor, _Folk-lore of the North-East of
Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 49; J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and
Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow,
1902), pp. 94 _sq._

151 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 71, § 85; E. Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_
(Brussels, N.D.), p. 29; H. Zahler, _Die Krankheit im Volksglauben
des Simmenthals_ (Bern, 1898), p. 93; R. Andree, _Braunschweiger
Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 306.

152 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
1861-1862), i. 483.

153 Thiers, Souché, Strackerjan, Monseur, _ll.cc._; J. G. Campbell,
_Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of
Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 95.

154 Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii.
226.

155 G. Lammert, _Volksmedizin und medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern_
(Würzburg, 1869), p. 264.

_ 156 Ibid._ p. 263.

157 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_
(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 167, § 1180.

158 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), i. 71, § 85.

M34 Sickness transferred to asses, frogs, dogs, and other animals.

_ 159 Geoponica_, xiii. 9, xv. 1; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 155. The
authorities for these cures are respectively Apuleius and
Democritus. The latter is probably not the atomic philosopher. See
J. G. Frazer, “The Language of Animals,” _The Archæological Review_,
vol. i. (May, 1888) p. 180, note 140.

160 Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xii. 24.

161 W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_ (London, 1883), pp. 35 _sq._

162 Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xvii. 18.

163 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. 61; Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xxvii.
33. The latter writer mentions (_op. cit._ xxviii. 123) that the
same malady might similarly be transferred to a live frog.

164 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. 64; Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xxviii.
132.

165 Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xxix. 35.

166 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_ (London, 1879),
p. 143; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_, p. 35; Marie Trevelyan,
_Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 226.

167 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), i. 72, § 86.

M35 Sickness transferred to birds, snails, fish, and fowls.

168 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_
(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 166, § 1173, quoting Kuhn’s
translation of _Rig-veda_, x. 97. 13. A slightly different
translation of the verse is given by H. Grassmann, who here follows
R. Roth (_Rig-veda übersetzt_, vol. ii. p. 379). Compare _Hymns of
the Rigveda_, translated by R. T. H. Griffith (Benares, 1889-1892),
iv. 312.

169 L. Strackerjan, _op. cit._ i. 72, § 87.

170 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_ (London, 1879),
p. 143.

171 J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen der Altmark_ (Berlin, 1839), p. 83;
A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 384, § 62.

172 R. Wuttke, _Sächsische Volkskunde_2 (Dresden, 1901), p. 372.

173 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 230, § 1663. A similar remedy is
prescribed in Bavaria. See G. Lammert, _Volksmedizin und
medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern_ (Würzburg, 1869), p. 249.

174 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 375; W. G. Black,
_Folk-medicine_, p. 46.

175 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,
1909), pp. 229 _sq._

M36 Sickness and ill-luck transferred to inanimate objects.

176 B. Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der Neugriechen_ (Leipsic, 1871), p. 82.

177 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 386.

178 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), i. 74, § 91.

M37 Sickness and trouble transferred to trees and bushes.

179 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St.
Petersburg, 1876), pp. 451 _sq._

_ 180 Le Tour du Monde_, lxvii. (1894) p. 308; _id._, Nouvelle Série, v.
(1899) p. 521.

181 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_
(Münster i. W., 1890), pp. 35 _sq._

182 F. S. Krauss, _op. cit._ p. 39.

183 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 400, compare p. 401.

_ 184 Blackwood’s Magazine_, February 1886, p. 239.

185 Z. Zanetti, _La medicina delle nostre donne_ (Città di Castello,
1892), p. 73.

186 J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 323
_sq._

187 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_
(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 167, § 1178. A Belgian cure of the
same sort is reported by J. W. Wolf (_Beiträge zur deutschen
Mythologie_, Göttingen, 1852-1857, i. 223 (wrongly numbered 219), §
256).

M38 Sickness transferred to trees by means of knots.

188 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), i. 74, § 90.

189 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 (Berlin, 1875-1878), ii. 979.

_ 190 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iv. 2
(Munich, 1867), p. 406.

191 A. Schleicher, _Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg_ (Weimar, 1858), p.
150; A. Witschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_
(Vienna, 1878), p. 283, § 82.

192 W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebrauche_2 (Marburg, 1888),
pp. 88 _sq._

M39 Sickness transferred to trees by means of the patient’s hair or
nails.

193 C. Meyer, _Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters_ (Bâle, 1884), p. 104.

194 H. Zahler, _Die Krankheit im Volksglauben des Simmenthals_ (Bern,
1898), p. 94.

195 W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_, p. 38.

196 F. Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris,
1902), i. 213.

197 W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_, p. 39.

M40 Toothache, headache, and fevers plugged up in trees.

198 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 310, §
490.

199 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_,
p. 165, § 1160.

200 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_,
ii. 74 _sq._, § 89.

201 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 979.

202 T. J. Pettigrew, _On Superstitions connected with the History and
Practice of Medicine and Surgery_ (London, 1844), p. 77; W. G.
Black, _Folk-medicine_, p. 37.

