Chapter VII: Furniture Making (2)

After the case is erected the doors should be laid out according to the drawing for mortises and tenons, and the inside edges rabbeted to give an inset for the glass. If it is decided to use one large light at the top of the door instead of six small ones, the sash effect for this light will have to be made of pieces thin enough to allow this arrangement. When the doors are ready for setting the glass it may be held in place by small 1/4 round strips, bradded in behind it. Great care should, of course, be exercised in gluing up the doors to avoid strains which might give them such a twist that they could not be fitted to the case. Careful fitting of all the mortises and tenons and the usual assembling of the parts of each door before gluing is attempted is a wise precaution. It will also be wise to allow a little stock for trimming off, both on the sides and on the ends, when the doors are finally fitted in.

A ROUND CENTRE TABLE

_The Design._--This problem calls for a table of mission style with square legs set into the circumference of the table flush with the top and having tenons exposed on the face of the legs. Simplicity of form combined with strength characterizes the design.

_Materials and Tools._--Quartered oak is recommended for a table of this design. The stock required for one table is as follows: four legs 2-3/4 × 2-3/4 × 27 inches; two cross rails 1-1/4 × 3 × 29 inches; one piece of 3 × 12 × 20 inches for the curved rails; and stock enough to make a round top 1-1/8 inches thick and 27 inches in diameter.

The only tools desirable to provide, in addition to those previously used, are a trammel and spokeshave or a circle plane.

_Construction._--The first step is to join up and glue the top so that it may have ample time to harden and dry while the other work is being accomplished. The stock for the legs may then be dressed and the bottom mortises marked and cut through the posts. Care must be taken to transfer the marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may be accurately outlined on the face. Care must also be taken in cutting the mortises, in order to make good, clean joints. A dimensioned detail of the top mortises, which are to receive the tenons of the curved rail, shown on page 180, should be consulted before laying out this work. It should be noticed that the legs project 1-1/4 inches above the top rail. After the top mortises are cut the cross bottom rails should be halved together and the tenons laid off and cut. It will be noticed that the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled off, but this should not be done until the fitting is completed.

In laying out the plan of work for the construction of the curved rails the trammel comes into use. With this, mark off carefully the inside and outside curves on a thin piece of board and, with a large steel square, draw straight lines from the centre or pivot point, making an exact quarter circle. This is shown in one of the drawings on page 180. Then, parallel with each straight line and on the inside, mark off other lines one half the thickness of the leg. This locates the shoulder of the tenon. The pattern should then be carefully cut out of the thin board and used as a template for marking out on the stock the form of the curved rails. After these rails are band sawed and smoothed, the tenons may be cut.

When the framing parts of the table have all been cut and fitted they may be assembled and glued. Finally the top is placed face down on a bench top or on horses, and the inverted frame laid over it and centred to give the correct position of the insets for the legs. These should be laid off with great care, the outline reproduced exactly on the opposite side, and the stock cut out. The top and frame should then be fastened together from the under side. After a few finishing touches have been given to the projecting ends and exposed surfaces, the table will be ready for the filling and varnishing.

A LIBRARY DESK

This is the most ambitious of the special problems in furniture making here suggested. Details are given in the drawings on the opposite page. If the young woodworker can give sufficient time to it and can command the services of a few machine tools it will not be an unreasonable task to undertake. Most of the operations required in its construction have already been carefully explained and need not be repeated as detailed directions. There are, however, one or two principles of cabinet-making called for in this problem which were not required in the others. They will therefore need explanation.

_Panelling._--To avoid the difficulties which would result from the swelling, shrinking, and warping of wide surfaces in furniture it is common practice to make use of the panel. The design of the panel is easily understood. It consists of a framework of ordinary thickness, put together usually with mortise and tenon joints. The inside edges of this framework are grooved, and into the groove is fitted a piece of stock generally thinner than the frame which fills the space between the sides of the frame. The panel board may be in one piece of wide stock or it may be glued up. It may be of very thin stock inset on both sides of the panel, or it may be of thicker stock inset only on one side, and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case only the edges of the board are made thin enough to run in the groove of the panel frame. In this problem the panel board is to be made of 1/2-inch stock, flat on the outside, and inset 1/4 of an inch. The back of the panel board is flush with the frame and is chamfered off to give the necessary tongue all around to run in the groove. The narrow stock of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink appreciably and, if well constructed, cannot become warped or twisted. The panel, on account of its greater width, may and generally does swell and shrink considerably; but it should be fitted to move easily in the grooves so that its changes may not be noticeable. Should it be desired to finish the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to the rails, not to the panel board.

_Danger in the Power Saw._--The panel frame may be constructed by hand, but if a circular saw be available it will be found of great service. Beginners, however, should employ the services of an expert sawyer and not assume the great risk involved in the use of a circular saw or even a band saw, especially if these saws are without guards. The necessary operations should be carefully laid out on the partially finished stock, with a good square and gauge. A combination plane is quite essential for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own gauge. Care should be taken to make all measurements from the centre of the piece, and gauge and square always from the face sides and from the face edges of the joints. The cuts that it is necessary to make for the joints are indicated in the drawing. In gluing up, the directions already given in the section on gluing should be followed.

