Chapter XIV (3)

_Mediterranean Sea_,
control of, influence on Second Punic war, 14-21;
strategic points in, 13, 20, 22, 23, 32, 62, 63, 82, 141, 142, 202,
203, 215, 220, 285, 298, 327, 328, 335, 393, 515;
advantage of strategic study of, 33;
analogy to Caribbean Sea, 33;
increase of English power in, 206, 210, 212, 215, 219, 220, 229,
235, 239, 263, 322, 327, 328;
Austria established in, 239;
Sardinia given to House of Savoy, 239;
foundation of Bourbon Kingdom of Two Sicilies, 248,
strengthens France in, 249;
English navy in, 193, 206, 208, 210-216, 263-268, 286-291, 296, 298,
412, 515, 532, 533;
France acquires Corsica, 334, 335;
England loses Minorca in American Revolution, 409, 540.

_Monk_, British General and Admiral,
saying about Dutch trade, 107;
commands English fleet in the Four Days' Battle, 117-126;
tactics of, 121, 124;
merits of, 126;
opposition to laying up the heavy ships, 131;
death, 127.

_Morogues_, Bigot de,
work on Naval Tactics, 10, 77, 288.

_Napoleon I._,
recommends study of military history, 2;
Egyptian expedition, 10, 107;
Trafalgar campaign, 11, 12, 23, 24 (note), 119, 532, 533;
favorite objective, 47;
naval policy, 81, 506;
influence of French navy on American privateering in 1812, 137.

_Naval Policy_,
value of reserve force, 48;
colonial, 56,
in peace, 82;
in war, 82;
soldiers commanding ships, 127;
commerce-destroying and privateering (see Commerce-destroying)
Bourbon Family compact, 248, 313;
significance of the wars from 1739 to 1783, 254;
Dutch, 67-69, 95-99, 108, 109, 126, 174, 201-204, 217, 218, 222, 406;
English, 59-67, 78, 100, 101, 105, 107, 131, 140, 143, 174, 175,
192-196, 201-204, 206, 224, 225, 229, 238-241, 244, 245, 264, 293,
326-328, 406, 417, 442, 451, 452, 505, 540;
French, 29, 54, 69-81, 93, 104, 105-107, 166, 167-170, 177, 187,
197, 199, 212, 226, 238, 242-244, 252, 282, 287-290, 291, 309, 311,
322, 331-334, 337, 340, 359, 382, 408 (and note), 451, 452, 459,
460, 506, 510, 511;
maritime inscription, 45;
Leibnitz's proposition to Louis XIV., 141, 142;
Italian, 39, 40;
Spanish, 41, 51, 94, 156, 246, 312, 333, 348, 401, 407, 510, 517
(note), 535, 536;
United States, 26, 33, 34, 38, 39, 42, 49, 83-88, 325, 326, 539, 540
(note).

_Naval Tactics_,
unsettled condition of modern, 2;
qualities of galleys, steamers, and sailing-ships, 3-5;
windward and leeward positions, 6,
change of, from age to age, 9, 10, 22, 130, 506;
fireships, 109, 110, 113, 114;
torpedo-cruisers, 111;
group formation, 112;
close-hauled line-of-battle, 115;
breaking the line, 124, 147, 265, 268, 286, 380, 381, 488, 491;
refusing the van, 148, 152, 157, 183, 190, 266, 432, 434;
concentration by defiling, 308, 387, 470, 492;
concentration by doubling, 125, 147, 183, 272, 378, 379, 432, 433,
438-441;
general chase with _mêlée_, 3, 4, 184, 237, 271, 299, 302, 303,
367-369, 404, 481, 482, 486;
French, in eighteenth century, 79, 80, 114, 163, 164, 287-290, 338,
340, 351, 372, 383, 425, 426, 431, 474 (and note), 476, 478, 482,
483, 486-488, 494, 538;
English, in eighteenth century, 127-129, 163, 211, 237, 265, 268,
271, 286, 287, 299, 303, 307, 350, 352, 369, 377-381, 386, 389,
391, 404, 412, 442, 447, 449, 453-455, 462, 463, 470-473, 476 (and
note), 486-490;
Monk's, 121;
Ruyter's, 145, 147, 148, 152, 154, 157, 161;
Duquesne's, 161-163, 165;
Herbert's, 182;
Tourville's, 182, 184, 185, 187, 189;
Rooke's, 211;
Byng's, 286;
Hawke's, 271, 272, 303;
Keppel's and D'Orvilliers, 351;
Barrington's, 366;
Byron's, 367-369;
D'Estaing's, 369, 370;
Rodney's, 377-379, 404, 488, 491;
De Grasse's, 383, 389, 471-474, 481-483, 485-489;
Arbuthnot and Destouches's, 386;
Graves's, 389, 391;
Suffren's, 425, 426, 432, 433, 439, 455, 465;
Hood's, 472, 473;
Clerk's work on, 77, 163, 211;
Hoste's work on, 77;
Morogues' work on, 77;
position of commander-in-chief in battle, 353-358;
effect on, of changes in naval material, 2-5, 9, 10, 22, 109, 116,
384 (note), 386 (note), 493-495.