M41 Sickness and pain pegged or nailed into trees.

203 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_,
p. 167, § 1182.

204 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_,
i. 73, § 89; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 pp. 309
_sq._, § 490.

205 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 40;
A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes_
(Charleville, 1890), p. 174; A. Schleicher, _Volkstümliches aus
Sonnenberg_ (Weimer, 1858), p. 149; J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch,
Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_
(Leipsic, 1867), p. 414; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche
aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 283, § 79; H. Zahler, _Die
Krankheit im Volksglauben des Simmenthals_ (Bern, 1898), p. 93.

206 R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 307.

207 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 384, § 66.

208 H. Zahler, _loc. cit._

209 P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, i. (Wurzen, N.D.) p.
23.

M42 Ghosts and gods bunged up in India. Demon plugged up and ghost
nailed down.

210 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), p. 436.

211 W. Crooke, _The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and
Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 436 _sq._; compare _id._, _Popular
Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i.
43, 162. Compare E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_
(Madras, 1906), pp. 313, 331.

212 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 102 _sq._

213 Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), ii. 143
_sq._

214 P. Giran, _Magie et Religion Annamites_ (Paris, 1912), pp. 132 _sq._

M43 Evils nailed into stones, walls, door-posts, and so on.

215 R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore Objects collected in
Argyleshire,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 158.

216 R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 307.

217 F. Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris,
1902), i. 170.

218 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 228 _sq._

219 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_,
p. 116, § 1172.

M44 Devils and ghosts nailed down in Morocco, Tunis, and Egypt. Headache
nailed into a door or a wall. Plague pegged into a hole.

220 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), pp. 275 _sqq._

221 R. C. Thompson, _Semitic Magic_ (London, 1908), p. 17. It would seem
that in Macedonia demons and ghosts can be hammered into walls. See
G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_ (Cambridge, 1903), p. 221. In
Chittagong, as soon as a coffin has been carried out of the house, a
nail is knocked into the threshold “to prevent death from entering
the dwelling, at least for a time.” See Th. Bérengier, “Les
funérailles à Chittagong,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiii. (1881)
p. 504.

222 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley
and London, 1895), ch. x. p. 240.

223 R. C. Thompson, _Semitic Magic_ (London, 1908), p. 18.

224 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_,
ii. 120, § 428 _a_. A similar story is told of a house in Neuenburg
(_op. cit._ ii. 182, § 512 _c_).

225 Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6. 24.

M45 Plague nailed down in ancient Rome.

226 Livy, vii. 1-3. The plague raged from 365 to 363 B.C., when it was
happily stayed in the manner described in the text.

M46 Pestilence and civil discord nailed into a wall in Rome.

227 Livy, ix. 28. This happened in the year 313 B.C.

228 Livy, viii. 18. These events took place in 331 B.C.

M47 The annual ceremony of knocking in a nail at Rome.

229 Livy, vii. 3. Livy says nothing as to the place where the nails were
affixed; but from Festus (p. 56 ed. C. O. Müller) we learn that it
was the wall of a temple, and as the date of the ceremony was also
the date of the dedication of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol
(Plutarch, _Publicola_, 14), we may fairly conjecture that this
temple was the scene of the rite. It is the more necessary to call
attention to the uncertainty which exists on this point because
modern writers, perhaps misunderstanding the words of Livy, have
commonly stated as a fact what is at best only a more or less
probable hypothesis. Octavian seems to have provided for the
knocking of a nail into the temple of Mars by men who had held the
office of censor. See Dio Cassius, lv. 10, ἧλόν τε αὐτῷ ὑπὸ τῶν
τιμητευσάντων προσπήγνυσθαι.

M48 The ceremony was probably a purificatory rite designed to disarm and
disable all evils that might threaten the Roman state in the course
of the year. Roman cure for epilepsy.

230 Livy, vii. 3. Festus speaks (p. 56 ed. C. O. Müller) of “the annual
nail, which was fixed in the walls of temples for the purpose of
numbering the years,” as if the practice were common. From Cicero’s
passing reference to the custom (“_Ex hoc die clavum anni movebis_,”
_Epist. ad Atticum_, v. 15. 1) we see that it was matter of
notoriety. Hence we may safely reject Mommsen’s theory, which Mr. W.
Warde Fowler is disposed to accept (_The Roman Festivals of the
period of the Republic_, London, 1899, pp. 234 _sq._), that the
supposed annual custom never existed except in the brains of Roman
Dryasdusts.

231 See Livy and Festus, _ll.cc._

232 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 63.

