Chapter V: The Interpretation of the Fire-Festivals (4)

445 A. von Ipolyi, “Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie aus Ungarn,”
_Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) pp.
270 _sq._

M154 The Midsummer fires among the Esthonians. The Midsummer fires in
Oesel.

446 J.G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_, ii. 268 sq.; F.
J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_ (St.
Petersburg, 1876), p. 362. The word which I have translated “weeds”
is in Esthonian _kaste-heinad_, in German _Thaugras_. Apparently it
is the name of a special kind of weed.

447 Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, _Mythische und Magische Lieder der
Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 62.

448 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. (1872) pp. 62 _sq._ Wiedemann also
observes that the sports in which young couples engage in the woods
on this evening are not always decorous (_Aus dem inneren und
äusseren Leben der Ehsten_, p. 362).

M155 The Midsummer fires among the Finns and Cheremiss of Russia.

449 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_, ii. 447 _sq._

450 J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs_
(St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 36; August Freiherr von Haxthausen,
_Studien über die innere Zustände das Volksleben und insbesondere
die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands_ (Hanover, 1847), i. 446
_sqq._

M156 The Midsummer fires in France. Bossuet on the Midsummer festival.

451 Alfred de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de
France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 19.

452 It is notable that St. John is the only saint whose birthday the
Church celebrates with honours like those which she accords to the
nativity of Christ. Compare Edmond Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans
l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), p. 571 note 1.

453 Bossuet, _Œuvres_ (Versailles, 1815-1819), vi. 276 (“Catéchisme du
diocèse de Meaux”). His description of the superstitions is, in his
own words, as follows: “_Danser à l’entour du feu, jouer, faire des
festins, chanter des chansons deshonnêtes, jeter des herbes
par-dessus le feu, en cueillir avant midi ou à jeun, en porter sur
soi, les conserver le long de l’année, garder des tisons ou des
charbons du feu, et autres semblables._” This and other evidence of
the custom of kindling Midsummer bonfires in France is cited by Ch.
Cuissard in his tract _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884).

454 Ch. Cuissard, _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884), pp. 40
_sq._

M157 The Midsummer fires in Brittany. Uses made of the charred sticks and
flowers.

455 A. Le Braz, _La Légende de la Mort en Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1893),
p. 279. For an explanation of the custom of throwing a pebble into
the fire, see below, p. 240.

456 M. Quellien, quoted by Alexandre Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_
(Paris, 1897), pp. 116 _sq._

457 Collin de Plancy, _Dictionnaire Infernal_ (Paris, 1825-1826), iii.
40; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen,
1852-1857), i. p. 217, § 185; A. Breuil, “Du Culte de St. Jean
Baptiste,” _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_,
viii. (Amiens, 1845) pp. 189 _sq._

458 Eugène Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), p.
216; Ch. Cuissard, _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884), p.
24.

459 Paul Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris,
1886), pp. 192-195. In Upper Brittany these bonfires are called
_rieux_ or _raviers_.

460 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_
(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 219; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes
Religieuses_, p. 216.

461 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de
France_, pp. 219, 228, 231; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ pp. 215 _sq._

M158 The Midsummer fires in Normandy. The fires as a protection against
witchcraft. The Brotherhood of the Green Wolf at Jumièges. Pretence
of throwing the Green Wolf into the fire.

462 J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,
1883-1887), ii. 219-224.

463 This description is quoted by Madame Clément (_Histoire des fêtes
civiles et religieuses_, etc., _de la Belgique Méridionale_,
Avesnes, 1846, pp. 394-396); F. Liebrecht (_Des Gervasius von
Tilbury Otia Imperialia_, Hanover, 1856, pp. 209 _sq._); and W.
Mannhardt (_Antike Wald und Feldkulte_, Berlin, 1877, pp. 323
_sqq._) from the _Magazin pittoresque_, Paris, viii. (1840) pp. 287
_sqq._ A slightly condensed account is given, from the same source,
by E. Cortet (_Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, pp. 221 _sq._).

M159 The Midsummer fires in Picardy.

464 Bazin, quoted by Breuil, in _Mémoires de la Société d’Antiquaires de
Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 191 note.

465 Correspondents quoted by A. Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_
(Paris, 1897), pp. 118, 406.

466 Correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand, _op. cit._ p. 407.

M160 The Midsummer fires in Beauce and Perche. The fires as a protection
against witchcraft.

467 Felix Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris,
1902), i. 318-320. In Perche the midsummer bonfires were called
_marolles_. As to the custom formerly observed at Bullou, near
Chateaudun, see a correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand, _La Religion
des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 117.

M161 The Midsummer fires in the Ardennes, the Vosges, and the Jura. The
Midsummer fires in Franche-Comté. The Midsummer fires in Berry and
other parts of Central France.

468 Albert Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes, et Contes des
Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), pp. 88 _sq._

469 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 186.

470 Désiré Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_ (Paris, 1854), pp.
207 sqq.; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, pp. 217
_sq._

471 Bérenger-Féraud, _Réminiscences populaires de la Provence_ (Paris,
1885), p. 142.

472 Charles Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p. 89.
The names of the bonfires vary with the place; among them are
_failles_, _bourdifailles_, _bâs_ or _baux_, _feulères_ or
_folières_, and _chavannes_.

_ 473 La Bresse Louhannaise_, Juin, 1906, p. 207.

474 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_
(Paris, 1875), i. 78 _sqq._ The writer adopts the absurd derivation
of _jônée_ from Janus. Needless to say that our old friend Baal,
Bel, or Belus figures prominently in this and many other accounts of
the European fire-festivals.

475 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_
(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 150.

476 Correspondent, quoted by A. Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_
(Paris, 1897), p. 408.

M162 The Midsummer fires in Poitou.

477 Guerry, “Sur les usages et traditions du Poitou,” _Mémoires et
dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de
France_, viii. (1829) pp. 451 _sq._

478 Breuil, in _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_,
viii. (1845) p. 206; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_,
p. 216; Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la
France_, i. 83; J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, ii. 225.

479 H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,”
_Revue Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 26, note 3.

480 L. Pineau, _Le Folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 499 _sq._ In
Périgord the ashes of the midsummer bonfire are searched for the
hair of the Virgin (E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, p.
219).

