Chapter XL: Of Ink (2)

The implements with which the gilder should provide himself are not numerous, nor are they expensive, as they consist merely of a cushion of particular form, a knife for cutting the gold-leaf, a tip for transferring it, and a cotton ball or pad for pressing it down; these and a few brushes are all the requisites, with the addition of an agate burnisher when burnish gilding is desired.

The cushion is a species of palette made of wood, about 9 inches by 6 inches, having on the upper surface a covering of leather stuffed with wool, and on the under side a loose band, through which the thumb being passed, the cushion is kept firmly resting on the left hand. To prevent the gold flying off (for, being extremely light, this very readily takes place), a margin of parchment is fixed on the edge of the cushion, rising about three inches, and enclosing it on three sides. The knife very much resembles a palette-knife, the blade is about four inches long and half an inch wide, perfectly straight, and cutting on one edge only.

The "tip" is the brush with which the gold-leaf is applied. It is formed by placing a line of badger-hair between two thin pieces of cardboard, and is generally about three inches wide. The "dabber" is merely a pinch of cotton-wool, lightly tied up in a piece of very soft rag, or, what is better, the thin silk called Persian. It is often used without covering, but is then very apt to take up the uncovered gold-size, and so to soil the leaf already laid down. Camel-hair brushes are useful for intricate parts, and for cleaning off the superfluous gold a long-haired brush, called a "softener," is requisite.

There should be also at hand a small stone and muller (these are also made in glass, which is cleaner) for grinding up the oil and gold-size.

The operator, having stocked himself with the above tools, may now proceed to lay the gold-leaf upon the work he desires to gild. There are two methods of doing this, known in the trade as "Oil-gilding" and "Water-gilding;" and so called from the composition of the size which serves as a vehicle for making the gold-leaf adhere to the work.

The following is the usual process in oil-gilding:--This method costs
less and will wear much better than water-gilding, which will be
presently described; but has not its delicate appearance and finish, nor
can it be burnished or brightened up. Though the oil gold-size can always
be purchased of good quality, it may be well to describe the fat oil of
which it is principally composed.

Linseed oil, in any quantity, is exposed during the summer in the open
air, but as much away from dust as possible, for about two months, during
which time it must be often stirred, and it will become as thick as
treacle. It is a good practice to pour into the pot a quantity of water,
so that the oil may be lifted from the bottom of it, as all the
impurities of the oil sink into the water, and do not again mix when it
is stirred. When of the consistency above mentioned, the oil is separated
from the water, and being put into a bottle, is subjected to heat till it
becomes fluid again, when all remaining impurities will sink, and the
oil, being carefully poured off from the sediment, forms what is termed
"fat oil." The gilder commences by priming the work, should it not have
been painted, using for the purpose a small portion of yellow ochre and
vermilion, mixed with drying oil. When this is quite dry, a coat of the
oil gold size, compounded with the fat oil just described, japanner's
gold-size, and yellow ochre, is laid on, and when this is perfectly dry,
a second should be given, or even a third. A superior finish is produced
by going over the work, before using the size, with Dutch rushes or
fish-skin, which gives a finer surface to it. After the last coat of size
is applied, the work must be left for about a day, to set, taking care to
keep it from dust; and the proper state for receiving the gold-leaf is
known by touching the size with the finger, when it should be just
"tacky," that is adhesive, without leaving the ground on which it has
been laid.

The gilder then, taking on his left hand his cushion, transfers to it the
gold-leaves from the books in which they are purchased. This is not very
easy to a beginner, as the gold cannot be touched except by the knife.
Gilders manage it by breathing under the leaf in the direction it is
desired to send it, and flatten it on the cushion by the same gentle
blowing or breathing. It is now cut to the required shape, and applied to
the sized surfaces by means of the tip, which, if drawn across the hair
or face each time it is used, will slightly adhere to the gold. The whole
leaves are sometimes transferred from the books to the work at once; and
when there is much flat space, it facilitates the process. As the leaves
are laid on the size, they are pressed gently down with the cotton ball,
or in sunken parts with camel-hair brushes; and when perfectly dry, the
loose leaf is removed by gently brushing over the work with the softener,
when if there should be found any places ungilt, such spots are touched
with japanners' gold-size, and the leaf applied as before. The process of
oil-gilding is then complete.

Water or burnish-gilding differs from the former in the use of parchment
instead of oil size, and has received its name from being moistened with
water in rendering the size adhesive, and also from its fitness for
burnishing. Its superior beauty, however, is balanced by its being less
durable than oil-gilding, and, unlike the latter, unfit to be exposed to
damp air; it is therefore only used for indoor work or ornamentation. The
parchment size is made by boiling down slips of parchment or cuttings of
glovers' leather, till a strong jelly be formed, the proportions being
one pound of cuttings to six quarts of water, which must be boiled till
it shrinks to two quarts. While hot, the liquid should be strained
through flannel; and when cold, the jelly required will be fit for use.

The work to be gilded will require several coats of composition: the
first, or priming coat, is made of size thinned with water, and a little
whiting; with this the work is brushed over, using a thicker mixture when
there are defects which need to be stopped. Successive coats are then
laid on to the number of seven or eight, and the last, being moistened
with water, is worked over and smoothed on the plain parts with Dutch
rushes. After this is completed, a coating is laid on, composed of bol
ammoniac 1 pound, black lead 2 ounces, ground up on the stone with 2
ounces of olive oil. This is one out of many receipts; all, however, are
diluted for use with parchment size warmed up with two-thirds water, and
forming what is called water gold-size. Two coats of this should be laid
on; the part about to be burnished should then be again rubbed with a
soft cloth till quite even, and care taken that each coat be perfectly
dry before the subsequent one be laid on. The work is now moistened in
successive portions with a camel-hair brush and water, and while moist
covered with gold-leaf in precisely the same manner as described in the
directions for oil-gilding, great caution being observed in order to
avoid wetting the leaf already laid down, as a discoloration would be the
result. The work is now left for about four-and-twenty hours, when the
parts which are to be burnished may be tried in two or three places. Care
should be taken not to let the work get too dry, as in that case it would
require more burnishing, and yet not give a good result. This state is
known by its polishing slowly, and if it be too wet it will peel off; but
should the places where the trials are made all polish quickly and
evenly, the work may then be finished; for which purpose agates cut in
proper forms and set into handles, are sold at the artists'
colour-shops.[121]