_ 233 County Folk-lore, Suffolk_, edited by Lady E. C. Gurdon (London,
1893), p. 14. In the north-west Highlands of Scotland it used to be
customary to bury a black cock alive on the spot where an epileptic
patient fell down. Along with the cock were buried parings of the
patient’s nails and a lock of his hair. See (Sir) Arthur Mitchell,
_On various Superstitions in the North-West Highlands and Islands of
Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1862), p. 26; J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and
Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow,
1902), p. 97. Probably the disease was supposed to be buried with
the cock in the ground. The ancient Hindoos imagined that epilepsy
was caused by a dog-demon. When a boy fell down in a fit, his father
or other competent person used to wrap the sufferer in a net, and
carry him into the hall, not through the door, but through an
opening made for the purpose in the roof. Then taking up some earth
in the middle of the hall, at the place where people gambled, he
sprinkled the spot with water, cast dice on it, and laid the boy on
his back on the dice. After that he prayed to the dog-demon, saying,
“Doggy, let him loose! Reverence be to thee, barker, bender! Doggy,
let him loose! Reverence be to thee, barker, bender!” See _The
Grihya Sutras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, Part i. (Oxford, 1886)
pp. 296 _sq._; _id._ Part ii. (Oxford, 1892) pp. 219 _sq._, 286
_sq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vols. xxix. and xxx.). Apparently
the place where people gambled was for some reason supposed to be a
spot where an epileptic could divest himself most readily of his
malady. But the connexion of thought is obscure.

234 The analogy of the Roman custom to modern superstitious practices
has been rightly pointed out by Mr. E. S. Hartland (_Folk-lore_, iv.
(1893) pp. 457, 464; _Legend of Perseus_, ii. 188), but I am unable
to accept his general explanation of these and some other practices
as modes of communion with a divinity.

M49 Knocking nails into idols as a means of attracting the attention of
the deity or spirit.

235 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_ (Jena,
1874-1875), ii. 176.

236 A. Bastian, _op. cit._ ii. 175-178. Compare Father Campana, “Congo,
Mission Catholique de Landana,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxvii.
(1895) p. 93; _Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques
du Musée du Congo_, i. (Brussels, 1902-1906) pp. 153, 246; B. H.
Mullen, “Fetishes from Landana, South-West Africa,” _Man_, v. (1905)
pp. 102-104; R. E. Dennett, “Bavili Notes,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905)
pp. 382 _sqq._; _id._, _At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind_
(London, 1906), pp. 85 _sqq._, 91 _sqq._ The Ethnological Museum at
Berlin possesses a number of rude images from Loango and Congo,
which are thickly studded with nails hammered into their bodies. The
intention of the custom, as explained to me by Professor von
Luschan, is to pain the fetish and so to refresh his memory, lest he
should forget to do his duty.

237 Sir John Rhys, “Celtae and Galli,” _Proceedings of the British
Academy_, ii. (1905-1906) pp. 114 _sq._

238 Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), ii.
598 _sq._, note.

M50 Two different spiritual applications of nails or pins.
M51 Attempts to get rid of the accumulated sorrows of a whole people.
M52 Sorrows conceived of as the work of demons.
M53 Primitive belief in the omnipresence of demons.
M54 Demons in Australia and West Africa.

239 A. Oldfield, “The Aborigines of Australia,” _Transactions of the
Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., iii. (1865) p. 228.

240 J. Büttikoffer, “Einiges über die Eingebornen von Liberia,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, i. (1888) p. 85.

241 Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897) pp. 442
_sq._

242 G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in
Westafrika,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_,
xii. (1877) pp. 412-414. Full details as to the religious creed of
the Ewes, including their belief in a Supreme Being (_Mawu_), are
given, to a great extent in the words of the natives themselves, by
the German missionary Jakob Spieth in his elaborate and valuable
works _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906) and _Die Religion der Eweer in
Süd-Togo_ (Leipsic, 1911). As to _Mawu_ in particular, the meaning
of whose name is somewhat uncertain, see J. Spieth, _Die
Ewe-Stämme_, pp. 421 _sqq._; _Die Religion der Eweer in Süd-Togo_,
pp. 15 _sqq._

M55 Demons on the Congo. Demons in South Africa.

243 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper
Congo River,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl.
(1910) p. 377.

244 Rev. John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 261.

245 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper
Congo River,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl.
(1910) pp. 368, 370. The singular form of _mingoli_ is _mongoli_, “a
disembodied spirit.” Compare _id._, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London,
1913), p. 252; and again _ibid._ p. 275. But great as is the fear of
evil spirits among the natives of the Congo, their dread of
witchcraft seems to be still more intense. See Rev. J. H. Weeks,
“Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,” _Folk-lore_, xx.
(1909) pp. 51 _sq._: “The belief in witchcraft affects their lives
in a vast number of ways, and touches them socially at a hundred
different points. It regulates their actions, modifies their mode of
thought and speech, controls their conduct towards each other,
causes cruelty and callousness in a people not naturally cruel, and
sets the various members of a family against each other. A man may
believe any theory he likes about creation, about God, and about the
abode of departed spirits, but he must believe in witches and their
influence for evil, and must in unmistakable terms give expression
to that belief, or be accused of witchcraft himself.... But for
witchcraft no one would die, and the earnest longing of all
right-minded men and women is to clear it out of the country by
killing every discovered witch. It is an act of
self-preservation.... Belief in witches is interwoved into the very
fibre of every Bantu-speaking man and woman, and the person who does
not believe in them is a monster, a witch, to be killed as soon as
possible.” Could we weigh against each other the two great terrors
which beset the minds of savages all over the world, it seems
probable that the dread of witches would be found far to outweigh
the dread of evil spirits. However, it is the fear of evil spirits
with which we are at present concerned.