_Navies_, condition of:
_British_, under Cromwell, 62;
under Charles II., 61, 101;
character of vessels, 1660, 101;
qualities of officers, 1660, 126-129;
decline of, under Charles II., 174;
improvement of, by James II., 175;
numbers in 1691, 187;
deterioration under William III., 192;
improvement under Anne, 209, 220, 224, 225, 229;
numbers and condition of, in 1727, 1734, and 1744, 259, 260;
inefficiency of officers, 1744, 265-269;
numbers of, 1756-1763, 291;
numbers of, in 1778, 337, 341;
professional skill of officers in American Revolution, 379 (and
note), 401, 412, 449, 456, 497;
administration of, 417, 452, 523, 527.

_Dutch_, prior to 1660, 68, 98, 99;
character of ships, 102;
professional qualities of officers, 109, 126, 127, 129, 157;
Duquesne's estimate of Dutch officers, 129;
decline of, after 1675, 160, 174;
decline of, during War of Spanish Succession, 221, 222;
practical disappearance of, after 1713, 222.

_French_, 53;
numbers in 1661, 70;
numbers in 1666, 72;
numbers, 1683-1690, 72, 178, 179, 180;
administration of, 1660-1695, 72;
condition of, at end of Louis XIV.'s reign, 74, 191;
character of vessels in 1660, 101,
professional qualities of officers in seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, 129, 161, 170-172, 185;
decay in number and condition, 1713-1760, 74-76, 209, 216, 244,
252, 259, 260, 279, 280, 288, 291, 311, 312;
revival of, 1760, 76-78, 331;
numbers of, in 1761 and 1770, 331;
discipline during war of 1778, 332, 333;
numbers in 1778, 45, 337;
superior to British in size and batteries of ships, 338, 493, 494;
professional skill of officers, 365, 412, 435, 436, 447, 457, 484,
497, 527, 536 (note);
administration of, 402 (and note), 403, 452, 536, 537;
numbers of, in 1791, 338;
numbers of, in 1814, 81.

_Spanish_, condition of, anterior to 1660, 41, 50, 94, 95;
in 1675, 160, 165;
restoration by Alberoni, 234;
destruction of ships at Cape Passaro and of dock-yards, 237, 238;
numbers of, 1747, 259;
numbers of, 1756, 291;
numbers of, in 1761, 331;
numbers of, in 1779, 337;
superior to British in size and batteries of ships, 338;
administration of, 402 (and note), 403, 536;
character of the personnel, 527.

_Nelson_, Horatio, afterward Lord, British Admiral,
tactics at the battle of the Nile, 10;
Trafalgar campaign, 11, 23 (note), 527, 532, 533;
tactics at Trafalgar, 12, 354, 459;
enforces Navigation Act, 60, 251;
orders at Trafalgar, 112, 434;
at battle of Cape St. Vincent, 157, 355, 368;
celebrated sayings of, 185, 362, 435, 525, 527, 532;
attachment of subordinates to, 267;
position assumed by him in battle, 353-358.

_Nile_, Battle of the,
tactical principles, 10;
strategic effect, 11;
French rear at, 80;
Nelson at, 358.