The gilding satisfactorily accomplished, the artist or amateur has only to add the finishing tints and touches to his work, and then either to leave it alone, or to varnish it in accordance with the directions which will be given presently. If the work has been executed on canvass, it will remain only to apply it to the surface for which it may have been destined. This may be done by painting that surface with thick white lead, in two or three coats, and by also similarly painting the back of the canvass. The latter being then pressed evenly down upon the former, while the white lead upon both is still tacky, and, left for a few days, will be found to have attached itself with the greatest tenacity. Scrolls and panels cut out of zinc sheets may be painted upon just as though they were cut out of canvass, and may be fixed in their places by nails or screws. In illuminating on wood, pretty effects may be obtained by varnishing partially with transparent colours, such as the lakes, umber, Prussian blue, burnt sienna, &c., so as to allow the grain of the wood to show through,--restricting the use of opaque colour and gilding to a few brilliant points.

Distempering is a method of colouring walls and ceilings in which powder colour, ground up in water, and mixed with sufficient size to fix the colour, is used instead of paint made with oil. The most simple employment of distemper is in whitening ceilings, but it is also very much used in theatrical decoration and scene-painting; and rooms are sometimes so ornamented, the process being much less expensive than oil-painting. The foundation of all the colours is whiting, which, having been set to soak in water and break up of itself, is (when the top water is poured off) in a fit state for use; common double size is then added, with as much of the colour as will make the desired tint; but as this, when dry, will be many shades lighter than it appears when wet, trials should be made on paper, and dried by the fire till the colour required be attained. A gentle heat is required for melting the size. Old walls are prepared for distemper by being scraped and cleaned, and a coat of "clearcole" given to them. This is merely thin size and water with a little whiting: it serves to wash and smooth the walls and stop suction. Should there be any cracks or holes, a thick paste of size-water and whiting is laid in them with a palette-knife, and, when dry, smoothed down with pumice-stone, and another coat of clearcole given, when the wall is in a proper state to receive the ground tint; for new walls one coat of clearcole is sufficient. If it is intended to lay on lines of various colours, the wall is, previous to the laying on of the ground tint, set out as previously described; and the appropriate colours put on in succession, according to the design to be followed. All the colours required should be ground up, and kept ready prepared in galley-pots well covered over, so as to be at hand at once. The colour should be of the consistency of thick cream, and should run from the brush on being raised from the pot in one thread; if it run in several, it is too thin. If too thick, add more size and water; if too thin, more whiting. The pots used are the common red paint-pots.

VARNISHING.

Varnish is a solution of resin in oil or spirits of wine.[122]

Surfaces which are to be varnished should be of the greatest smoothness
and polish which it is possible to attain. Dark colours are best
calculated for varnishing; the lighter colours, such as sky-blue,
apple-green, rose-colour, delicate yellow, &c., will not bear varnishing
so well, and in spite of the greatest care are liable to get dirty.

The best preparation for stopping suction in absorbent surfaces, and so
rendering them fit to take varnish, is made of isinglass or parchment
size; for the darker colours it may be made of common clear glue. Four or
five coats will be necessary for the brighter colours; two or three will
be sufficient for the darker ones. Great care must be taken not to wash
up water or distemper colours in laying on the first coat, nor to lay on
a second coat before the first is perfectly dry; nor must the varnishing
be proceeded with before the last coat of size is thoroughly dry. Varnish
may be applied on surfaces brought forward in oil without any special
preparation, provided the oil has become thoroughly dry and hard.

This process serves both to enhance and preserve the beauty of the
colours, and in some degree to counteract the destructive influence of
the atmosphere and of insects.

Varnishes suitable for the work in hand, such as clear copal spirit
varnish, oil copal varnish, white hard varnish, &c., may be procured from
any one who supplies drawing materials. The varnishing itself requires
some little care. It should be performed in a place perfectly free from
dust, in a bold manner with large brushes, steadily, rapidly, and
uniformly, not returning too frequently to the same spot, more especially
when using spirit varnish, which loses its fluidity much sooner than oil
varnish. Whichever varnish is used, it should be very thin: if spirit
varnish, the room must be of a moderate temperature; for if too cold, the
varnishing is apt to be rough, white, and unequal; if too hot, it is
liable to have air-bladders, and to crumble and spoil. Oil varnishing may
be done in a room of warmer temperature. A second coat of varnish must on
no account be laid on before the first coat is quite dry. If the work is
to be polished, the spirit varnish must be applied from five to eight
times, oil varnish three or four; but if the work is not to be polished,
then four coats of the former and two of the latter will generally be
found sufficient.

When thoroughly dry, the face of the varnish may be polished with
pumice-stone, tripoly, water, and sweet oil. If it be an oil varnish,
procure some of the finest pulverized pumice-stone, and mix it with water
to about the consistence of cream; with a piece of linen rag dipped in
this mixture rub the work till all inequalities disappear, and the
surface is as smooth as glass; then dry it with a cloth, and polish once
more with tripoly and sweet oil; then dry it with a piece of soft linen,
rub it with starch reduced to a fine powder, and finish with a clean soft
linen cloth, until the varnish assumes a dazzling appearance. If it is a
spirit varnish, omit the pumice-stone, and begin with the tripoly and
water; after this use the tripoly and sweet oil, and finish as before
described for the oil varnish.