246 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) pp.
405 _sq._

247 On this subject Mr. Dudley Kidd has made some judicious observations
(_Savage Childhood_, London, 1906, pp. 131 _sq._). He says: “The
Kafirs certainly do not live in everlasting dread of spirits, for
the chief part of their life is not spent in thinking at all. A
merrier set of people it would be hard to find. They are so
easy-going that it would seem to them too much burden to be for ever
thinking of spirits.”

M56 Demons in South America.

248 (Sir) E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_. (London, 1883),
pp. 356 _sq._ As to the dread which the Brazilian Indians entertain
of demons, see J. B. von Spix and C. F. Ph. von Martius, _Reise in
Brasilien_ (Munich, 1823-1831), iii. 1108-1111.

249 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London,
1911), pp. 118, 119.

M57 Demons in Labrador.

250 L. M. Turner, “Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay
Territory,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_
(Washington, 1894), pp. 193 _sq._

M58 Demons in Polynesia. Demons in New Zealand.

251 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 331.

252 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ i. 406.

_ 253 The Voyages of Captain James Cook round the World_ (London, 1809),
vi. 152.

254 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,
Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 104.

M59 Demons in the Pelew Islands.

255 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus
Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 46.

256 J. Kubary, “Die Bewohner der Mortlock-Inseln,” _Mittheilungen der
geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg_, 1878-79, p. 36.

M60 Demons in the Philippines and in Melanesia.

257 W. A. Reed, _Negritos of Zambales_ (Manilla, 1904), p. 65
(_Ethnological Survey Publications_, vol. ii. Part i.).

258 Mgr. Couppé “En Nouvelle-Poméranie,” _Les Missions Catholiques_,
xxiii. (1891) pp. 355 _sq._

259 P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_
(Hiltrup bei Münster, preface dated 1906), pp. 336 _sq._ Compare
Joachim Graf Pfeil, _Studien und Beobachtungen aus der Südsee_
(Brunswick, 1899), p. 159; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxvii. (1898) pp. 183 _sq._

260 R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), pp.
120, 121.

M61 Demons in Dutch New Guinea and German New Guinea.

261 J. L. van Hasselt, “Die Papuastämme an der Geelvinkbai
(Neu-guinea),” _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu
Jena_, ix. (1891) p. 98. As to Mr. van Hasselt’s twenty-five years’
residence among these savages, see _id._, p. 22.

262 Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(Berlin, 1911) pp. 414-416.

M62 Demons in British New Guinea.

263 W. G. Lawes, “Notes on New Guinea and its Inhabitants,” _Proceedings
of the Royal Geographical Society_, 1880, p. 615.

M63 Demons in Timor and Celebes.

264 J. G. F. Riedel, “Die Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor,” _Deutsche
geographische Blätter_, x. 278 _sq._

265 G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de
Oeliasers_ (Dordrecht, 1875), p. 148.

266 N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Het heidendom en de Islam in Bolaang
Mongondou,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) p. 259.

M64 Demons in Bali and Java.

267 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch Indië_, August, 1880, p. 83.

268 S. E. Harthoorn, “De Zending op Java en meer bepaald die van
Malang,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, iv. (1860) pp. 116 _sq._

M65 Demons in Borneo and Sumatra.

269 C. A. L. M. Schwaner, _Borneo, Beschrijving van het stroomgebied van
den Barito_ (Amsterdam, 1853-54), i. 176.

270 J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane- en Bila-stroomgebied,” _Tijdschrift van
het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, iii.
Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2 (Amsterdam, 1886), p.
287.

271 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift
voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. (1883) p. 508.
The persons of the Batta Trinity are Bataraguru, Sori, and
Balabulan. The most fundamental distinction between the persons of
the Trinity appears to be that one of them is allowed to eat pork,
while the others are not (_ibid._ p. 505).

272 M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,
xlvi. (1902) p. 412.

M66 Demons in the Nicobars, in the Malay Peninsula, and in Kamtchatka..

_ 273 The Census of India, 1901_, vol. iii. _The Andaman and Nicobar
Islands_, by Lieut.-Colonel Sir Richard C. Temple (Calcutta, 1903),
p. 206.

274 Borie, “Notice sur les Mantras, tribu sauvage de la péninsule
Malaise,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, x.
(1860) p. 434.

275 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo,
1766), p. 215.

M67 Demons in India. The high gods come and go, but demons remain.