_Opdam_, Dutch Admiral,
commands at battle of Lowestoft and is killed, 108, 109.

_Orleans_, Philippe d',
Regent of France during minority of Louis XV., 74, 232;
insecurity of position, 232;
concessions to England, 233;
policy of, 235;
alliance with England against Spain, 235-238;
death, 241.

_Peace_:
_Aix-la-Chapelle_, 1748, 277.
_Breda_, 1667, 132.
_Nimeguen_, 1678, 168.
_Nystadt_, 1721, 240.
_Paris_, 1763, 321.
_Ryswick_, 1697, 197.
_Utrecht_, 1713, 219.
_Versailles_, 1783, 541.

_Philip_, Duke of Anjou, afterward Philip V. of Spain,
Spanish throne bequeathed to, 202;
war declared against, by England, Holland, and Germany, 205;
loses Gibraltar, 210;
besieges Gibraltar, 212;
loses Barcelona and Catalonia, 213;
driven from Madrid, 214;
recovers all Spain, except Catalonia, 214;
acknowledged King of Spain by Treaty of Utrecht, 219;
deprived of Netherlands and Italian dependencies, 219;
enmity to the regent Orleans, 232;
seizes Sardinia, 235;
attacks Sicily, 236;
brought to terms by France and the Sea Powers, 239;
makes alliance with the Emperor Charles VI., 244;
attacks Gibraltar, 245.

_Physical Conformation_,
its effect upon the sea power of countries, 35-42.

_Pitt_, William,
dislike of George II. to, 270;
becomes prime minister, 293;
policy of, 295, 296;
prosperity of commerce under, 297;
offers to restore Gibraltar to Spain, 298;
respect for Portuguese neutrality, 299, 300;
declines mediation of Spain, 304;
waning of his influence, 305;
purposes war against Spain, 313;
resigns his office, 313;
his plans adopted by successors, 314, 317;
opposes the peace of Paris, 322;
effect of his policy on the history of England, 326.

_Pocock_, British Admiral,
commands British fleet in India and fights three battles with French
fleet, 307-310;
commands fleet in combined expedition against Havana, 314, 315.

_Port Mahon_ and Minorca,
lost to Spain frequently through maritime weakness, 42, 215, 541;
ceded to England in 1713, 62, 219;
strategic importance of, 62, 220, 393, 515;
French expedition against, 285;
Byng defeated in his attempt to relieve, 286-288;
surrender of, to France, 291;
Pitt's offer to exchange Gibraltar for, 298;
restored to England at peace of 1763, 322;
taken from England in 1782, 407, 409;
ceded to Spain in 1783, 540;
again taken by England, 541.

_Portugal_,
decay in sea power and wealth, 52;
cedes Bombay and Tangiers to England, 104;
dependence on England, 105, 208, 315, 320, 321;
Methuen treaty, 206;
alliance with England and Holland, 1704, 208;
advantage of, to England, 208, 213-215, 220, 228;
French and Spaniards invade, 315, 316, 321;
England repels the invasion, 316;
benevolent neutrality of colonial ports to England, 520, 521.

_Ramatuelle_,
work on Naval Tactics, 287, 290, 371-374.

_Rhode Island_,
occupied by the English in the American Revolution, 346;
attack upon by French and Americans, 361-364;
English evacuate, 376, 530;
French occupy, 382, 394;
French position in, 394;
strategic value of, 519, 529, 530 (note).

_Richelieu_, Cardinal,
policy of, 59, 70, 92, 93;
alliance with Spain, 94.

_Rochambeau_, French General,
arrival in America, 382;
despatches to De Grasse, 384, 388;
consultation with Washington, 387, 399;
marches against Cornwallis, 389.