M163 The Midsummer fires in the departments of Vienne and Deux-Sèvres and
in the provinces of Saintonge and Aunis.

481 A. de Nore, _Coutumes Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_,
pp. 149 _sq._; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ pp. 218 _sq._

482 Dupin, “Notice sur quelques fêtes et divertissemens populaires du
département des Deux-Sèvres,” _Mémoires et Dissertations publiés par
la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, iv. (1823) p. 110.

483 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_
(Saintes, 1891), pp. 72, 178 _sq._

M164 The Midsummer fires in Southern France. Midsummer festival of fire
and water in Provence. Bathing in the sea at Midsummer. Temporary
Midsummer kings at Aix and Marseilles.

484 H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,” _Revue
Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 30.

485 Ch. Cuissard, _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884), pp. 22
_sq._

486 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de
France_, p. 127.

487 Aubin-Louis Millin, _Voyage dans les Départemens du Midi de la
France_ (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 341 _sq._

488 Aubin-Louis Millin, _op. cit._ iii. 28.

489 A. de Nore, _op. cit._ pp. 19 _sq._; Bérenger-Féraud, _Reminiscences
populaires de la Provence_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 135-141. As to the
custom at Toulon, see Poncy, quoted by Breuil, _Mémoires de la
Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 190 note. The
custom of drenching people on this occasion with water used to
prevail in Toulon, as well as in Marseilles and other towns in the
south of France. The water was squirted from syringes, poured on the
heads of passers-by from windows, and so on. See Breuil, _op. cit._
pp. 237 _sq._

490 A. de Nore, _op. cit._ pp. 20 _sq._; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ pp. 218,
219 _sq._

M165 The Midsummer fires in Belgium. Bonfires on St. Peter’s Day in
Brabant. The King and Queen of the Roses. Effigies burnt in the
Midsummer fires.

491 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,
1861-1862), i. 416 _sq._, 439.

492 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _op. cit._ i. 439-442.

493 Madame Clément, _Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses_, etc.,
_du Département du Nord_ (Cambrai, 1836), p. 364; J. W. Wolf,
_Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1857), ii. 392;
W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 513.

494 E. Monseur, _Folklore Wallon_ (Brussels, N.D.), p. 130, §§ 1783,
1786, 1787.

M166 The Midsummer fires in England. Stow’s description of the Midsummer
fires in London. The Midsummer fires at Eton.

495 Joseph Strutt, _The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England_,
New Edition, by W. Hone (London, 1834), p. 359.

496 John Stow, _A Survay of London_, edited by Henry Morley (London,
N.D.), pp. 126 _sq._ Stow’s _Survay_ was written in 1598.

497 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,
1882-1883), i. 338; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_
(London, 1876), p. 331. Both writers refer to _Status Scholae
Etonensis_ (A.D. 1560).

498 John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881),
p. 26.

M167 The Midsummer fires in the north of England. The Midsummer fires in
Northumberland. The Midsummer fires at Whalton in Northumberland.

499 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,
1882-1883), i. 300 _sq._, 318, compare pp. 305, 306, 308 _sq._; W.
Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 512. Compare W. Hutchinson, _View of
Northumberland_, vol. ii. (Newcastle, 1778), Appendix, p. (15),
under the head “Midsummer”:—“It is usual to raise fires on the tops
of high hills and in the villages, and sport and danse around them;
this is of very remote antiquity, and the first cause lost in the
distance of time.”

500 Dr. Lyttelton, Bishop of Carlisle, quoted by William Borlase,
_Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall_
(London, 1769), p. 135 note.

_ 501 County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.
Balfour (London, 1904), p. 76, quoting E. Mackenzie, _An Historical,
Topographical, and Descriptive View of the County of
Northumberland_, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. 217.

_ 502 County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.
Balfour, p. 75.

_ 503 County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.
Balfour, p. 75.

_ 504 The Denham Tracts_, edited by J. Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 342
_sq._, quoting _Archæologia Aeliana_, N.S., viii. 73, and the
_Proceedings_ of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, vi. 242 _sq._;
_County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.
Balfour (London, 1904), pp. 75 _sq._ Whalton is a village of
Northumberland, not far from Morpeth.

_ 505 County Folk-lore_, vol. vi. _East Riding of Yorkshire_, collected
and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1912), p. 102.

M168 The Midsummer fires in Herefordshire, Somersetshire, Devonshire, and
Cornwall. The Cornish fires on Midsummer Eve and St. Peter’s Eve.

506 John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881),
p. 96, compare _id._, p. 26.

507 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,
1882-1883), i. 311.

508 William Borlase, LL.D., _Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of
the County of Cornwall_ (London, 1769), pp. 135 _sq._ The Eve of St.
Peter is June 28th. Bonfires have been lit elsewhere on the Eve or
the day of St. Peter. See above, pp. 194 _sq._, 196 _sq._, and
below, pp. 199 _sq._, 202, 207.

509 J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 318, 319; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British
Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 315.

510 William Bottrell, _Traditions and Hearthside Stories of West
Cornwall_ (Penzance, 1870), pp. 8 _sq._, 55 _sq._; James Napier,
_Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland_
(Paisley, 1879), p. 173.

511 Richard Edmonds, _The Land’s End District_ (London, 1862), pp. 66
_sq._; Robert Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third
Edition (London, 1881), pp. 207 _sq._

M169 The Midsummer fires in Wales and the Isle of Man. Burning wheel
rolled down hill.

512 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,
1909), pp. 27 _sq._ Compare Jonathan Ceredig Davies, _Folk-lore of
West and Mid-Wales_ (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.

513 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,
1882-1883), i. 318.

514 Joseph Train, _Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man,
1845), ii. 120.

M170 The Midsummer fires in Ireland. Passage of people and cattle through
the fires. Cattle driven through the fire; ashes used to fertilize
the fields. The White Horse at the Midsummer fire.

515 Sir Henry Piers, _Description of the County of Westmeath_, written
in 1682, published by (General) Charles Vallancey, _Collectanea de
Rebus Hibernicis_, i. (Dublin, 1786) pp. 123 _sq._

516 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,
1882-1883), i. 303, quoting the author of the _Survey of the South
of Ireland_, p. 232.