276 We may compare the instructive remarks made by Mr. W. E. Maxwell on
the stratification of religious beliefs among the Malays (“The
Folk-lore of the Malays,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 7, June, 1881, pp. 11 _sq._). He says:
“Two successive religious changes have taken place among them, and
when we have succeeded in identifying the vestiges of Brahmanism
which underly the external forms of the faith of Muhammed, long
established in all Malay kingdoms, we are only half-way through our
task. There yet remain the powerful influences of the still earlier
indigenous faith to be noted and accounted for. Just as the
Buddhists of Ceylon turn, in times of sickness and danger, not to
the consolations offered by the creed of Buddha, but to the
propitiation of the demons feared and reverenced by their early
progenitors, and just as the Burmese and Talaings, though Buddhists,
retain in full force the whole of the _Nat_ superstition, so among
the Malays, in spite of centuries which have passed since the
establishment of an alien worship, the Muhammedan peasant may be
found invoking the protection of Hindu gods against the spirits of
evil with which his primitive faith has peopled all natural
objects.”

M68 Demons in ancient India.

277 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 39 _sq._

M69 Demons in modern India.

278 Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in India_ (London,
1883), pp. 210 _sq._

279 Monier Williams, _op. cit._ pp. 230 _sq._ The views here expressed
by the late Professor Monier Williams are confirmed from personal
knowledge by Mr. E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the
North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 840.

M70 Demons in Bengal, Assam, the Chin Hills Sikhim, Tibet, and
Travancore.

280 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872),
pp. 256, 257, 258.

281 Rev. S. Endle, _The Kacharis_ (London, 1911), p. 33.

282 Bertram S. Carey and H. N. Tuck, _The Chin Hills_, i. (Rangoon,
1896) p. 196.

283 L. A. Waddell, “Demonolatry in Sikhim Lamaism,” _The Indian
Antiquary_, xxiii. (1894) p. 197.

284 L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895), p. 152.

285 Lt.-Colonel J. Shakespear, _The Lushei Kuki Clans_ (London, 1912),
pp. 61, 65 _sq._, 67.

286 Rev. S. Mateer, _The Land of Charity_ (London, 1883), p. 207.

M71 Demons in Ceylon.

287 R. Percival, _Account of the Island of Ceylon_, Second Edition
(London, 1805), pp. 211-213.

M72 Demons in Burma.

288 C. J. F. S. Forbes, _British Burma_ (London, 1878), pp. 221 _sq._

289 Shway Yoe, _The Burman, his Life and Notions_ (London, 1882), i. 276
_sq._

290 Shway Yoe, _op. cit._ i. 278. “To the Burman,” says A. Bastian, “the
whole world is filled with nats. Mountains, rivers, waters, the
earth, etc., have all their nat.” (_Die Völker des östlichen Asien_,
ii. 497).

M73 Demons in Siam and Indo-China.

291 Mgr. Pallegoix, _Description du royaume Thai ou Siam_ (Paris, 1854),
i. 42.

292 C. Bock, _Temples and Elephants_ (London, 1884), p. 198.

293 Mgr. Bruguière, in _Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la
Foi_, v. (1831) p. 128.

294 J. Deniker, _The Races of Man_ (London, 1900), pp. 400 _sqq._

295 A. Bourlet, “Les Thay,” _Anthropos_, ii. (1907) p. 619.

296 A. Bourlet, _op. cit._ p. 632.

M74 Demons in China.

297 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, v. (Leyden,
1907) p. 470.

298 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 930-932. This
sixth volume of Professor de Groot’s great work is mainly devoted to
an account of the ceaseless war waged by the Chinese people on
demons or spectres (_kwei_). A more summary notice of this curious
national delusion will be found in his work _The Religion of the
Chinese_ (New York, 1910), chapter ii., “The Struggle against
Spectres,” pp. 33-61.

M75 Demons in Corea.

299 Mrs. Bishop (Isabella L. Bird), _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London,
1898), ii. 227 _sq._, 229. I have taken the liberty of changing the
writer’s “daemon” and “daemoniacal” into “demon” and “demoniacal.”

M76 Demons among the Koryaks.

300 C. von Dittmar, “Über die Koräken und die ihnen sehr nahe verwandten
Tschuktschen,” _Bulletin de la Classe Historico-philologique de
l’Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg_, xiii. (1856)
coll. 123 _sq._

301 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 28 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
Natural History_).

M77 Demons among the Gilyaks.

302 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für
Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) pp. 460 _sq._

M78 Demons in ancient Babylonia and Assyria.

303 M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Boston, 1898),
pp. 260 _sqq._; _id._, _Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens_, i.
(Giessen, 1905) pp. 278 _sqq._; C. Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_
(Paris, 1902), pp. 27-30, 34; E. Schrader, _Die Keilinschriften und
das Alte Testament_, Dritte Auflage, neu bearbeitet von H. Zimmern
und H. Winckler (Berlin, 1902), pp. 458 _sqq._

M79 Demons in ancient and modern Egypt.

304 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London,
1911), ii. 150.

305 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley
and London, 1895), chap. x. pp. 231 _sq._

306 C. B. Klunzinger, _Bilder aus Oberägypten, der Wüste und dem Rothen
Meere_ (Stuttgart, 1877), p. 382; compare _ibid._ pp. 374 _sq._

M80 Demons in ancient Greece and mediaeval Europe.