The difference is so striking between the polished and unpolished
surfaces, as to amply repay the additional trouble required in the
polishing. The polishing powders must be kept in thoroughly clean
vessels, a single grain of sand being sufficient to spoil the polish.

M. DIGBY WYATT.

37, TAVISTOCK PLACE, W.C.
_April, 1861._

FOOTNOTES.

[1] M. Gabriel Peignot, in his "Essai sur l'Histoire da Parchemin et du
Vélin," Paris, 1812, and in his paper on the same subject in "Le
Moyen Age et la Renaissance," vol. ii. Paris, 1849, produces evidence
of the use of parchment for writing upon anterior to the age of
Eumenes; and consequently limits his interpretation of Pliny's words,
"Varro membranas Pergami tradidit repertas," to an assertion of the
discovery of improved processes by which parchment was rendered more
available for writing upon than it had been previous to the accession
of Eumenes.

[2] A good representation of a scrinium and scapi, from a painting in the
"Casa Falkener," described in the "Museum of Classical Antiquities,"
vol. ii. p. 54, is given in one of the cubicula of the Pompeian Court
at Sydenham.

[3] See Gell's "Pompeiana" Appendix; and the "Memoir of the Canonico
Iorio."

[4] "Let those who will have old books written in gold and silver on
purple parchment, or, as they are commonly called, in uncial
letters,--rather ponderous loads than books,--so long as they permit
me and mine to have poor copies, and rather correct than beautiful
books."

[5] P. 113. Ingram, Cooke, & Co., London, 1853.

[6] "Universal Palæography." London, Bohn.

[7] Through the kindness of the late Mr. Dennistoun, of Dennistoun, and
Cardinal Acton, who obtained the requisite facilities for me.

[8] Tome v. pl. lxv.; tome iii. p. 29.

[9] D'Agincourt's famous mistake in attributing these miniatures to the
12th or 13th century, and Ottley's ascription of those in the Saxon
"Aratus" of the 9th century to the 2nd or 3rd, are among those slips
of the learned which prove that even great men are fallible.

[10] "Iste liber est beati Dionysii."

[11] The palimpsest Homer of the British Museum, discovered by Mr.
Cureton, is of equal importance in Grecian palæography.

[12] In the case of the "de Republicâ," they are written in the same
direction. See facsimiles in Sylvestre and Ferdinand Seré.

[13] "Iliadis Fragmenta antiquissima cum Picturis," ed. Angelo Maio.

[14] Petri Lambecii "Commentaria de Bibliotheca Vindobonensi," vol. ii.

[15] The Bible formerly belonging to Theodore Beza, now at Cambridge, and
one in the Vatican, are rival claimants to this honour.

[16] It was given to Charles I. of England, by Cyrillus Lucaris, Patriarch
of Constantinople.

[17] In his "Origin and Progress of Writing."

[18] "Treasures of Art in Great Britain," vol. i. p. 97.

[19] Text to "Shaw's Illuminated Ornaments," page 4.

[20] For a full description, with references to numerous commentators, see
Westwood's "Palæographia Sacra Pictoria," cap. 49.

[21] Tome ii. article "Manuscrits," fig. 15.

[22] "Treasures of Art in Great Britain," vol. i. p. 96.

[23] Dr. Kugler ("Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte," p.401), in speaking of
Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts, observes, "dass wir diese
Arbeiten als ein der ersten Zeugnisse des germanischen Kunstgeistes
in seiner Selbständigkeit, und zugleich als das Vorspiel oder als den
ersten Beginn des romanischen Kunststyles, zu betrachten haben."

[24] As represented in the plates to Salzenberg's fine work,
"Alt-Christliche Baudenkmale von Constantinopel, vom V. bis XII.
Jahrhundert." Folio, Berlin, 1854.

[25] The whole are given in Shaw's "Illuminated Ornaments," plates 1, 2,
3, and 4.

[26] It is on this account that we have refrained from giving any
specimens of manuscripts anterior to the 6th century.

[27] "Palæographia Sacra Pictoria," cap. Syriac MSS.

[28] O'Conor and others were of course earlier in the field.

[29] "Palæographia Sacra Pictoria," Book of Kells, page 1.

[30] Catalogue of the Libri collection of MSS., Introduction by M. Libri,
pages xiv. and xxvi. London, 1859.

[31] Giraldus Cambrensis, speaking probably of this very book, says, "Sin
autem ad perspicacius intuentum oculorum aciem invitaveris, et longe
penitus ad artis arcana transpenetraveris, tam delicatas et subtiles,
tam actas et arctas, tam nodosas et vinculatim colligatas, tamque
recentibus adhuc coloribus illustratas, notare poteris intricaturas,
ut vere hæc omnia angelica potius quam humana diligentia jam
asseveraveris esse composita."

[32] It is more abundantly used in Vesp. A 1, which, as we shall have
occasion to notice hereafter, is in a very mixed style.

[33] Bede expressly says, that at Augustine's synod, held at the
commencement of the 7th century, the bishops and learned men
attending it, "after a long disputation, refused to comply with the
entreaties, exhortations, or rebukes of the saint and his companions,
but preferred their own traditions before all the churches in the
world, which in Christ agree among themselves."

[34] D'Agincourt, "Painting," plates xxviii. xxix. xxx.

[35] This precious volume and its illustrations were first figured and
described by Mr. Westwood.

[36] "Life of Gregory the Great," by Johannes Diaconus, lib. ii. cap. 37.

[37] The words are, "quæ omnia illustrantur Romano habitu, figuris, et
antiquitate. Imperatoris Valentiniani tempora videntur attingere."
This mistake of the old librarian has been corrected with much care
and learning by the Baron van Tiellandt.--See his "Naspeuringen
nopens zekeren Codex Psalmorum in de Utrechtsche Boekerij berustende,
door W. H. J. Baron van Westreeinen van Tiellandt."