517 J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 305, quoting the author of the _Comical
Pilgrim’s Pilgrimage into Ireland_ (1723), p. 92.

_ 518 The Gentleman’s Magazine_, vol. lxv. (London, 1795) pp. 124 _sq._
The writer dates the festival on June 21st, which is probably a
mistake.

519 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp.
321 _sq._, quoting the _Liverpool Mercury_ of June 29th, 1867.

520 L. L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” _Folk-lore_, v.
(1894) p. 193.

521 A. C. Haddon, “A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893)
pp. 351, 359.

522 G. H. Kinahan, “Notes on Irish Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore Record_, iv.
(1881) p. 97.

523 Charlotte Elizabeth, _Personal Recollections_, quoted by Rev.
Alexander Hislop, _The Two Babylons_ (Edinburgh, 1853), p. 53.

M171 Lady Wilde’s account of the Midsummer fires in Ireland.

524 Lady Wilde, _Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of
Ireland_, (London, 1887), i. 214 _sq._

M172 Holy wells resorted to on Midsummer Eve in Ireland.

525 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp.
322 _sq._, quoting the _Hibernian Magazine_, July 1817. As to the
worship of wells in ancient Ireland, see P. W. Joyce, _A Social
History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 288 _sq._, 366 _sqq._

M173 The Midsummer fires in Scotland. Fires on St. Peter’s Day (the
twenty-ninth of June).

526 Rev. A. Johnstone, describing the parish of Monquhitter in
Perthshire, in Sir John Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of Scotland_
(Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xxi. 145. Mr. W. Warde Fowler writes that in
Scotland “before the bonfires were kindled on midsummer eve, the
houses were decorated with foliage brought from the woods” (_Roman
Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, London, 1899, pp. 80
_sq._). For his authority he refers to _Chambers’ Journal_, July,
1842.

527 John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth
Century_, edited by A. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 436.

528 Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, in Pennant’s “Tour in Scotland,”
printed in John Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_ (London,
1808-1814), iii. 136.

529 A. Macdonald, “Midsummer Bonfires,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 105
_sq._

530 From notes kindly furnished to me by the Rev. J. C. Higgins, parish
minister of Tarbolton. Mr. Higgins adds that he knows of no
superstition connected with the fire, and no tradition of its
origin. I visited the scene of the bonfire in 1898, but, as
Pausanias says (viii. 41. 6) in similar circumstances, “I did not
happen to arrive at the season of the festival.” Indeed the snow was
falling thick as I trudged to the village through the beautiful
woods of “the Castle o’ Montgomery” immortalized by Burns. From a
notice in _The Scotsman_ of 26th June, 1906 (p. 8) it appears that
the old custom was observed as usual that year.

531 Thomas Moresinus, _Papatus seu Depravatae Religionis Origo et
Incrementum_ (Edinburgh, 1594), p. 56.

532 Rev. Dr. George Lawrie, in Sir John Sinclair’s _Statistical Account
of Scotland_, iii. (Edinburgh, 1792) p. 105.

M174 The Midsummer fires in Spain and the Azores. Divination on Midsummer
Eve in the Azores. The Midsummer fires in Corsica and Sardinia.

533 Letter from Dr. Otero Acevado of Madrid, published in _Le Temps_,
September 1898. An extract from the newspaper was sent me, but
without mention of the day of the month when it appeared. The fires
on St. John’s Eve in Spain are mentioned also by J. Brand, _Popular
Antiquities of Great Britain_, i. 317. Jacob Grimm inferred the
custom from a passage in a romance (_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 518).
The custom of washing or bathing on the morning of St. John’s Day is
mentioned by the Spanish historian Diego Duran, _Historia de las
Indias de Nueva España_, edited by J. F. Ramirez (Mexico,
1867-1880), vol. ii. p. 293. To roll in the dew on the morning of
St. John’s Day is a cure for diseases of the skin in Normandy,
Périgord, and the Abruzzi, as well as in Spain. See J. Lecœur,
_Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, ii. 8; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes
et Traditions des Provinces de France_, p. 150; Gennaro Finamore,
_Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), p. 157.

534 M. Longworth Dames and Mrs. E. Seemann, “Folklore of the Azores,”
_Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 _sq._; Theophilo Braga, _O Povo
Portuguez nos seus Costumes, Crenças e Tradiçoes_ (Lisbon, 1885),
ii. 304 _sq._, 307 _sq._

535 See below, pp. 234 _sqq._

536 Angelo de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882),
i. 185 note 1.

_ 537 Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 202 _sq._

M175 The Midsummer fires in the Abruzzi. Bathing on Midsummer Eve in the
Abruzzi. The Midsummer fires in Sicily. The witches at Midsummer.

538 G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890),
pp. 154 _sq._

539 G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_, pp. 158-160. We
may compare the Provençal and Spanish customs of bathing and
splashing water at midsummer. See above, pp. 193 _sq._, 208.

540 Giuseppe Pitrè, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo,
1881), pp. 246, 308 _sq._; _id._, _Usi e Costumi, Credenze e
Pregiudizi del Popolo Siciliano_ (Palermo, 1889), pp. 146 _sq._

541 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 518.

M176 The Midsummer fires in Malta.

542 V. Busuttil, _Holiday Customs in Malta, and Sports, Usages,
Ceremonies, Omens, and Superstitions of the Maltese People_ (Malta,
1894), pp. 56 _sqq._ The extract was kindly sent to me by Mr. H. W.
Underwood (letter dated 14th November, 1902, Birbeck Bank Chambers,
Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, W.C.). See _Folk-lore_, xiv.
(1903) pp. 77 _sq._

M177 The Midsummer fires in Greece. The Midsummer fires in Macedonia and
Albania.

543 W. R. Paton, in _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) p. 128. The custom was
reported to me when I was in Greece in 1890 (_Folk-lore_, i. (1890)
p. 520).

544 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519.

545 G. Georgeakis et L. Pineau, _Le Folk-lore de Lesbos_ (Paris, 1894),
pp. 308 _sq._

546 W. R. Paton, in _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 94. From the stones cast
into the fire omens may perhaps be drawn, as in Scotland, Wales, and
probably Brittany. See above, p. 183, and below, pp. 230 _sq._, 239,
240.