307 Aristotle, _De anima_, i. 5. 17; Diogenes Laertius, i. 1. 27.

308 Porphyry, quoted by Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iv. 23.

309 Elsewhere I have attempted to shew that a particular class of
purifications—those observed by mourners—is intended to protect the
living from the disembodied spirits of the dead (“On certain Burial
Customs as illustrative of the Primitive Theory of the Soul,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) pp. 64
_sqq._).

310 C. Meyer, _Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters_ (Bâle, 1884), pp.
109-111, 191 _sq._

M81 Demons in modern Europe.

311 E. Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_ (Edinburgh and London,
1888), i. 328. The superstitions of the Roumanians of Transylvania
have been collected by W. Schmidt in his tract _Das Jahr und seine
Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Romänen Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt,
1866).

M82 Demons in modern Armenia.

312 Manuk Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 31
_sq._

M83 General clearances of evils take the form of expulsions of demons.
M84 General expulsions of demons in Melanesia, Australia and South
Africa.

313 Paul Reina, “Über die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” _Zeitschrift für
allgemeine Erdkunde_, N.F., iv. (1858) p. 356.

314 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck-Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1887), p. 142; _id._,
_Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), p. 119.

315 O. Opigez, “Aperçu général sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie,” _Bulletin de
la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), VII. Série, vii. (1886) p. 443.

316 S. Gason, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv.
(1895) p. 170.

317 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp.
100-102. The writer, who describes the ceremony at first hand,
remarks that “there is no periodic purging of devils, nor are more
spirits than one expelled at a time.” He adds: “I have noticed
frequently a connection between the quantity of grain that could be
spared for making beer, and the frequency of gatherings for the
purging of evils.”

M85 General expulsion of demons in Minahassa, Halmahera, and the Kei
Islands.

318 [P. N. Wilken], “De godsdienst en godsdienstplegtigheden der
Alfoeren in de Menahassa op het eiland Celebes,” _Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch Indië_, December 1849, pp. 392-394; _id._, “Bijdragen
tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de
Minahassa,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) pp. 149 _sqq._; J. G. F. Riedel,
“De Minahasa in 1825,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde_, xviii. (1872) pp. 521 _sq._ Wilken’s first and fuller
account is reprinted in N. Graafland’s _De Minahassa_ (Rotterdam,
1869), i. 117-120. A German translation of Wilken’s earlier article
is printed in _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_, N.F., x. (1861)
pp. 43-61.

319 J. G. F. Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” _Zeitschrift für
Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) p. 82; G. A. Wilken, “Het Shamanisme bij
de Volken van de Indischen Archipel,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land-
en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie_, xxxvi. (1887) p. 484; _id._,
_Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 383. When smallpox
is raging, the Toradjas of Central Celebes abandon the village and
live in the bush for seven days in order to make the spirit of
smallpox believe that they are all dead. But it does not appear that
they forcibly expel him from the village. See N. Adriani en Alb. C.
Kruijt, _De Bare’e-sprekende Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes_, i.
(Batavia, 1912) p. 417.

320 C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-eilanden,”
_Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_,
Tweede Serie, x. (1893) pp. 834 _sq._ A briefer account of the
custom had previously been given by J. G. F. Riedel (_De sluik- en
kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, The Hague, 1886, p.
239).

M86 Demons of sickness expelled in Nias.

321 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het
eiland Nias,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van
Kunsten en Wetenschapen_, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) pp. 116 _sq._; H. von
Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 174 _sq._
Compare L. N. H. A. Chatelin, “Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der
Niassers,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_,
xxvi. (1880) p. 139; E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan,
1890), pp. 195, 382. The Dyaks also drive the devil at the point of
the sword from a house where there is sickness. See C. Hupe, “Korte
verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,”
_Tijdschrift voor Neérlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. p. 149.

M87 Spiritual quarantine against demons of sickness in Nias.

322 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 486-488.

323 Herodotus, i. 172.

M88 Demons of sickness expelled in the Solomon Islands, Burma, India,
China.

324 G. C. Wheeler, “Sketch of the Totemism and Religion of the People of
the Islands in the Bougainville Straits (Western Solomon Islands),”
_Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, xv. (1912) pp. 49, 51 _sq._

325 C. J. F. S. Forbes, _British Burma_ (London, 1878), p. 233; Shway
Yoe, _The Burman, his Life and Notions_ (London, 1882), i. 282, ii.
105 _sqq._; A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. 98;
Max and Bertha Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900), p. 128.

326 (Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma
and the Shan States_, Part ii. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1901) p. 440.

327 T. H. Lewin, _Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India_ (London, 1870), p.
226.

328 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden,
1910) pp. 981 _sqq._; _id._, _The Religion of the Chinese_ (New
York, 1910), pp. 40 _sqq._

M89 Demons of sickness expelled in Japan, Corea and Tonquin.