[38] The MS. department of the British Museum possesses some tracings from
the Utrecht Psalter, and on confronting them with the Harleian 603,
it requires a sharp eye to detect the slight differences existing
between several of the illustrations to each of the volumes. In the
Harleian volume, all the subjects have not been filled in; some are
left out altogether, spaces being reserved for them in the text, and
others are faintly traced with a leaden or silver point, preparatory
to inking in: very few artists of the present day could block in the
general forms in so peculiar a style with greater freedom or more
complete conveyance of expression, by similarly slight indications.

[39] The whole of the illuminations are given in the twenty-fourth volume
of the "Archæologia." The manuscript stands in the Bodleian
Catalogue, "Junius, No. II."

[40] Introduction to Shaw's "Illuminated Ornaments," pages 4 and 5.

[41] The following inscription, written in letters of gold on the reverse
of the fourth leaf and the bottom of the recto of the fifth,
identifies both the artist and the patron under whose auspices the
volume was executed, between the years 970 and 984, the term of
Ethelwold's occupation of the see of Winchester:--

"Presentem Biblum jussit perscribere Presul
Wintoniæ Dñs que[m] fecerat esse Patronum
Magnus _Æthelwoldus_ * * *
* * * * * *
Atque Patri magno jussit qui scribere librum hunc
Omnes cernentes biblum hunc semper rogitent hoc
Post meta carnis valeam celis in herere
Obnixe hoc rogitat Scriptor supplex _Godemann_."

[42] If the celebrated coronation book of the Anglo-Saxon kings should
turn out to have been written and illuminated in this country, it
would afford a striking illustration of this reaction. The general
opinion, however, appears to be, among the learned, that it may have
been given to Athelstan by Otho of Germany, who married his sister,
and by Matilda, Otho's mother. The arguments in favour of, and
against, the Anglo-Saxon origin of the volume would be too long to
discuss in this place. The writing is mainly Carlovingian.

[43] "Bib. Dec." vol. i. p. cxxii.

[44] It is to be regretted that the propriety of those just and learned
remarks of Muratori, in which he exhibited himself as one of the
earliest foreign scholars inclined to do justice to the ancient Irish
and British schools,--"Neque enim silenda laus Britanniæ, Scotiæ, et
Hiberniæ, quæ studio liberalium artium eo tempore antecellebant
reliquis occidentalibus regnis; et cura præsertim monachorum, qui
literarum gloriam, alibi aut languentem aut depressam, in iis
regionibus impigrè suscitarent atque tuebantur" (Murat. "Antiq.
Ital." diss. 43),--should have been impugned by the Rev. Mr.
Berington in his "Literary History of the Middle Ages," pages 180,
181.

[45] These pious monks, until probably some time after the Norman
conquest, generally worked together in an apartment capable of
containing many persons, and in which many persons did, in fact, work
together at the transcription of books. The first of these points is
implied in a curious document, which is one of the very few specimens
extant of French Visi-Gothic MS. in uncial characters, of the 8th
century. It is a short but beautiful form of consecration or
benediction, barbarously entitled "Orationem in Scripturio," and is
to the following effect: "Vouchsafe, O Lord, to bless _this
Scriptorium of thy servants and all that dwell therein_; that
whatsoever sacred writing shall be here read or written by them, they
may receive with understanding, and bring the same to good effect,
through our Lord," &c.--See Merryweather's "Bibliomania in the Middle
Ages."

[46] "Dark Ages," second edition, p. 193.

[47] Librarian of the town of Evreux.

[48] Cornemillot, Evreux, 1846.

[49] Du Sommerard, in "Les Arts du Moyen Age," has given copies of all the
illuminations, and Mr. Westwood a page of specimens.

[50] Count Bastard gives no less than six grand facsimiles from this
volume, which is one of the greatest lions of the Bibliothèque
Impériale at Paris.

[51] One of the most curious illuminations in the book, the celebrated
"fontaine mystique" of the church, is altogether antique in style and
execution.

[52] The colouring in this MS. is very elegant, being mainly restricted to
gold, purple, white, and a little very brilliant vermilion;--the
forms are principally Saxon.

[53] Described at length by Dr. Waagen, "Treasures of Art in Great
Britain," pages 104-106.

[54] Many illustrations, but unfortunately without colour, are given by
D'Agincourt, "Pittura," plates 40 to 45 inclusive.

[55] The folio Vulgate (B. M. Addl. MSS. No. 10546) purchased by the
British Museum authorities from M. Speyer Passavant, of Basle, in
1836, for £750, was considered by its late possessor to have been the
original transcript "diligently emended" by Alcuin himself, for
presentation to Charlemagne on his coronation as Emperor of Rome, in
the year 800. It is a very fine and interesting volume, but has been
referred, by more recent authorities, to the reign of Charles the
Bald. Mr. Westwood, however, considers that "it appears to have
better claims than any of the several Caroline Bibles now in
existence, to be considered as the volume so presented." Its chief
rival is the great Bible of the Fathers of Sta. Maria, in Vallicella,
at Rome. Sir Frederick Madden has entered into a minute analysis of
the claims of the Speyer Passavant volume, in a series of most
learned articles in the "Gentleman's Magazine" for 1836. See also
Westwood's "Palæographia Sacra," and the pamphlet, by its late
possessor, J. H. de Speyer Passavant, "Description de la Bible écrite
par Alchuine, &c." Par. 1829, pp. 112.

[56] It is singular, considering how generally Hiberno-Saxon ornament was
adopted by continental illuminators, that the peculiar Saxon
_fluttering_ outline never obtained a footing.

[57] The learned and most eloquent author of the "Poésie Chrétienne," M.
Rio (from whom it was my privilege, while yet a youthful student, to
receive many a valuable lesson), in noting this "total eclipse,"
remarks that "two rolls of parchment, one of which is preserved in
the library of the Barbarini Palace, the other in the sacristy of the
Cathedral of Pisa, are ornamented with miniatures which may serve to
give us an idea of the state into which the arts of design had fallen
in Italy in the 11th century. Those which were executed rather later,
in the manuscript of a poem on the Countess Matilda (written by a
certain 'Donizo,' in 1125), which is preserved in the Vatican,
display no trace either of chiaroscuro or of correct imitation of
form.