547 W. H. D. Rouse, “Folklore from the Southern Sporades,” _Folk-lore_,
x. (1899) p. 179.

548 Lucy M. J. Garnett, _The Women of Turkey and their Folk-lore, the
Christian Women_ (London, 1890), p. 122; G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian
Folk-lore_ (Cambridge, 1903), p. 57.

549 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), i. 156.

M178 The Midsummer fires in America.

550 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Natur-Völkern Zentral-Brasiliens_
(Berlin, 1894), p. 561.

551 Alcide d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, ii. (Paris
and Strasbourg, 1839-1843), p. 420; D. Forbes, “On the Aymara
Indians of Bolivia and Peru,” _Journal of the Ethnological Society
of London_, ii. (1870) p. 235.

M179 The Midsummer fires among the Mohammedans of Morocco and Algeria.

552 Edmond Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 566 _sq._ For an older but briefer notice of the
Midsummer fires in North Africa, see Giuseppe Ferraro,
_Superstizioni, Usi e Proverbi Monferrini_ (Palermo, 1886), pp. 34
_sq._: “Also in Algeria, among the Mussalmans, and in Morocco, as
Alvise da Cadamosto reports in his _Relazione dei viaggi d’Africa_,
which may be read in Ramusio, people used to hold great festivities
on St. John’s Night; they kindled everywhere huge fires of straw
(the _Palilia_ of the Romans), in which they threw incense and
perfumes the whole night long in order to invoke the divine blessing
on the fruit-trees.” See also Budgett Meakin, _The Moors_ (London,
1902), p. 394: “The Berber festivals are mainly those of Islam,
though a few traces of their predecessors are observable. Of these
the most noteworthy is Midsummer or St. John’s Day, still celebrated
in a special manner, and styled _El ’Anṣarah_. In the Rîf it is
celebrated by the lighting of bonfires only, but in other parts
there is a special dish prepared of wheat, raisins, etc., resembling
the frumenty consumed at the New Year. It is worthy of remark that
the Old Style Gregorian calendar is maintained among them, with
corruptions of Latin names.”

553 Edward Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_,
xvi. (1905) pp. 28-30; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with
Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather_
(Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 79-83.

M180 Beneficial effect ascribed to the smoke of the fires. Ill luck
supposed to be burnt in the Midsummer fires.

554 E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi.
(1905) pp. 30 _sq._; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with
Agriculture_, etc., pp. 83 _sq._

M181 The Midsummer festival in North Africa comprises rites concerned
with water as well as with fire.

555 Edmond Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 567 _sq._

556 E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi.
(1905) pp. 31 _sq._; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with
Agriculture_, etc., pp. 84-86.

M182 The Midsummer festival in North Africa is probably older than
Mohammedanism. Some Mohammedans of North Africa kindle fires and
observe water ceremonies at their movable New Year. Water ceremonies
at New Year in Morocco.

557 See K. Vollers, in Dr. James Hastings’s _Encyclopaedia of Religion
and Ethics_, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) _s.v._ “Calendar (Muslim),” pp.
126 _sq._ However, L. Ideler held that even before the time of
Mohammed the Arab year was lunar and vague, and that intercalation
was only employed in order to fix the pilgrimage month in autumn,
which, on account of the milder weather and the abundance of food,
is the best time for pilgrims to go to Mecca. See L. Ideler,
_Handbuch der mathematischen und techischen Chronologie_ (Berlin,
1825-1826), ii. 495 _sqq._

558 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_, pp. 496, 509,
532, 543, 569. It is somewhat remarkable that the tenth, not the
first, day of the first month should be reckoned New Year’s Day.

559 E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi.
(1905) pp. 40-42.

M183 The rites of fire and water at Midsummer and New Year in Morocco
seem to be identical in character; the duplication of the festival
is probably due to a conflict between the solar calendar of the
Romans and the lunar calendar of the Arabs. The Midsummer festival
in Morocco seems to be of Berber origin.

560 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 541 _sq._

561 E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi.
(1905) p. 42; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with
Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in
Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), p. 101.

562 E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi.
(1905), pp. 42 _sq._, 46 _sq._; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs
connected with Agriculture, etc., in Morocco_, pp. 99 _sqq._

M184 Festivals of fire in August. Russian feast of Florus and Laurus on
August 18th. “Living fire” made by the friction of wood.

563 G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folk-lore_ (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 60 _sq._

564 “Narrative of the Adventures of four Russian Sailors, who were cast
in a storm upon the uncultivated island of East Spitzbergen,”
translated from the German of P. L. Le Roy, in John Pinkerton’s
_Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), i. 603. This passage is
quoted from the original by (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, _Researches into
the Early History of Mankind_, Third Edition (London, 1878), pp. 259
_sq._

M185 Feast of the Nativity of the Virgin on the eighth of September at
Capri and Naples.
M186 The Feast of the Nativity of the Virgin may have replaced a pagan
festival.

565 See _The Scapegoat_, pp. 166 _sq._

M187 The coincidence of the Midsummer festival with the summer solstice
implies that the founders of the festival regulated their calendar
by observation of the sun.
M188 On the other hand the Celts divided their year, not by the
solstices, but by the beginning of summer (the first of May) and the
beginning of winter (the first of November). The division seems to
have been neither astronomical nor agricultural but pastoral, being
determined by the times when cattle are driven to and from their
summer pasture.

566 E. K. Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_ (Oxford, 1903), i. 110 _sqq._

567 In Eastern Europe to this day the great season for driving out the
cattle to pasture for the first time in spring is St. George’s Day,
the twenty-third of April, which is not far removed from May Day.
See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 324 _sqq._ As to
the bisection of the Celtic year, see the old authority quoted by P.
W. Joyce, _The Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903),
ii. 390: “The whole year was [originally] divided into two
parts—Summer from 1st May to 1st November, and Winter from 1st
November to 1st May.” On this subject compare (Sir) John Rhys,
_Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 460, 514
_sqq._; _id._, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i.
315 _sqq._; J. A. MacCulloch, in Dr. James Hastings’s _Encyclopaedia
of Religion and Ethics_, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) p. 80.