329 This description is taken from a newspaper-cutting, which was sent
to me from the west of Scotland in October 1890, but without the
name or date of the paper. The account, which is headed “Exorcism of
the Pest Demon in Japan,” purports to be derived from a series of
notes on medical customs of the Japanese, which were contributed by
Dr. C. H. H. Hall, of the U.S. Navy, to the _Sei-I Kwai Medical
Journal_. Compare Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_
(London, 1894), i. 147.

330 Masanao Koike, “Zwei Jahren in Korea,” _Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie_, iv. (1891) p. 10; Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her
Neighbours_ (London, 1898), ii. 240.

_ 331 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition (Paris,
1780-1783), xvi. 206. It will be noticed that in this and the
preceding case the principle of expulsion is applied for the benefit
of an individual, not of a whole community. Yet the method of
procedure in both is so similar to that adopted in the cases under
consideration that I have allowed myself to cite them.

M90 Demons of sickness expelled in Africa, America.

332 G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in
Westafrika,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_,
xii. (1877) pp. 414 _sq._

333 H. Hecquard, _Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika_
(Leipsic, 1854), p. 43.

334 Dr. A. Plehn, “Beobachtungen in Kamerun, über die Anschauungen und
Gebräuche einiger Negerstämme,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxvi.
(1904) pp. 717 _sq._

335 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle
Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1893), p. 177.

336 F. Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, pp. 279
_sqq._ (195 _sq._ of the reprint, Paris, Libraire Tross, 1865).
Compare _Relations des Jésuites_, 1639, pp. 88-92 (Canadian reprint,
Quebec, 1858), from which it appears that each man demanded the
subject of his dream in the form of a riddle, which the hearers
tried to solve. The custom of asking riddles at certain seasons or
on certain special occasions is curious and has not yet, so far as I
know, been explained. Perhaps enigmas were originally
circumlocutions adopted at times when for certain reasons the
speaker was forbidden the use of direct terms. They appear to be
especially employed in the neighbourhood of a dead body. Thus in
Bolang Mongondo (Celebes) riddles may never be asked except when
there is a corpse in the village. See N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz,
“Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaäng Mongondou,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xi.
(1867) p. 357. In the Aru archipelago, while a corpse is uncoffined,
the watchers propound riddles to each other, or rather they think of
things which the others have to guess. See J. G. F. Riedel, _De
sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, pp. 267
_sq._ In Brittany after a burial, when the rest have gone to partake
of the funeral banquet, old men remain behind in the graveyard, and
having seated themselves on mallows, ask each other riddles. See A.
de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_
(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 199. Among the Akamba of British East
Africa boys and girls at circumcision have to interpret certain
pictographs cut on sticks: these pictographs are called “riddles.”
See C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African
Tribes_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 71 _sq._ In Vedic times the priests
proposed enigmas to each other at the great sacrifice of a horse.
See _The Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, Part v.
(Oxford, 1900), pp. 314-316 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol.
xliv.); H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), p.
475. Compare O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen
Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 647 _sq._ Among Turkish
tribes of Central Asia girls publicly propound riddles to their
wooers, who are punished if they cannot read them. See H. Vambery,
_Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 232 _sq._ Among the Alfoors of
Central Celebes riddles may only be asked during the season when the
fields are being tilled and the crops are growing. People meeting
together at this time occupy themselves with asking riddles and
telling stories. As soon as some one has found the answer to a
riddle, they all cry out, “Make our rice to grow, make fat ears to
grow both in the valleys and on the heights.” But during the months
which elapse between harvest and the preparation of new land for
tillage the propounding of enigmas is strictly forbidden. The writer
who reports the custom conjectures that the cry “Make our rice to
grow” is addressed to the souls of the ancestors. See A. C. Kruijt,
“Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van
den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 142 _sq._ Amongst the
Toboongkoo of Central Celebes riddles are propounded at harvest and
by watchers over a corpse. See A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische
aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen
van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp.
223, 228.

M91 Flight from the demons of sickness.

337 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, ii. (Paris and
Strasburg, 1839-1843) p. 190.

338 Pedro Lozano, _Description Chorographica del Terreno, Rios, Arboles,
y Animales de las dilatadissimas Provincias del Gran Chaco,
Gualamba_, etc. (Cordova, 1733) p. 100.

339 H. H. Bancroft, _Natives Races of the Pacific States_ (London,
1875-1876), i. 589 note 259, quoting Arlegui, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_,
pp. 152-3, 182.

340 Bertram S. Carey and H. N. Tuck, _The Chin Hills_, i. (Rangoon,
1896) p. 198.

M92 The periodic expulsion of evils. Annual expulsion of ghosts in
Australia.

341 Rev. W. Ridley, in J. D. Lang’s _Queensland_ (London, 1861), p. 441.
Compare Rev. W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p. 149.

M93 Annual expulsion of Tuña among the Esquimaux of Alaska.

_ 342 Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow,
Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), pp. 42 _sq._ It is said that in Thule,
where the sun disappeared below the horizon for forty days every
winter, the greatest festival of the year was held when the luminary
reappeared. “It seems to me,” says Procopius, who records the fact,
“that though the same thing happens every year, these islanders are
very much afraid lest the sun should fail them altogether.” See
Procopius, _De bello Gothico_, ii. 15.