"The Romano-Christian school ceased from this time to exist, after
having fulfilled the whole of its mission, which had been to form the
connecting link between the primitive inspirations of Christian art
and the new schools which were destined to reap the harvest of this
rich inheritance, and turn it to good account.

"As for the Germano-Christian school, it may be compared to a
vigorous shoot severed from a dying trunk, to revive and flourish in
a better soil."

[58] The "Menologion" of the Vatican, a magnificent volume, containing no
less than 430 miniatures of remarkable interest and excellence, is
the standing illustration of this assertion. The work was engraved
and published at Urbino, in three folio volumes, in 1727, under the
auspices of three pontiffs, Clement XI., Innocent XIII., and Benedict
XIII.

[59] It would be difficult to find in the production of the best Roman age
anything nobler than several of the compositions in the Paris
"Psalter," with commentaries (Imperial Library, Gr. No. 139), a Greek
manuscript of the 10th century. One of the finest of the figures
contained in it, that of "Night," I caused to be enlarged, and
painted on the exterior of the Byzantine Court at Sydenham, as giving
a more favourable impression of Greek art than any other pictorial
representation I could meet with. A replica of this subject occurs in
the Vatican "Prophecies of Isaiah." The two may be compared from the
works of D'Agincourt and Seré. Most noteworthy also among the best of
this class of Byzantine manuscripts, are the Paris "Commentaries of
Gregory Nazianzen," the British Museum Psalter (Egerton, No. 1.139)
of early 12th century work, and the Bodleian "Codex Ebnerianus."

[60] Of this ornamental style the most remarkable specimens are the
Vatican "Acts of the Apostles," and a beautiful volume in the library
of the Duke of Hamilton. From the former, I have given some
facsimiles in "The Geometrical Mosaics of the Middle Ages" (plate
20), in order to show the similarity of design between the gold
ground mosaics of the Greeks and early Italians, and the
embellishments of the illuminated manuscripts of the former.

[61] Ingulphus was at that very time indebted directly to the Conqueror,
his early patron, for his abbacy.

[62] See Martene Const. Canon. Reg. in "de Ant. Eccl. Ritibus," tom. iii.,
for full details.

[63] This indulgence was, after all, not very luxurious, for, as Mr.
Maitland remarks ("Dark Ages," 2nd edition, p. 406), "Many a scribe
has, I dare say, felt what Lewis, a monk of Wessobrun, in Bavaria,
records as his own experience during his sedentary and protracted
labours. In an inscription appended to a copy of Jerome's Commentary
on Daniel, among other grounds on which he claims the sympathy and
the prayers of the readers, he says,--

"'Dum scripsit friguit, et quod cum lumine solis
Scribere non potuit, perfecit lumine noctis.'"

For whilst he wrote he froze, and that which by daylight he could not
bring to perfection, he worked at again by the aid of the moonlight.

[64] In Italy the propensity for large letters was never relinquished.

[65] W. H. Blaauw, Esq.

[66] Edited by James Raine, Jun., for the Surtees Society. 8vo. Durham,
1859.

[67] The same series of rolls contain many very interesting entries; as,
for instance,--

"1393 A.D. Soluti--de 4_l._ 6_s._ 8_d._ sol. hoc anno fratri Willelmo
Ellerker pro scriptura duorum gradalium pro choro. de 40_s._ solutis
domino Ricardo de Styrton pro eluminacione dictorum duorum
gradalium--de 22_s._ 7½_d._ solutis dicto Willelmo pro pergameno
empto per ipsum Willelmum.

"A.D. 1395. Roberto Bukebinder pro ligatura unius magni gradalis pro
choro ex convencione facta 10_s._ Eidem pro IIII. pellibus pergameni
pro eadem custodiendo 20_d._ Eidem pro I. pelle cervi pro coopertura
dicti libri 3_s._ 2_d._ Fratri Willelmo Ellerker pro pergameno 4_s._
Domino Ricardo de Styrton in plenam solucionem _alumpnyng_ tryum
gradalium, 40_s._ de 3_s._ 4_d._ solutis domino Johanni Brignale pro
VIII. pellibus pergameni emptis pro magno gradali predicto."

"Domino Ricardo de Styrton pro alumpnacione magni gradalis novi in
choro, 20_s._

"A.D. 1402. In expensis in _alumpnacione_ magni gradalis in choro per
dominum Ricardum de Stretton, 20_s._"

Throughout these accounts, and others too lengthy to note, it will be
noticed that the value of the parchment, gold, colours, and current
expenses, falls not very far short of the total cost of the labour of
the illuminator.

[68] "Treasures of Art in Great Britain," vol. i. p. 160. The same
distinguished critic, who has made a special study of the illuminated
MSS. of Europe, and especially of the French (see his "Kunstwerken
und Kunstlern in Paris"), in describing some of the pictures in Queen
Mary's Psalter (unquestionably English), observes (p. 166), "Upon the
whole, I am acquainted with no miniatures, either Netherlandish,
German, or French, of this time" (the 14th century) "which can
compare in artistic value with the pictures executed by the best hand
in this manuscript."

[69] It is to be regretted that Count Bastard failed to complete more than
thirty-two plates of the splendid work he announced under the title
of "Librairie de Jean de France, Duc de Berri, frère de Charles V.,
publié en son entier pour la première fois." Paris, 1834. Fol. max.
&c.

[70] "De l'Art en Allemagne," tome ii. page 153. Paris, 1842.

[71] See casts from his bronze doors and columns in the Crystal Palace,
and his Three Gospels in the treasury of the Cathedral at Hildesheim.
In Dr. F. H. Müller's "Beiträge zur teutschen Kunst und
Geschichtskunde," very careful engravings of the plastic art of
Bernward and Willigis may be compared with facsimiles of contemporary
German illumination.