_Rodney_, Sir George B., afterward Lord, British Admiral,
commands squadron in reduction of Martinique, 314;
commander-in-chief in West Indies, 377;
takes or disperses a Spanish squadron, 377, 404, 500 (and note);
personal and military character, 377, 378, 380, 397, 498-500;
actions with De Guichen, 378-381;
divides his fleet and goes to New York, 382;
seizes Dutch West India islands, 382;
sends Hood with fourteen ships to New York, and returns to England, 389;
returns to West Indies, 479;
sails in chase of De Grasse, 480;
action of April 9, 1782, 481-483;
battle of April 12, 1782, 485-490;
criticism upon his tactics, 490-493;
criticism upon his failure to pursue the beaten enemy, 496, 497;
his successes, 500;
rewards and death, 503;
opinion as to evacuation of Rhode Island, 530 (note).

_Rooke_, Sir George, British Admiral,
relieves Londonderry, 180;
burns French ships at Cape La Hougue, 190;
unsuccessful expedition against Cadiz, 207;
destroys the galleons at Vigo Bay, 207;
takes Gibraltar, 210;
commands at the battle of Malaga, 211.

_Rupert_, Prince,
at Four Days' Battle, 124, 125;
commands English fleet at battles of Schoneveldt and of the Texel,
151, 152.

_Russell_, British Admiral,
commands allied English and Dutch fleets in 1691, 187;
at battle of La Hougue, 189.

_Ruyter_, Dutch Admiral,
greatest naval officer of seventeenth century, 117;
commands at battle of the Four Days, 117-126;
badly supported by his officers, 122, 126, 127;
tactics of, 130, 144-148, 152, 157, 161, 164;
destroys English shipping in the Thames, 132;
strategy of, 144, 151, 152;
commands at the battles of Solebay, 146,
Schoneveldt, 152,
Texel, 152-154;
military character, 157;
sent to Mediterranean with inadequate force, 160;
commands at battle of Stromboli, 160-162;
killed at battle of Agosta, 166.

_Sea Power_,
a history of conflicts, 1;
elements of, 25.
Affected by geographical position of countries, 29-35;
by physical conformation, 35-42;
by extent of territory, 42-44;
by number of population, 44-50;
by national character, 50-58;
by policy of government, 58.
Policy of England as to, 58-67;
policy of Holland, 67-69;
of France, 69-81.
Influence of colonies on, 82 (see also Colonies);
weakness of the United States in, 83;
dependent upon commerce, 87, 225 (see also Commerce);
strategic bearing, 88 (see also Strategy);
policy of Richelieu, 93;
Spanish, in 1660, 94;
Dutch, in 1660, 95;
English, in 1860, 101;
mistakes of Louis XIV., 104;
Colbert's measures, 70, 105;
effects of commerce-destroying on, 132, 179, 193, 229, 317, 344, 400,
408 (note), 539.
(See also Commerce-destroying.)
Influence of, upon Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, 10;
upon Second Punic War, 14;
upon Third Anglo-Dutch War, 148, 154;
upon English Revolution, 177, 178, 180, 181, 191, 197;
upon France, 198, 199;
upon War of Spanish Succession, 203, 206, 209, 213, 214, 223-229;
upon Alberoni's ambitions, 237, 239;
upon Peter the Great, 239;
in India, 243, 258, 273-278, 306, 309, 310, 316, 328, 349, 424, 428,
445, 452, 459-464, 466, 513, 520, 521;
upon War of Austrian Succession, 263, 264, 279, 280;
upon Seven Years' War, 291, 293-295, 304, 311, 314-317;
upon Portugal, 320, 321;
at Peace of Paris, 321;
in remote and disordered countries, 324-326;
upon British policy since 1763, 326-328.
Washington's opinions as to, 397-400;
American Revolution, 347, 468;
influence of, upon conditions of peace, 1783, 498.