M94 Annual expulsion of Sedna among the Esquimaux of Baffin Land.

343 Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo,” _Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada for 1887_, vol. v. (Montreal, 1888) sect. ii. 36
_sq._; _id._, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), pp. 603 _sq._ Elsewhere,
however, the writer mentions a different explanation of the custom
of harpooning Sedna. He says: “Sedna feels kindly towards the people
if they have succeeded in cutting her. If there is no blood on the
knife, it is an ill omen. As to the reason why Sedna must be cut,
the people say that it is an old custom, and that it makes her feel
better, that it is the same as giving a thirsty person drink.” See
Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of
the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (New York, 1901) p.
139. However, this explanation may well be an afterthought devised
to throw light on an old custom of which the original meaning had
been forgotten.

M95 Annual expulsion of demons among the Koryaks.

344 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 88 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the American
Museum of Natural History_).

M96 Annual expulsion of demons among the Iroquois and the Cherokees..

345 Above, p. 121.

_ 346 Relations des Jésuites_, 1656, pp. 26-28 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,
1858); J. F. Lafitau, _Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains_ (Paris,
1724), i. 367-369; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi.
82 _sqq._; Timothy Dwight, _Travels in New England and New York_
(London, 1823), iv. 201 _sq._; L. H. Morgan, _League of the
Iroquois_ (Rochester, 1851), pp. 207 _sqq._; Mrs. E. A. Smith,
“Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology_ (Washington, 1883), pp. 112 _sqq._; Horatio Hale,
“Iroquois Sacrifice of the White Dog,” _American Antiquarian_, vii.
(1885) pp. 7 _sqq._; W. M. Beauchamp, “Iroquois White Dog Feast,”
_ibid._ pp. 235 _sqq._ “They had one day in the year which might be
called the Festival of Fools; for in fact they pretended to be mad,
rushing from hut to hut, so that if they ill-treated any one or
carried off anything, they would say next day, ‘I was mad; I had not
my senses about me.’ And the others would accept this explanation
and exact no vengeance” (L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_,
Paris, 1683, pp. 71 _sq._).

347 J. H. Payne, quoted in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee
Indians, by W. Bartram, 1789, with prefatory and supplementary notes
by E. G. Squier,” _Transactions of the American Ethnological
Society_, vol. iii. Part i. (1853) p. 78.

M97 Annual expulsion of evils among the Incas of Peru.

348 C. Gay, “Fragment d’un voyage dans le Chili et au Cusco patrie des
anciens Incas,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), ii.
Série, xix. (1843) pp. 29 _sq._

349 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, translated
by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871),
Part i. bk. vii. ch. 6, vol. ii. pp. 228 _sqq._; Molina, “Fables and
Rites of the Yncas,” in _Rites and Laws of the Yncas_ (Hakluyt
Society, 1873), pp. 20 _sqq._; J. de Acosta, _History of the
Indies_, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. pp. 375 _sq._ (Hakluyt Society,
London, 1880). The accounts of Garcilasso and Molina are somewhat
discrepant, but this may be explained by the statement of the latter
that “in one year they added, and in another they reduced the number
of ceremonies, according to circumstances.” Molina places the
festival in August, Garcilasso and Acosta in September. According to
Garcilasso there were only four runners in Cuzco; according to
Molina there were four hundred. Acosta’s account is very brief. In
the description given in the text features have been borrowed from
all three accounts, where these seemed consistent with each other.

M98 Annual expulsion of demons among the negroes of Guinea.

350 W. Bosman, “Description of the Coast of Guinea,” in J. Pinkerton’s
_Voyages and Travels_, xvi. (London, 1814) p. 402; Pierre Bouche,
_La Côte des Esclaves_ (Paris, 1885), p. 395.

351 Rev. J. Leighton Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 217.

M99 Annual expulsion of demons in Benin.

_ 352 Narrative of Captain James Fawckner’s Travels on the Coast of
Benin, West Africa_ (London, 1837), pp. 102 _sq._

M100 Annual expulsion of demons at Cape Coast Castle.

353 “Extracts from Diary of the late Rev. John Martin, Wesleyan
Missionary in West Africa, 1843-1848,” _Man_, xii. (1912) pp. 138
_sq._ Compare Major A. J. N. Tremearne, _The Tailed Head-hunters of
Nigeria_ (London, 1912), pp. 202 _sq._

M101 Annual expulsion of evils on the Niger and in Abyssinia.

354 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_
(London, 1859), p. 320.

355 Mansfield Parkyns, _Life in Abyssinia_, Second Edition (London,
1868), pp. 285 _sq._

M102 Annual expulsion of spirits at the yam harvest in New Guinea. Annual
expulsion of demons among the Hos of West Africa before eating the
new yams.

356 George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesian_ (London, 1910), pp.
413 _sq._

357 As to the ceremony of eating the new yams, see _Spirits of the Corn
and of the Wild_, ii. 58 _sqq._