[72] The steps of the transition are also well indicated, and illustrated
by reference to special MSS. in Kugler's "Kunstgeschichte," in his
article on the "Nord., vornehml. Deutsche Malerei der Roman.
Periode."

[73] The subject is one that I am unable to find has been treated with any
great ability. The reader may, however, be referred to the following
old Spanish works on the subject:--Andres Merino de Jesu-Cristo,
"Escuela Palæographica, ó de leer Letras universas, antiguas y
modernas, desde la entrada de los Godos en España" (Madrid, 1780, in
fol. fig.);--Estev. de Terreros, "Palæographia Española, que contiene
todos los modos conocidos, que ha habido de escribir en España, desde
su principio y fundación" (Madrid, Ibarra, 1758, in 4to. fig.); and
Rodriguez-Christ., "Bibliotheca Universal de la Polygraphia Española"
(Madrid, 1738, fol. fig.).

[74] That art which is called "illumination" in Paris.

[75] "Lettere Sanese," tom. i. p. 278.

[76] The well-known passage in which Dante alludes to Oderigi occurs in
the eleventh canto of the "Paradiso," and is as follows:--

"Oh, dissi lui, non se' tu Oderisi,
L' onor d' Agubbio, e l' onor di quell' arte
Che alluminar è chiamata a Parisi?
Frate, diss' egli, più ridon le carte
Che pennelegia Franco Bolognese:
L' onor è tutto or suo, e mio in parte.
Ben non sarei stato si cortese
Mentre ch' io vissi per lo gran disio
Dell' excellentia, ove mio cor intese.
Di tal superbia qui si paga il fio."

[77] Vita di Giotto.

[78] "Storia Pittorica," vol xi. p. 13, ed. Pisa, 1815; and vol. v. pp. 8,
9, 10.

[79] Lanzi speaks of these choral books as "De' più considerabili che
abbia l'Italia."

[80] The Kensington Museum possesses two splendid leaves from a great
"Chorale," which contain miniatures completely in the manner of Fra
Angelico.

[81] The Duke of Hamilton possesses some beautiful MSS. illuminated by, or
in the manner of Memmi. Mr. Layard is the fortunate owner of one leaf
of surpassing grandeur and elevation of style.

[82] The style, if not the hand, of Taddeo Bartolo, another of the great
early masters of the Siennese school, may be distinctly traced in
several existing miniatures.

[83] "Poetry of Christian Art," p. 140.

[84] "Ornò i libri corali di figure nobillissime."--Cittadella, "Catalogo
dei Pittori e Scultori Ferraresi," vol. i. pp. 1-27.

[85] Rio. It must be a matter of delight to all lovers of true art that
that most useful society, the "Arundel," has been of late turning its
attention to the production, by means of chromo-lithography, of some
of the finest examples extant of Italian quattro and cinque-cento
illumination.

[86] A small volume, which passed from the hands of the late Mr.
Dennistoun into the collection of Lord Ashburnham, contains a series
of arabesques and miniatures of the most interesting character,
recalling in different pages, and in the highest perfection, the
varied styles of Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Lo Spagna, and
others. The Duke of Hamilton's library is extraordinarily rich in
Italian MSS.; his Grace's Dante with outline illustrations being of
great importance.

[87] _See_ Mr. Shaw's truly beautiful reproduction, in that gentleman's
"Illuminated Ornaments," &c., of a portion of Arabesque border from
this volume, containing a medallion portrait, Plate XXXV. A very
beautiful Sforza MS. has lately been transferred from the possession
of Mr. Henry Farrer to that of the Marquis D'Azeglio.

[88] That Andrea exercised a great influence upon miniature-painting may
be recognized in the works of Girolamo: a grand leaf from a folio, on
which is painted a seated allegorical figure of "Rome," in the
possession of Mr. T. Whitehead, is so noble in every way, and so
entirely in Andrea's manner, that it seems almost impossible to doubt
its being by his hand. It may, however, possibly have been executed
by his contemporary in the Mantuan school, "Giovanni dei Russi," who
in 1455 illuminated the great Bible of the house of Este, for Borso,
Duke of Modena.

[89] "Vita di Fra Giocondo e di Liberale, e d'altri Veronesi."

[90] The Celotti sale, which took place at Christie's on the 26th of May,
1825, and which included by far the most important collection of
Italian illuminations ever brought to the hammer, contained no less
than nineteen beautiful specimens extracted from the choral books of
that pope.

[91] _See_ Baglioni, "Vite dei Pittori ed Architetti fioriti in Roma, dal
1572 sino al 1642,"--Vita di Giulio Clovio.

[92] Facsimiles of the exquisite pages of this volume are given in Mr.
Noel Humphrey's work; they are perfect triumphs of chromolithographic
skill, and their production by Mr. Owen Jones formed what Germans may
hereafter call a "standpunkt" in the history of that art, of which
this volume presents no unfavourable sample.

[93] Grenville Collection.

[94] In his catalogue of the sale of the Celotti collection.

[95] The Kensington Museum possesses a beautiful specimen by this artist,
formerly in Mr. Ottley's collection. Two others of equal excellence
are treasured among other gems of art, by Mr. Ram, of Ramsfort,
Ireland. They all came from Celotti.

[96] Mr. Whitehead's small but choice collection of specimens includes one
quite worthy of the hand of Tintoretto.

[97] Mr. S. Leigh Sotheby, in his admirable "Principia typographica," Dr.
Dibdin in his "Bibliotheca Spenceriana," and the Baron de Heinecken
in his "Idée générale d'une Collection complète d'Estampes, &c.,"
give the best literary and graphic illustrations of the block books
of the middle ages.

