Chapter IX: Part III: Studies of Great Authors (4)

As he grew older his religious views, formerly rather narrow, became broader, in common with the progress of the times, yet he laid more and more stress on the need of upright and godly character in all who have any purpose of attempting good work.

His later volumes, then, are filled with this moral teaching and also take up the errors of the social conditions of the period. Old age pensions, state education, radical improvements in the houses and home life of the common people were among the needs which he saw, now accomplished, but then regarded as rampant and foolish socialism.

In his style, as in his theories, there is a tendency to exaggerate, a fault that is common among reformers, as in the cases of Dickens and Carlyle. But the lofty ideals which he maintained and the grace and power of his style far more than atone for the occasional error of overstatement. In "Præterita," a brilliant autobiographical fragment, he accounts for the rare clarity and beauty of his style, for it was his custom for many years during his childhood and youth to read the Bible through aloud to his mother every year in daily selections. The simplicity and majesty of the Biblical language left its impress on his own prose.

His economic theories have not been adopted in England or elsewhere, but he himself lived up to them and spent his whole fortune in the philanthropic endeavor to put his plans for the betterment of the working classes into operation. In spite of the fact that his fortune was great and that he received as much as $20,000 a year royalty from the sale of his works in his latter days, his property at the time of his death was inconsiderable.

THE MAN

1. What was Ruskin's education; his position in the world?

2. In what two rôles did he appear?

3. What cardinal doctrine did he preach?

4. What extraneous elements did he attempt to read into art?

5. At what university was he successively student and professor?

6. Was he merely a theorist in the matter of public reform?

7. Did he justify his economic teaching in his own conduct?

STYLE AND WORKS

1. Which of his works treats of the effect of human traits upon
architecture?

2. Name four works treating of Italian art specifically.

3. In what work does he seek to demonstrate the superiority of
modern over classical painters?

4. Had Ruskin any practical knowledge of the technique of art?

5. Which of his works is autobiographical?

6. Where did he get the inspiration for his style?

7. How, then, can his style be called original?

8. Is his style clear; logical; powerful? Why?

FROM "THE STONES OF VENICE"

1. What two orders of architecture are fundamental?

2. From what country are they primarily derived?

3. What is the distinguishing character of each?

4. How did Christianity affect architecture?

5. When the progress of advancement in architecture was losing
its vitality with the Romans, who took up their work?

6. What two nations played the most important part?

7. Describe the effects of each upon the older forms of
architecture.

8. Why is Venice the best place to study the different forms of
architecture?

"THE LAMP OF TRUTH"

1. Is falsity permissible under any circumstances?

2. Upon what does the pardonableness of a fault depend?

3. Which temptation is the harder to resist, that to tell a
"little lie," or a great one?

4. Is all imagination or fiction reprehensible as being
untruthful?

5. How may truth be violated in Architecture?

6. What three forms does architectural deceit take?

7. Give examples of each.

8. Why are machine work and cast work bad?

9. Concrete was unknown in Ruskin's day; what are its faults and
its values?

10. Explain the decay and deterioration of Gothic tracery.

FOR REFERENCE

"Life of John Ruskin."--COLLINGWOOD.

"Ruskin and his Circle."--EARLAND.

"Studies in Ruskin."--COOK.

"Witnesses of the Light."--GLADDEN.

"Essays in Biography and Criticism."--BAYNE.

"Literary Leaders of Modern England."--DAWSON.

"John Ruskin" ("English Men of Letters").--HARRISON.

RALPH WALDO EMERSON

(1803-1882)

Emerson, the 'Sage of Concord,' was born a Bostonian, of the ecclesiastical class. He prepared for the ministry and for some time occupied a Unitarian pulpit; but, disagreeing with his congregation as to the nature of the Lord's Supper, he resigned his charge and became a public lecturer, a popular profession in ante-bellum days when every community had its Literary Society, or else its Debating Club. His home from 1833, or for the last fifty years of his life, was at Concord, Massachusetts. He shares with Longfellow the distinction of being the best known abroad of all American writers. No other American has measurably approached him as an essayist.

He is a transcendentalist of the most advanced school. Where he wishes to be clear, no one can be clearer, but he often chooses to clothe his thoughts in mystery. This trait is also noticeable in his poems, some of which glitter like diamonds, while others are enigmatic and baffling. His poetry is like his essays in being pointed and laconic, but while this may be a merit in the essay, it is not so in poetry, and his verse can hardly be considered first class. Few people read his poetry except as an adjunct to the study of his essays.

He had no reasoned and complete system of philosophy, but, like Bacon, merely gave birth to grand principles from which a new philosophy was to spring. He resembles Bacon also in that he oftentimes does not reason, but utters the truth oracularly.