_Spain_,
geographical position, 32;
results of maritime weakness of, 41, 42, 193, 313-317, 327, 345,
346, 541;
dependence of finances upon treasure-ships, 41, 244, 313, 346, 539;
effect of national character upon sea power, 50-52, 54;
unity of aim with Austria, 91, 92;
policy of Richelieu toward, 93;
condition of, in 1660, 94, 95;
condition of navy, in 1660, 94;
aggressions of Louis XIV. on, 104, 139;
failure of the Austrian line of kings, 140, 201, 202;
alliance with Holland and Germany against France, 158;
revolt of Sicily against, 159;
territory lost at Peace of Nimeguen, 168;
joins League of Augsburg, 176;
dependence upon Dutch and English fleets, 193;
possessions in year 1700, 201;
throne of, bequeathed to Philip, Duke of Anjou, 202;
war of the succession, 201-231;
Bourbon line of kings established, 219;
losses of territory at peace of 1713, 219;
Alberoni's ministry in, 233-239;
grievances against England, 1720-1739, 240, 241, 244-251;
conquers the Two Sicilies in War of Polish Succession, 248;
Family Compact with France, 248, 311, 313;
war with England, 250;
possessions in 1739, 256;
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 278;
lack of results from war with England, 278;
enters Seven Years' War as the ally of France against England, 313;
loss of colonies and treasures, 314-317;
loss of possessions by Peace of Paris, 1763, 321, 322;
political relations with France, 333;
dispute with England over Falkland Islands, 335;
objects in the war of 1779-1782, 347, 348, 509, 510, 513;
rupture with England and alliance with France, 401;
inefficiency of navy, 402 (and note), 407-409, 411, 412, 506, 527;
policy in war of 1779, 517 (note), 535-538;
territorial gains by peace of 1783.
(See also Colonies, Commerce, Naval Policy.)

_Sta. Lucia_, West India Island,
taken by English, 314;
ceded to France at Peace of Paris, 321;
strong harbor and strategic position, 348, 366, 377, 393, 415, 513,
516, 518, 523;
taken by Admiral Barrington, 348, 365, 366, 512, 531 (note);
Rodney watches De Grasse from, 479, 480;
an advanced strategic position, 518, 528;
restored to France at peace of 1783, 540.

_Strategy_,
permanence of its principles, 7-9, 88, 89;
illustrations, 10-22;
definition of naval, 22;
Trafalgar campaign, 23 (note);
bearing of geographical position on, 29-33;
Mediterranean and Caribbean Seas, 33-35;
bearing of physical conformation of coast on, 35-42;
blockade of coast of Confederate States, 43, 44;
value of commerce-destroying (see Commerce-destroying);
word "defence" two distinct ideas, 87 (note);
naval, of the British, 6, 9, 22, 24, 30, 118, 125, 136, 143, 182,
206, 208, 210, 212, 224, 229, 239, 260, 269, 284, 285, 296,
314-317, 320, 326-328, 339, 342, 343, 363, 375, 376, 385, 390-397,
412-417, 428-430, 468, 523-535;
naval, of the Dutch, 144, 145, 151, 154;
naval, of the French, 6, 12, 23 (note), 179-181, 191, 347, 371-374,
383, 388, 392, 401, 433, 459, 460, 476, 483, 535-539;
features of War of Spanish Succession, 201-206;
silent action of sea power, 209;
general military situation, in 1740, 255;
England in Seven Years' War, 296;
mutual dependence of seaports and fleets, 31, 83, 132, 212, 329,
430, 453, 529;
value of colonies, 27, 28, 65, 83, 135, 136, 510, 511;
importance of coal, 31, 329 (note), 540 (note);
military situation in America in 1777, 341-343;
general strategic situation in 1778, 347-349;
British difficulties in American Revolution, 392-397, 412-419, 522-533;
Suffren's naval, 424, 425, 433, 450, 465;
situation in India, 349, 428-430;
Hood's naval, 476;
Rodney's naval, 381, 392, 496-498, 523;
influence of trade-winds and monsoons, 315, 458, 517, 518;
elements essential to all naval wars, 514;
difficulty of procuring information at sea, 521;
general discussion of war of 1778, 505-540.
(See also Naval Policy and Sea Power.)