568 See below, p. 225.

M189 The two great Celtic festivals, Beltane and Hallowe’en.

569 Above, pp. 146 _sqq._; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_,
ii. 59 _sqq._

M190 Hallowe’en (the evening of October 31st) seems to have marked the
beginning of the Celtic year. The many forms of divination resorted
to at Hallowe’en are appropriate to the beginning of a New Year.
Hallowe’en also a festival of the dead.

570 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Manx and Welsh_ (Oxford, 1901),
i. 316, 317 _sq._; J. A. MacCulloch, in Dr. James Hastings’s
_Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910)
_s.v._ “Calendar,” p. 80, referring to Kelly, _English and Manx
Dictionary_ (Douglas, 1866), _s.v._ “Blein.” Hogmanay is the popular
Scotch name for the last day of the year. See Dr. J. Jamieson,
_Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition
(Paisley, 1879-1882), ii. 602 _sq._

571 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_, i. 316 _sq._

572 Above, p. 139.

573 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 309-318. As I have
there pointed out, the Catholic Church succeeded in altering the
date of the festival by one day, but not in changing the character
of the festival. All Souls’ Day is now the second instead of the
first of November. But we can hardly doubt that the Saints, who have
taken possession of the first of November, wrested it from the Souls
of the Dead, the original proprietors. After all, the Saints are
only one particular class of the Souls of the Dead; so that the
change which the Church effected, no doubt for the purpose of
disguising the heathen character of the festival, is less great than
appears at first sight.

574 In Wales “it was firmly believed in former times that on All
Hallows’ Eve the spirit of a departed person was to be seen at
midnight on every cross-road and on every stile” (Marie Trevelyan,
_Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_, London, 1909, p. 254).

M191 Fairies and hobgoblins let loose at Hallowe’en. Dancing with the
fairies at Hallowe’en.

575 E. J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), p.
68.

576 A. Goodrich-Freer, “More Folk-lore from the Hebrides,” _Folk-lore_,
xiii. (1902) p. 53.

577 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888),
p. 516.

578 P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903),
i. 264 _sq._, ii. 556.

579 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 516.

580 Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and
Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 61 _sq._

581 Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii.
258-260.

M192 Guleesh and the revels of the fairies at Hallowe’en.

582 Douglas Hyde, _Beside the Fire, a Collection of Irish Gaelic Folk
Stories_ (London, 1890), pp. 104, 105, 121-128.

M193 Divination resorted to in Celtic countries at Hallowe’en.

583 P. W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_, i. 229.

584 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,
1909), p. 254.

585 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, pp. 514 _sq._ In order to see
the apparitions all you had to do was to run thrice round the parish
church and then peep through the key-hole of the door. See Marie
Trevelyan, _op. cit._ p. 254; J. C. Davies, _Folk-lore of West and
Mid-Wales_ (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 77.

586 Miss E. J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow,
1885), p. 75.

M194 Hallowe’en bonfires in the Highlands of Scotland. John Ramsay’s
account of the Hallowe’en bonfires. Divination from stones at the
fire. Hallowe’en fires in the parishes of Callander and Logierait.
Divination from stones.

587 Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the
Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 282.

588 Thomas Pennant, “Tour in Scotland, and Voyage to the Hebrides in
1772,” in John Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. (London,
1809) pp. 383 _sq._ In quoting the passage I have corrected what
seem to be two misprints.

589 John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth
Century_, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London,
1888), ii. 437 _sq._ This account was written in the eighteenth
century.

590 Rev. James Robertson, Parish minister of Callander, in Sir John
Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xi. (Edinburgh, 1794),
pp. 621 _sq._

591 Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John Sinclair’s _Statistical Account
of Scotland_, v. (Edinburgh, 1793) pp. 84 _sq._

M195 Hallowe’en fires on Loch Tay. Hallowe’en fires at Balquhidder.

592 Miss E. J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow,
1885), p. 67.

593 James Napier, _Folk Lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of
Scotland within this Century_ (Paisley, 1879), p. 179.

594 J. G. Frazer, “Folk-lore at Balquhidder,” _The Folk-lore Journal_,
vi. (1888) p. 270.

M196 Hallowe’en fires in Buchan to burn the witches. Processions with
torches at Hallowe’en in the Braemar Highlands.

595 Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of
Scotland_ (London, 1881), pp. 167 _sq._

596 Rev. A. Johnstone, as to the parish of Monquhitter, in Sir John
Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xxi. (Edinburgh, 1799)
pp. 145 _sq._

597 A. Macdonald, “Some former Customs of the Royal Parish of Crathie,
Scotland,” _Folk-lore_, xviii. (1907) p. 85. The writer adds: “In
this way the ‘faulds’ were purged of evil spirits.” But it does not
appear whether this expresses the belief of the people or only the
interpretation of the writer.

M197 Divination at Hallowe’en in the Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland.
The stolen kail. Sowing hemp seed. The clue of blue yarn. The
winnowing basket. The wet shirt. The thrown shoe.

598 Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the
Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 282 _sq._

599 Robert Burns, _Hallowe’en_, with the poet’s note; Rev. Walter
Gregor, _op. cit._ p. 84; Miss E. J. Guthrie, _op. cit._ p. 69; Rev.
J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 287.

600 R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. Walter Gregor, _l.c._; Miss E. J. Guthrie,
_op. cit._ pp. 70 _sq._; Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 286.

601 R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _l.c._; Miss E. J. Guthrie, _op.
cit._ p. 73; Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 285; A.
Goodrich-Freer, “More Folklore from the Hebrides,” _Folk-lore_,
xiii. (1902) pp. 54 _sq._

602 R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _op. cit._ p. 85; Miss E. J.
Guthrie, _op. cit._ p. 71; Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 285.
According to the last of these writers, the winnowing had to be done
in the devil’s name.

603 R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _l.c._; Miss E. J. Guthrie, _op.
cit._ p. 72; Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 286; A.
Goodrich-Freer, “More Folklore from the Hebrides,” _Folk-lore_,
xiii. (1902) p. 54.

604 Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 283.

M198 The white of eggs in water. The names on the chimney-piece. The nuts
in the fire. The milk and meal. The apples in the water. The three
plates.

605 Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 283 _sq._; A. Goodrich-Freer,
_l.c._

606 Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 284.