THE MAN

1. Where was Emerson born?

2. What can you say of his antecedents?

3. With what religious denomination was he at one time connected?

4. What part did Emerson take in public life?

5. What pseudonym is often applied to him?

6. For what two things is Concord equally famous? I, 340; V, 59.

7. How do the circumstances of his life contrast with Ruskin's,
Carlyle's, Plato's, Marcus Aurelius's?

STYLE AND WORKS

1. To what school of philosophy did Emerson belong?

2. What effect had Emerson on the thinkers of his generation? VI,
332-334.

3. Did Hawthorne prize his philosophy highly? His poetry? VI, 333.

4. How does he rank as an essayist?

5. Why are some of Emerson's thoughts so hard to grasp?

6. To what may his poems be compared?

7. Does he rank high as a poet?

8. What standing has Emerson among foreign critics as compared
with other American authors?

9. How does his style compare with Ruskin's and Carlyle's? with
Plato's?

"WORKS AND DAYS"

1. How does Emerson define the nineteenth century? Why?

2. "Works and days were offered us and we took works;" does
Emerson belittle the value of work?

3. Name some of the 'illusions' that hide values from us at the
present time.

4. "'Tis the measure of a man,--his apprehension of a day;" how
is this true?

5. Does Emerson prove his statements, or do you think that he is
playing the oracle in this essay?

6. "What has been best done in the world ... cost nothing;" do
you agree wholly with this doctrine?

7. Do we live up to the teaching of the last paragraph; should we
attempt to do so?

"FRIENDSHIP"

1. Give Emerson's definition of friendship.

2. Why are most so-called friendships of short duration?

3. Does age, sex, individual character, or circumstance influence
the formation of this compact?

4. What are the two most important elements in friendship?

5. Can a perfect friendship exist between more than two people at
one time?

6. Does friendship necessarily require an intimate personal
association of the participants in their home life?

7. Must friendship be reciprocal?

8. Would you accept Emerson's views on this subject for your own
use?

FOR REFERENCE

"Emerson; his Life, Writings and Philosophy."--COOKE.

"Four American Leaders."--ELIOT.

"Leading American Essayists."--PAYNE.

"Ralph Waldo Emerson" ("Beacon Biographies").--SANBORN.

"Emerson" ("English Men of Letters").--WOODBERRY.

"Discourses in America."--ARNOLD.

"Emerson as a Poet."--BENTON.

"American Prose Masters."--BROWNELL.

"On Emerson, and Other Essays."--MAETERLINCK.

HEINRICH HEINE

(1799-1856)

Heinrich Heine, the nephew of a rich Hamburg Jew, is the most gifted German lyric poet since Goethe. Intended for the bar, he studied at Bonn, Göttingen, and Berlin. He then traveled extensively for some years, until publication of his "Journey in the Hartz Mountains" and "Book of Songs" brought him to public notice.

But his tactless attacks on various authors, and upon several of the petty German governments of the day began to make his native country an uncomfortable place, and in 1831 he removed to Paris. His chief occupation there was as correspondent for German newspapers. His long poems, "Deutschland" and "Atta Troll," were written during this period. For the last eight years of his life he was confined to his bed, suffering terrible agonies from a disease of the spinal column.

Though born a Jew and baptized into the Christian faith, he was neither Jew nor Christian; and his character was marred by many defects.

THE MAN

1. In what city was he born? I, 171.

2. When did he take up his residence in Paris? I, 176.

3. What great faults stained his character? I, 190.

4. And how have they affected the character of his writings? I,
191.

5. See Heine's account of his first interview with Goethe. VIII,
174.

6. What caused his exile from Germany?

7. How does his early life resemble that of Goethe?

8. What position does he occupy among the German lyric poets of
the nineteenth century?

STYLE AND WORKS

1. Upon what service to modern society does Heine's fame rest? I,
167.

2. Of what great German writer is he the continuator? I, 168.

3. Did he have a true conception of Goethe's work? I, 169.

4. Upon what grounds did Heine prefer the French spirit to that
of the Germans and English? I, 172, 173.

5. Why has his fame proved more lasting than that of Byron and
Shelley? I, 181.

6. To what school of poetry did he belong? I, 178.

7. State the form which most of his poetry assumes. I, 183.

8. Is his Hebrew extraction apparent in his verse? I, 186.

FROM "TRAVEL PICTURES"

1. The German nation as a whole is noted for what special
qualities of character?

2. In connection with what great event would you associate the
name of Blücher? IV, 37.

3. Of what cause do the Swiss claim to be the champions?

4. During Heine's life was Germany politically at rest?

5. Would you consider the carousing scene of this selection
typical of Germany, or has Heine exaggerated it to make the
situation more ridiculous?

6. What impression of the author's personal character do you
receive from these selections?

7. Characterize Heine's wit.

FOR REFERENCE

"Life of Heinrich Heine."--SHARP.

"Poems and Ballads," translated by MARTIN.