_Suffren_, French Admiral,
criticism on D'Estaing's conduct at Sta. Lucia, 366, 426, 478;
commands leading French ship in D'Estaing's battle off Grenada, 371;
criticism on D'Estaing's conduct in the battle, 371;
sails from Brest in company with De Grasse's fleet, 383, 421;
parts company, off the Azores, for India, 383, 407, 421;
orders to secure Cape of Good Hope, 421;
action, with British squadron at the Cape Verde Islands, 422, 423;
military discussion of his conduct, 423-425;
arrival in India, 427;
lack of seaports on which to base operations, 349, 429;
first battle with squadron of Sir Edward Hughes, 430-432;
tactics in the action, 432-435;
estimate of the strategic situation in India, 424, 433, 444, 445,
464, 466;
second battle with Hughes, 437-439;
tactics in it, 439-441;
strategic action, 443, 445, 446, 450-453, 458-460, 462-464, 466, 522;
military character, 445, 446, 450, 456, 465, 466;
third battle with Hughes, 446-448;
takes Trincomalee, 450;
activity of, 450, 451, 456, 462, 466;
fourth battle with Hughes, 453-456;
wreck of two of squadron, 457;
goes to Sumatra, 460;
returns to Trincomalee, 461;
relieves Cuddalore besieged by the English, 462;
fifth battle with Hughes, 463;
conclusion of peace, 464;
return to France, 465;
rewards, 465;
later career and death, 466.

_Tourville_, French Admiral,
commands at the battle of Beachy Head, 181;
sluggish pursuit of the enemy, 184;
military character, 185;
celebrated cruise in 1691, 187;
commands at battle of La Hougue, 189;
tactics and brilliant defence at La Hougue, 190;
destruction of French ships, 190;
supports the army in Catalonia, 193;
destroys or disperses a great English convoy, 194;
death, 210.

_Trafalgar_, Battle of,
final act of a strategic combination, 11, 23 (note);
tactics at, 12, 354, 459;
effects of, 47;
Nelson's position at, 353, 357;
Collingwood's action after Nelson's death, 358.

_Trincomalee_,
in Ceylon, Dutch influence in, 97;
passes into the hands of the English, 349, 428;
effect upon the contest in India, 349, 427 (note), 429, 430 (note),
433, 437, 442, 451, 453, 458, 462;
strategic value of, 428, 429, 436, 444, 451, 458, 518, 519, 520;
taken by Suffren, 450;
restored to Holland at peace of 1783, 540.

_Two Sicilies_, the,
acquired by Austria, 239;
foundation of Bourbon Kingdom of, 248;
forced by British fleet to withdraw troops from Spanish army, 264, 304.

_United Provinces._ See Holland.

_Vernon_, British Admiral,
takes Porto Bello, is repulsed from Cartagena and Santiago de Cuba, 261.

_Villeneuve_, French Admiral, Trafalgar,
campaign, 23, 24 (note), 525;
at the battle of the Nile, 80;
suicide, 403.

_Walpole_, Sir Robert,
prime minister of England, 239, 241;
peace policy of, 241, 243, 244;
naval demonstrations, 244;
struggle with the war party in England, 247, 249, 250;
neutrality causes Austria to lose the two Sicilies, 248;
forced into war with Spain, 250;
accord with Fleuri, 241, 243, 244;
confidence betrayed by Fleuri, 248;
driven from office, 253, 262;
death, 253.

_War_, Second Punic,
influence of sea power upon, 13-21.

_Wars_,
American Revolution, 341--397;
Anglo-Dutch, second, 107-132;
Anglo-Dutch, third, England in alliance with France, 144-158;
Austrian Succession, 262-277;
France against Holland, Germany, and Spain, 1674-1678, 158-168;
Great Britain against Spain, 250-277;
League of Augsburg, 176-197;
Maritime war of 1778, 350-540;
Polish Succession, 247;
Russia and Sweden, 231;
Seven Years', 291-321;
Spanish Succession, 1702-1713, 205-218.

_Washington_, George,
at Pittsburg and in Braddock's expedition, 284;
opinion as to the line of the Hudson, 342 (note);
comments on D'Estaing's cruise, 364 (note);
despatches to De Grasse, 384;
meeting with Rochambeau, 387;
result of their deliberations, 388;
marches from New York to Virginia, 389;
opinions as to the influence of sea power on the American Revolution,
397-400.

_William III._,
naval policy of, 68, 192;
becomes ruler of Holland, 150;
general policy, 68, 167, 168, 174, 176, 177, 191, 202-204, 207;
expedition to England, 178;
becomes King of England, 61, 178;
difficulties of his position, 179;
goes to Ireland, 181;
wins the battle of the Boyne, 188;
dies, 205.

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