607 R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _op. cit._ p. 85; Miss E. J.
Guthrie, _op. cit._ p. 70; Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 284.
Where nuts were not to be had, peas were substituted.

608 Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 284.

609 Rev. J. G. Campbell, _l.c._ According to my recollection of
Hallowe’en customs observed in my boyhood at Helensburgh, in
Dumbartonshire, another way was to stir the floating apples and then
drop a fork on them as they bobbed about in the water. Success
consisted in pinning one of the apples with the fork.

610 R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _op. cit._ pp. 85 _sq._; Miss E. J
Guthrie, _op. cit._ pp. 72 _sq._; Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p.
287.

M199 The sliced apple. The white of egg in water. The salt cake or salt
herring.

611 R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _op. cit._ p. 85; Miss E. J.
Guthrie, _op. cit._ pp. 69 _sq._; Rev. J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p.
285. It is the last of these writers who gives what may be called
the Trinitarian form of the divination.

612 Miss E. J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow,
1885), pp. 74 _sq._

613 A. Goodrich-Freer, “More Folk-lore from the Hebrides,” _Folk-lore_,
xiii. (1902) p. 55.

M200 Hallowe’en fires in Wales. Omens drawn from stones thrown into the
fire. Divination by stones in the ashes.

614 Pennant’s manuscript, quoted by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of
Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 389 _sq._

615 Sir Richard Colt Hoare, _The Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through
Wales __A.D.__ MCLXXXVIII. by Giraldus de Barri_ (London, 1806), ii.
315; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 390. The passage quoted in
the text occurs in one of Hoare’s notes on the Itinerary. The
dipping for apples, burning of nuts, and so forth, are mentioned
also by Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_
(London, 1909), pp. 253, 255.

616 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888),
pp. 515 _sq._ As to the Hallowe’en bonfires in Wales compare J. C.
Davies, _Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales_ (Aberystwyth, 1911), p.
77.

617 See above, p. 183.

618 See above, p. 231.

M201 Divination as to love and marriage at Hallowe’en in Wales.

619 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,
1909), pp. 254 _sq._

M202 Divination at Hallowe’en in Ireland.

620 (General) Charles Vallancey, _Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis_, iii.
(Dublin, 1786), pp. 459-461.

M203 Divination at Hallowe’en in Queen’s County. Divination at Hallowe’en
in County Leitrim. Divination at Hallowe’en in County Roscommon.

621 Miss A. Watson, quoted by A. C. Haddon, “A Batch of Irish
Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) pp. 361 _sq._

622 Leland L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” _Folk-lore_,
v. (1894) pp. 195-197.

623 H. J. Byrne, “All Hallows Eve and other Festivals in Connaught,”
_Folk-lore_, xviii. (1907) pp. 437 _sq._

M204 Hallowe’en fires in the Isle of Man. Divination at Hallowe’en in the
Isle of Man.

624 Joseph Train, _Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of
Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 123; (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic
Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 315 _sqq._

625 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901),
i. 318-321.

M205 Hallowe’en fires and divination in Lancashire. Candles lighted to
keep off the witches. Divination at Hallowe’en in Northumberland.
Hallowe’en fires in France.

626 John Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folk-lore_ (Manchester
and London, 1882), pp. 3 _sq._

627 J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ p. 140.

628 Annie Milner, in William Hone’s _Year Book_ (London, preface dated
January, 1832), coll. 1276-1279 (letter dated June, 1831); R. T.
Hampson, _Medii Acvi Kalendarium_ (London, 1841), i. 365; T. F.
Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 395.

_ 629 County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.
Balfour (London, 1904), p. 78. Compare W. Henderson, _Notes on the
Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England_ (London, 1879), pp.
96 _sq._

630 Baron Dupin, in _Mémoires publiées par la Société Royale des
Antiquaires de France_, iv. (1823) p. 108.

M206 A Midwinter festival of fire. Christmas the continuation of an old
heathen festival of the sun.

631 The evidence for the solar origin of Christmas is given in _Adonis,
Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp 254-256.

M207 The Yule log is the Midwinter counterpart of the Midsummer bonfire.

632 For the various names (Yu-batch, Yu-block, Yule-log, etc.) see
Francis Grose, _Provincial Glossary_, New Edition (London, 1811), p.
141; Joseph Wright, _The English Dialect Dictionary_ (London,
1898-1905), vi. 593, _s.v._ “Yule.”

633 “I am pretty confident that the Yule block will be found, in its
first use, to have been only a counterpart of the Midsummer fires,
made within doors because of the cold weather at this winter
solstice, as those in the hot season, at the summer one, are kindled
in the open air” (John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great
Britain_, London, 1882-1883, i. 471). His opinion is approved by W.
Mannhardt (_Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_, p.
236).

M208 The Yule log in Germany and Switzerland.

634 “_Et arborem in nativitate domini ad festivum ignem suum adducendam
esse dicebat_” (quoted by Jacob Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i.
522).

635 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher
Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 12. The Sieg and Lahn are two
rivers of Central Germany, between Siegen and Marburg.

636 J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel
des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 4.

637 Adalbert Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_
(Leipsic, 1859), ii. § 319, pp. 103 sq.

638 A. Kuhn, _op. cit._ ii. § 523, p. 187.

639 August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_
(Vienna, 1878), p. 172.

640 E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich,
1913), pp. 108 _sq._

M209 The Yule log in Belgium.

641 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,
1861-1862), ii. 326 _sq._ Compare J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur
deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1858), i. 117.

M210 The Yule log in France.

642 J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_5 (Paris, 1741), i. 302
_sq._; Eugène Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris,
1867), pp. 266 _sq._

M211 French superstitions as to the Yule log.

643 J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), p 323.

M212 The Yule log at Marseilles and in Perigord. Virtues ascribed to the
charcoal and ashes of the burnt log. The Yule log in Berry.

644 Aubin-Louis Millin, _Voyage dans les Départements du Midi de la
France_ (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 336 _sq._ The fire so kindled was
called _caco fuech_.