[98] Our good fortune in possessing at the present time, and in common
use, a remarkably clear and easily intelligible set of alphabets, was
thus admirably noted in an article in the _Times_ newspaper of
December 28th, 1859:--

"Happily for us, the written symbols employed by the Romans, which
are now the chief medium of expression for all the languages of
Europe, America, Australia, and the greater part of civilized Africa,
reflect exactly the rough and stalwart energy which made Rome to
Europe what we are to the world. They have bestowed on us an alphabet
as practically effective, and as suited to the capabilities of human
vision, as any that could have been devised. This alphabet of ours is
like an Englishman's dress--plain and manageable; not very
artistically arranged, it may be, nor remarkable for copiousness or
flow of outline, but sufficiently elastic and capable of extension.
Its symbols have certainly no graceful curves like the picturesque
Persian; but, better than all flourishes, each letter has plain,
unmistakable features of its own. The vowels, which are to the rest
of the alphabet what the breath, or rather life itself, is to the
body, are assigned their legitimate position, and are formed to be
written continuously with the consonants. Lastly, though scanty in
itself, it is abundantly equipped with capital letters, stops,
italics, and every appliance for securing rapid legibility, so that
the eye can take in the subject of a page at a glance. Oriental
alphabets are the very reverse of all this. They are complex,
cumbersome, unmanageable." Much the same might have been said of many
of the mediæval ones.

[99] For excellent examples, see plates Technical Manual, Nos. 7 and 8;
and Historical Manual, Nos. 7 and 9.

[100] The best are contained in the writings of De Quincy, Owen Jones,
Winkellman, Pugin, and Sir Charles Eastlake.

[101] _See_ especially pages 24 to 28 inclusive, from which I transcribe a
few elegant and suggestive passages:--

"The student should keep," says Mr. Jewitt, "both in form and colour,
as near to Nature as possible. No fantastic design can be so elegant
as one copied and studied from Nature. What, for instance, can be
more beautiful or more appropriate for intertwining with rich
scroll-work than the convolvulus, the maurandia, the woodbine, the
tropeolum, or the passion-flower? These painted upon a rich
groundwork of diapered gold, or upon one of the beautiful grounds of
the 15th century, composed of gold and blue or green, in fine waved
or winding lines, crossing each other in every conceivable direction,
form truly elegant studies, for almost all varieties of
ornamentation. Whenever birds, insects, &c., are introduced, they
should, as a general rule, be drawn true to nature; but they may,
nevertheless, be turned and twisted into almost any position or
shape. For instance, a lizard, with its beautiful emerald-green back,
its yellow underparts, and rich brown mottlings, might be introduced
with its long tail wrapped and twisted round the stem of a plant, and
its little head, with brilliant eyes, shown just peeping out from
under one of the beautiful flowers. The ladybird, with its bright red
wings, covered with small black spots, might also be well introduced,
creeping upon a leaf or stem. Hairy caterpillars, ants, beetles,
snails, glow-worms, and even spiders, form also beautiful additions
to a design, and may be introduced in almost any form or shape.
Butterflies and moths, in their endless and beautiful variety, with
their wings of every conceivable colour and shade, and of the most
exquisite forms, are truly amongst the most beautiful and appropriate
objects which the student can have for his mind to dwell upon. But
not only these,--for occasionally a squirrel might be introduced
perched upon the scroll-work; a cat, a goat, a dog, a monkey peeping
out from behind a leaf; or, indeed, any animal, if artistically and
naturally treated, may be introduced with really good effect.
Flowers, fruits, shells, corn, &c., all add their beauties to a
design; and, indeed, there is nothing in nature, no, not one object,
but which may well be introduced into ornamental designing, and may
be so translated and poeticised as to become appropriate to any
subject."

[102] "Materials for a History of Oil-painting," by Charles Lock Eastlake:
London, 1847.

[103] The most copious text of Heraclius is contained in the Le Bègue
collection of writers on art, brought together by Master John Le
Bègue, of Paris, in the 15th century.

[104] Sir Charles Eastlake does not place Heraclius so early as Raspe and
Mr. Hendrie do. I incline to agree with the last-named critics.

[105] The text of Heraclius is given not from the Le Bègue manuscript, but
from one less perfect, formerly at Cambridge, but now in the British
Museum, Egerton 840 A, in Raspe's work--"A Critical Essay on
Oil-painting." London, 1781.

[106] Muratori, "Antiq. Ital. Medii Ævi," p. 269.

[107] The title he himself gives to his work illustrates its comprehensive
character--"Theophili qui et Rugerus, Presbyteri et Monachi Libri
III. de diversis Artibus, seu diversarum Artium Schedula."
Translations, with excellent critical comments, have been made by the
Count de l'Escalopier into French, and by Mr. Robert Hendrie into
English. In the extracts here given I have followed the accurate text
of the last-named gentleman.

[108] I cannot take leave of this good old monk, the influence exercised by
whose writings during the whole of the Middle Ages is proved by the
numerous transcripts of them executed at different periods, still
preserved in most of the chief European libraries, without giving him
credit for a pure and liberal philanthropy worthy of imitation in all
ages. Nothing can be more dignified and noble than the words in which
he concludes the introduction to his work. After reciting the various
arts he has endeavoured to illustrate, and the sufferings and labour
through which the knowledge he desires to convey to others had been
acquired by himself, he winds up by saying:--

"When you shall have re-read this often, and have committed it to
your tenacious memory, you shall thus recompense me for this care of
instruction, that, as often as you shall successfully have made use
of my work, you pray for me for the pity of omnipotent God, who knows
that I have written these things which are here arranged, neither
through love of human approbation, nor through desire of temporal
reward, nor have I stolen anything precious or rare through envious
jealousy, nor have I kept back anything reserved for myself alone;
but, in augmentation of the honour and glory of His name, I have
consulted the progress and hastened to aid the necessities of many
men."

[109] It will be found given in extenso in the 32nd vol. of "The
Archæologia," pp. 183-244, with an elaborate letter from its
possessor.