"Wrecked lives; or, Men who have Failed."--ADAMS.

"Old Love Stories Retold."--LE GALLIENNE.

PLINY

(61 A.D.-113? A.D.)

Pliny the Younger was born in the year A.D. 61, at Como, Italy. Like most famous Roman writers whose works have come down to us, he was of high station. He accompanied his uncle, Pliny the Elder, when the latter was summoned to Rome by the Emperor Vespasian in A.D. 72, and devoted several years to the study of Roman and Greek literature under the best instructors.

After the death of his uncle, in 79, he made his appearance as an advocate, a profession in which he won great eminence. Ten years later he entered upon an official career of remarkable success, holding in succession most of the great offices of the Roman State, until in 111 he was selected by Trajan as Governor of Bithynia. His correspondence ceases in 113, and nothing is known of his life thereafter.

While moving in the highest circles, the intimate of Tacitus, Suetonius, Martial, and all of the senatorial class, he was distinguished by great conscientiousness and public spirit, endowing temples, baths, libraries, and schools. He was humane and even affectionate toward his slaves and courteous to his dependents.

He sought fame as a poet and orator, as well as letter-writer, but neither his "Panegyric on Trajan," nor the two sets of verses which alone have escaped the ravages of time, would indicate that the world is much the worse for the loss of the remainder of his orations and poems.

But in his "Letters" he conferred an inestimable boon on future ages. They are voluminous, in ten books, and covering almost every topic of the times, our most valuable commentary upon Roman life in the second century after Christ. They were undoubtedly written with a direct view to publication, for he is careful to confine each one to a single topic, and generally closes it with an epigrammatic point. But they are models of graceful thought and refined expression. Only twice is any one of whom an unfavorable opinion is expressed mentioned by name.

The tenth book, the "Correspondence with Trajan," is valuable for another reason--for the light it throws on early Christianity. It reflects the greatest credit on the strict and almost punctilious conscientiousness of Pliny, and on the assiduity and high principle which animated the Emperor.

THE MAN

1. What does Pliny the Elder say of the form of money used in
early Rome? XI, 189.

2. To what class of society did Pliny the Younger belong?

3. Give a brief account of the death of his uncle.

4. What other author do you associate with the Lake of Como? I,
8, illustration.

5. What regular profession did Pliny follow during the earlier
years of his life? The latter?

6. Locate Bithynia on the map. Also Lake Como. (See classical
atlas.)

7. What authors were intimate associates of Pliny?

8. Enumerate the good points in his character.

STYLE AND WORKS

1. In what way does Pliny say we may add to the length of our
lives? V, 71.

2. Are his writings confined to his "Letters"?

3. Of what special use are the "Letters" to us?

4. How do we know that Pliny wrote his letters with publication
in mind?

5. What does he say of Phidias's attention to detail in his
sculpture? VI, 359.

6. Why should his correspondence with Trajan be of special
interest to us?

7. What do we glean from the correspondence as to the character
of Trajan?

8. Compare his account of the destruction of Pompeii with that of
Lytton. VIII, 285.

9. State what proficiency the Romans had attained in the art of
landscape gardening.

10. What would you judge to have been the climate of Tuscany,
from the allusion to plane, cypress, and other trees and plants
mentioned?

11. What reason lay behind the persecution of the Christians? Do
you think it was entirely religious?

12. What was the social condition of Rome at this time?

13. Did persecution lessen the number of adherents to
Christianity?

14. What was Pliny's estimate of this religion?

15. Was Trajan a just ruler, if his short letter be taken as an
indication of his character?

FOR REFERENCE

"Roman Life in Pliny's Time."--PELLISON.

"Letters."--Ed. BOSANQUET.

"Roads from Rome."--ALLINSON.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] These authors represent the transition from the Renaissance to Classicism.

[2] Josephus is a remarkable example of the authority and influence of Rome. He was a Jew, whose work might be classed as Hebrew and hence as Oriental literature, and likewise as Greek literature since he wrote in Greek. But he was educated at Rome and trained so thoroughly upon Roman ideas and thought that his writings must be included under this head.

[3] See Latin Lit., _note_.

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.

Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
the text and consultation of external sources.

Footnote [1] is referenced multiple times from page 25.

Footnote [3] ("See Latin Lit., _note_") is in fact referencing
Footnote [2].

Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example,
death-bed, deathbed; Snow Image, Snow-Image; skilful; unexcelled;
unreligious; unmoral; enigmatical.

Pg 8, 'Knights Templars' replaced by 'Knights Templar'.
Pg 24, 'inelegancies' replaced by 'inelegances'.
Pg 48, 'sublety' replaced by 'subtlety'.
Pg 54k, 'Dies Irae' replaced by 'Dies Iræ' for consistency.
Pg 135, '428-31' replaced by '428-431' for consistency.
Pg 147, 'impracticability' replaced by 'impracticality'.