645 Alfred de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de
France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 151 _sq._ The three festivals
during which the Yule log is expected to burn are probably Christmas
Day (December 25th), St. Stephen’s Day (December 26th), and St. John
the Evangelist’s Day (December 27th). Compare J. L. M. Noguès, _Les
Mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_ (Saintes, 1891), pp.
45-47. According to the latter writer, in Saintonge it was the
mistress of the house who blessed the Yule log, sprinkling salt and
holy water on it; in Poitou it was the eldest male who officiated.
The log was called the _cosse de Nô_.

646 Laisnel de Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_
(Paris, 1875), i. 1-3.

M213 The Yule log in Normandy and Brittany.

647 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,
1883-1887), ii. 291. The author speaks of the custom as still
practised in out-of-the-way villages at the time when he wrote. The
usage of preserving the remains of the Yule-log (called _tréfouet_)
in Normandy is mentioned also by Melle Amélie Bosquet, _La
Nortnandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse_ (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p.
294.

648 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de
France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 256.

649 Paul Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris,
1886), pp. 217 sq.

M214 The Yule log in the Ardennes.

650 Albert Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des
Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), pp. 96 _sq._

651 See above, p. 251.

652 Lerouze, in _Mémoires de l’Academie Celtique_, iii. (1809) p. 441,
quoted by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,
1882-1883), i. 469 note.

M215 The Yule log in the Vosges. The Yule log in Franche-Comté and
Burgundy.

653 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 370
_sq._

654 Charles Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p.
183.

655 A. de Nore, Coutumes, _Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de
France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 302 _sq._

M216 The Yule log and the Yule candle in England.

656 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,
1882-1883), i. 467.

657 J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 455; _The Denham Tracts_, edited by Dr.
James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 25 _sq._

658 Herrick, _Hesperides_, “Ceremonies for Christmasse”:

“_Come, bring with a noise,_
_ My merrie merrie boyes,_
_ The Christmas log to the firing; ..._
_ With the last yeeres brand_
_ Light the new block._”

And, again, in his verses, “Ceremonies for Candlemasse Day”:

“_Kindle the Christmas brand, and then_
_ Till sunne-set let it burne;_
_ Which quencht, then lay it up agen,_
_ Till Christmas next returne._
_ Part must be kept, wherewith to teend_
_ The Christmas log next yeare;_
_ And where ’tis safely kept, the fiend_
_ Can do no mischiefe there._”

See _The Works of Robert Herrick_ (Edinburgh, 1823), vol. ii. pp.
91, 124. From these latter verses it seems that the Yule log was
replaced on the fire on Candlemas (the second of February).

659 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_
(London, 1883), p. 398 note 2. See also below, pp. 257, 258, as to
the Lincolnshire, Herefordshire, and Welsh practice.

M217 The Yule log in the North of England, in Lincolnshire, Warwickshire,
Shropshire, Herefordshire. The Yule log in Wales.

660 Francis Grose, _Provincial Glossary_, Second Edition (London, 1811),
pp. 141 _sq._; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_
(London, 1876), p. 466.

_ 661 County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.
Balfour and edited by Northcote W. Thomas (London, 1904), p. 79.

_ 662 County Folk-lore_, vol. ii. _North Riding of Yorkshire, York and
the Ainsty_, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1901), pp.
273, 274, 275 _sq._

_ 663 County Folk-lore_, vol. vi. _East Riding of Yorkshire_, collected
and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1912), pp. 23, 118, compare p.
114.

664 John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881),
p. 5.

_ 665 County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch
and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 219. Elsewhere in Lincolnshire
the Yule-log seems to have been called the Yule-clog (_op. cit._ pp.
215, 216).

666 Mrs. Samuel Chandler (Sarah Whateley), quoted in _The Folk-lore
Journal_, i. (1883), pp. 351 _sq._

667 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_
(London, 1883), pp. 397 _sq._ One of the informants of these writers
says (_op. cit._ p. 399): “In 1845 I was at the Vessons farmhouse,
near the Eastbridge Coppice (at the northern end of the
Stiperstones). The floor was of flags, an unusual thing in this
part. Observing a sort of roadway through the kitchen, and the flags
much broken, I enquired what caused it, and was told it was from the
horses’ hoofs drawing in the ‘Christmas Brund.’ ”

668 Mrs. Ella Mary Leather, _The Folk-lore of Herefordshire_ (Hereford
and London, 1912), p. 109. Compare Miss C. S. Burne, “Herefordshire
Notes,” _The Folk-lore Journal_, iv. (1886) p. 167.

669 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,
1909), p. 28.

M218 The Yule log in Servia. The cutting of the oak tree to form the Yule log. M219 Prayers to Colleda. M220 The bringing in of the Yule log.

670 “In earlier ages, and even so late as towards the middle of the
nineteenth century, the Servian village organisation and the Servian
agriculture had yet another distinguishing feature. The dangers from
wild beasts in old time, the want of security for life and property
during the Turkish rule, or rather misrule, the natural difficulties
of the agriculture, more especially the lack in agricultural
labourers, induced the Servian peasants not to leave the parental
house but to remain together on the family’s property. In the same
yard, within the same fence, one could see around the ancestral
house a number of wooden huts which contained one or two rooms, and
were used as sleeping places for the sons, nephews and grandsons and
their wives. Men and women of three generations could be often seen
living in that way together, and working together the land which was
considered as common property of the whole family. This expanded
family, remaining with all its branches together, and, so to say,
under the same roof, working together, dividing the fruits of their
joint labours together, this family and an agricultural association
in one, was called _Zadrooga_ (The Association). This combination of
family and agricultural association has morally, economically,
socially, and politically rendered very important services to the
Servians. The headman or chief (called _Stareshina_) of such family
association is generally the oldest male member of the family. He is
the administrator of the common property and director of work. He is
the executive chairman of the association. Generally he does not
give any order without having consulted all the grown-up male
members of the _Zadrooga_” (Chedo Mijatovich, _Servia and the
Servians_, London, 1908, pp. 237 _sq._). As to the house-communities
of the South Slavs see further Og. M. Utiešenovič, _Die
Hauskommunionen der Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1859); F. Demelié, _Le Droit
Coutumier des Slaves Méridionaux_ (Paris, 1876), pp. 23 _sqq._; F.
S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1885), pp. 64
_sqq._ Since Servia, freed from Turkish oppression, has become a
well-regulated European state, with laws borrowed from the codes of
France and Germany, the old house-communities have been rapidly
disappearing (Chedo Mijatovich, _op. cit._ p. 240).