[110] There is some confusion about this word, for it is used to denote
mixtures which would produce real rose-colour, light warm yellow, and
a perfect drab.

[111] That is, the mineral green with the vegetable madder.

[112] A beautiful example may be found in Dan Lydgate's legends of St.
Edmund and St. Fremund, MS. Harleian, 2278.

[113] "Materials for a History of Oil-painting," by Charles Lock Eastlake
(Lond. 1847), pp. 127, 128.

[114] Mr. Edwin Jewitt's little "Manual of Illuminated and Missal
Painting," Mr. Randle Harrison's, Mr. Albert Warren's, and Mr. Henry
M. Lucien's, published by Messrs. Barnard, of Oxford-street; Mr. J.
W. Bradley's, and Mr. T. G. Goodwin's, published by Messrs. Winsor &
Newton, of Rathbone Place; and Mr. Noel Humphrey's hand-book on the
same subject, have no doubt proved useful to many, and helped to
produce the quantity of good illumination now executed.

[115] For illumination in water-colour on paper, cardboard, or vellum,
Messrs. Winsor & Newton, Rowney, Barnard, Newman, and others, fit up
boxes with special selections of all requisite materials; including
all that can be wanted for the application and burnishing of gold and
other metals. Messrs. Miller's "Glass Mediums, Nos. 1 and 2," and
Newman's "Preparation for sizing albumenized papers," are exceedingly
useful for mixing with illuminating colours; giving great hardness
and body to them, and preventing them from "washing up," in working
over with glazing and other tints. I have found Mr. Barbe's powder
body-colours give remarkably solid tints, with great freedom in
working.

[116] This had better be bought ready prepared, since some experience is
requisite in so applying the red chalk as to prevent its depositing
under the weight of the hand, and yet coming off sufficiently in the
line traced by the point.

[117] The experienced illuminator will generally do his writing before he
gets in the outline of his ornament, and he will frequently dispense
with the transferring process altogether; but it would be by no means
safe for a beginner to do so.

[118] Both the cushion and tip will be described in detail under the head
of Oil-gilding.

[119] The amateur may of course prepare mordants of different degrees of
tenacity and body for his own use, by the employment, and various
combinations, of leather and parchment size, isinglass, red lead, gum
arabic, sugar, honey, glycerine, borax, plaster of Paris, bol
ammoniac, glaire, and similar substances; but his time will be more
profitably spent in improving himself in design than it could be
(nowadays) in experimenting on the "materia technica" of art.

[120] This information is principally derived from Nathaniel Whittock's
"Decorative Painter's and Glazier's Guide." It gives the usual
practice of "Writers to the trade," but must, of course, be modified
according to the specialities of any of the historical styles
adopted.

[121] Japanners' gilding is a branch of oil-gilding, the size or ground
being made with 1 pound of linseed oil, to which, while boiling, is
added gradually 4 ounces of gum animi in powder, the whole being
stirred until the gum is completely dissolved, and kept boiling till
the mixture is of a thick consistence, in which state it should be
strained through a thick flannel, and stored in a wide-mouthed
stoppered bottle. Vermilion is ground up with the size before it is
applied, to render it opaque; and if it does not leave the brush
freely, it should be thinned with oil of turpentine.

The gold powder may be either real gold, or what is called Dutch
metal, or imitation gold. Gold powder is produced by grinding the
leaf gold with pure honey on the stone till it is perfectly reduced
to powder, and afterwards dissolving the mixture in water till the
honey is completely removed, and for this several waters are
necessary; the water is then poured off, and the powder dried. If
this gold be mixed up with weak gum-water and spread upon
cockle-shells, it is then called shell gold, which is used in
drawings only.

The Dutch gold powder is made by reducing the Dutch leaf gold by
exactly the same process; and if well protected by varnishing, its
appearance is little inferior to the genuine metal. There is another
method of procuring gold powder, which is by precipitating grain gold
into powder by means of aqua regia, which is made by dissolving four
parts of pure spirit of nitre and one part of sal ammoniac in powder.
This process was (as has been already stated) well known to the
mediæval illuminators. In 4 ounces of this compound, ½ an ounce of
grain gold is dissolved under the action of a slight heat; a solution
of green vitriol, consisting of copperas 1 dram, water 1 ounce, being
gradually added. When the precipitation has ceased, the gold powder
must be carefully washed and dried, and will be found to be more
brilliant than that made from leaf gold. The use of japanners'
gold-size is very similar to oil-gilding, and is equally simple. If
the material to be gilded is brought to a smooth and clean face, the
size may be laid on at once without other preparation; using great
care, however, not to touch any part but what you wish to gild, as
the gold will adhere wherever there is size. Priming with a mixture
of chalk and size is sometimes used for a first coat, but not by the
best japanners, as the work is liable to chip off; no material should
therefore be japanned which cannot be made smooth. For hard or
close-grained wood, metal, leather, or paper, one or two coats of
varnish will answer all requirements; very great care being observed
that each coat of varnish be perfectly dry and hard before it is
again touched. It is a good practice to allow the work to stand a day
or two between the applications; then the japanners' gold-size may be
added, and touching with the finger as before described will indicate
the proper state for applying the gold, whether in leaf or powder.
Either may be employed; but in the case of colours being intermixed
and subsequently varnished, the powder is usually adopted; it is
easily laid on by means of a camel-hair brush, the work being set
aside to get thoroughly dry, when the superfluous metal is removed
with a soft brush. In case more size should have been prepared than
is needed, the remainder, if water be poured over it, will keep for
future use.

[122] The superiority of the Chinese and Japanese varnishing is chiefly
owing to the excellence of a particular species of resin found in
China and Japan. The varnishes made with oil are longer drying than
those made with spirits of wine, but are of greater durability. The
spirits of wine should be highly rectified: if oil is used, it should
be linseed. It is safer to purchase the varnish ready prepared than
to attempt the making of it, as the solution of resin, particularly
in oil, is somewhat dangerous.