M221 The ceremony with the straw. The Yule candle. M222 The roast pig. The drawing of the water. M223 The Christmas visiter (_polaznik_).

671 Chedo Mijatovich, _Servia and the Servians_ (London, 1908), pp.
98-105.

M224 The Yule log among the Servians of Slavonia. The Christmas visiter
(_polazenik_).

672 Baron Rajacsich, _Das Leben, die Sitten und Gebräuche der im
Kaiserthume Oesterreich lebenden Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1873), pp.
122-128.

M225 The Yule log among the Servians of Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and
Montenegro. The Yule log in Albania.

673 Baron Rajacsich, _Das Leben, die Sitten und Gebräuche der im
Kaiserthume Oesterreich lebenden Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1873), pp.
129-131. The Yule log (_badnyak_) is also known in Bulgaria, where
the women place it on the hearth on Christmas Eve. See A. Strausz,
_Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 361.

674 M. Edith Durham, _High Albania_ (London, 1909), p. 129.

675 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894) p. 71.

M226 Belief that the Yule log protects against fire and lightning.

676 See above, pp. 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 258.
Similarly at Candlemas people lighted candles in the churches, then
took them home and kept them, and thought that by lighting them at
any time they could keep off thunder, storm, and tempest. See
Barnabe Googe, _The Popish Kingdom_ (reprinted London, 1880), p. 48
_verso_.

677 See above, pp. 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 263.

678 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 356 _sqq._

679 See above, pp. 248, 249, 250, 251, 264.

M227 Public celebrations of the fire-festival at Midwinter. The bonfire
on Christmas Eve at Schweina in Thuringia.

680 August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_
(Vienna, 1878), pp. 171 _sq._

M228 Bonfires on Christmas Eve in Normandy.

681 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,
1883-1887), ii. 289 _sq._

M229 Bonfires on St. Thomas’s Day in the Isle of Man. The “Burning of the
Clavie” at Burghead on the last day of December. The old rampart at
Burghead.

682 Joseph Train, _Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of
Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 124, referring to Cregeen’s
_Manx Dictionary_, p. 67.

683 R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), ii.
789-791, quoting _The Banffshire Journal_; Miss C. F. Gordon
Cumming, _In the Hebrides_ (London, 1883), p. 226; Miss E. J.
Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp.
223-225; Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
1884-1886), iii. 244 _sq._; _The Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp.
11-14, 46. Miss Gordon Cumming and Miss Guthrie say that the burning
of the Clavie took place upon Yule Night; but this seems to be a
mistake.

684 Caesar, _De bello Gallico_, vii. 23.

685 Hugh W. Young, F.S.A. Scot., _Notes on the Ramparts of Burghead as
revealed by recent Excavations_ (Edinburgh, 1892), pp. 3 _sqq._;
_Notes on further Excavations at Burghead_ (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 7
_sqq._ These papers are reprinted from the _Proceedings of the
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, vols. xxv., xxvii. Mr. Young
concludes as follows: “It is proved that the fort at Burghead was
raised by a people skilled in engineering; who used square-headed
nails, axes and chisels of iron; who shot balista stones over 20
lbs. in weight; and whose daily food was the _bos longifrons_. A
people who made paved roads, and sunk artesian wells, and used Roman
beads and pins. The riddle of Burghead should not now be very
difficult to read” (_Notes on further Excavations at Burghead_, pp.
14 _sq._). For a loan of Mr. Young’s pamphlets I am indebted to the
kindness of Sheriff-Substitute David J. Mackenzie of Kilmarnock.

M230 Procession with burning tar-barrels on Christmas Eve (Old Style) at
Lerwick.

686 Robert Cowie, M.A., M.D., _Shetland, Descriptive and Historical_
(Aberdeen, 1871), pp. 127 _sq._; _County Folk-lore_, vol. iii.
_Orkney and Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black and edited
by Northcote W. Thomas (London, 1903), pp. 203 _sq._ A similar
celebration, known as Up-helly-a’, takes place at Lerwick on the
29th of January, twenty-four days after Old Christmas. See _The
Scapegoat_, pp. 167-169. Perhaps the popular festival of Up-helly-a’
has absorbed some of the features of the Christmas Eve celebration.

M231 Persian festival of fire at the winter solstice.

687 Thomas Hyde, _Historia Religionis veterum Persarum_ (Oxford, 1700),
pp. 255-257.

M232 European festivals of fire in seasons of distress and calamity. The
need-fire.

688 On the need-fire see Jacob Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 501
_sqq._; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen
and Leipsic, 1852-1857), i. 116 _sq._, ii. 378 _sqq._; Adalbert
Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh,
1886), pp. 41 _sqq._; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European
Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), pp. 48 _sqq._; W.
Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_
(Berlin, 1875), pp. 518 _sqq._; Charles Elton, _Origins of English
History_ (London, 1882), pp. 293 _sqq._; Ulrich Jahn, _Die deutschen
Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 26
_sqq._ Grimm would derive the name _need_-fire (German, _niedfyr_,
_nodfyr_, _nodfeur_, _nothfeur_) from _need_ (German, _noth_),
“necessity,” so that the phrase need-fire would mean “a forced
fire.” This is the sense attached to it in Lindenbrog’s glossary on
the capitularies, quoted by Grimm, _op. cit._ i. p. 502: “_Eum ergo
ignem_ nodfeur _et nodfyr, quasi necessarium ignem vocant._” C. L.
Rochholz would connect _need_ with a verb _nieten_ “to churn,” so
that need-fire would mean “churned fire.” See C. L. Rochholz,
_Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), ii. 149 _sq._ This
interpretation is confirmed by the name _ankenmilch bohren_, which
is given to the need-fire in some parts of Switzerland. See E.
Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen
Volksbrauch,” _Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde_, xi. (1907) p.
245.

M233 The need-fire in the Middle Ages. The need-fire at Neustadt in 1598.

689 “_Illos sacrilegos ignes, quos_ niedfyr _vocant_,” quoted by J.
Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 502; R. Andree, _Braunschweiger
Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 312.