_Sand-papering._--There is a legitimate use for sand-paper in the finishing stages of the work on this desk, as there is, in fact, in almost every kind of fine woodwork. Its use has already been advised in the directions for furniture making. In furniture manufactories sand-papering machines are among the most expensive machines to be found in the shops; and their high cost is of course justified by their productive value. It is quite impossible to work down large pieces to a good surface by the process of planing. If a sand-papering machine is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker, it will be very desirable for him to send all large pieces like the tops of tables and panel boards to the factory in order to have them run through the machine. The expense is very slight. In sand-papering by hand considerable pressure should be applied as evenly as possible and always along the grain. Any movements directly across the grain or at an angle are sure to show through the finish. The process is facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper around a block of wood about 2 × 4 inches in diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same dimensions.

A MORRIS CHAIR

_History of the Design._--Among furniture designs the Morris chair has become a classic. It takes its name for its originator, William Morris, the great English designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps more than to any other person, we are indebted for sane and honest work in furniture design and in all forms of household decoration, not only in England but in other European countries and in America. And probably no one of his creations has done more to teach the lesson of simplicity, comfort, and utility in furniture than the Morris chair.

It may be well to add, however, that like many other famous works of art, the original design of William Morris has suffered much in countless imitations. The furniture shops display carved and otherwise embellished monstrosities under the name of Morris chairs which are nothing less than an insult to the great name they bear. But the life of all imitations of original and really great ideas is bound to be short. Only the good and true, which are the original, survive. The really valuable features of the original Morris chair design, combining beauty of material with simplicity of form and construction, have taken a lasting hold upon the hearts of all people who have found solid comfort in these chairs. The chairs contemplated in this problem are illustrated on page 50, chapter II. Both are in quartered oak. The one on the right is stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium brown leather. The one on the left is in light fumed oak with cushions of mahogany velour. On account of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter in weight than the one on the right, and the dimensions of the smaller one will be followed in this problem. This chair is an exact copy of one in ash which, with a centre table and stool, were designed and made for a college girl's room; and a large part of the work of constructing the three pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself.

By careful examination of the dimensioned drawing shown on the preceding page the young woodworker who undertakes this problem should select his stock according to the following list: 4 legs 2-1/2 × 2-1/2 × 24 inches; two arms 3 × 5-1/2 × 38 inches; two bottom side rails 1-1/8 × 6 × 26 inches; two top side rails 5/8 × 2-1/4 × 26 inches; two bottom rails (front and back) 1-1/8 × 6 × 24 inches; one top rail (back) 5/8 × 2-1/4 × 24 inches; two back uprights 1-1/8 × 1-7/8 × 25 inches; three cross pieces for back (lower) 3/4 × 2-5/8 × 20 inches; one cross piece for back (top) 3/4 × 6 × 20 inches; one bracket 1 × 3 × 18 inches; four pins 4-1/2 × 4-1/4 inches square.

In sawing up the stock, allowance should be made of course, for necessary waste in working down to the drawing dimensions. The arms are drawn with a curve and may be fashioned by band sawing them out of 3-inch stock. There will be a considerable saving in material and labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the effect of the curve is very pleasing. The back slats may be sawed to a slight curve, which is another attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make and just as serviceable.

The process of construction does not differ in general from that already described in some of the foregoing problems, and need not be repeated here in detail. The method of finishing this and all other furniture referred to in the problems will be explained in the following chapter.

Since the Morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture, it will be necessary to provide casters for it. The Acme Pin caster, so-called, was used in the chair referred to in this problem. It makes use of a steel ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into the legs so as to leave only about 1/4 of an inch of the ball exposed.

A HALL CLOCK

NOTE.--The original of the hall clock was designed and made by Mr. Egbert E. MacNary.]

_Design._--This clock was designed and built to conform to the requirements of the space allotted to it. The lines of the case are all straight; there are no spires or gables or fantastic curves on the top. A hall clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal; for all the other lines such as tops of window casings, picture moulding, etc., are horizontal. If the clock stood out of doors under the stars, then the top might be spired or pointed.

The construction, as indicated in the sketches, is simple and substantial. The long sides extend the entire height of the clock, being firmly joined into the base and head. The works are supported between these sides. The wood is 3/4-inch quartered oak, hand dressed, and stained a warm brown. The dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and weight are of brass.

_Cutting Glass with a Wheel Cutter._--The long door has a panel of transparent leaded glass. This leaded glass work is a most fascinating process. The lead strips required for it were purchased of a dealer in lead specialties. Stained glass window concerns are usually willing to sell this lead. A full-size drawing was made of the design for the glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the pattern. A ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used. One caution, kept in mind, will enable one to use a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. _It should never be used twice in the same cut._ One stroke of a few inches over a cut previously made will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is not abused by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. The glass should be laid on a level table and the cutter used with a firm hand, making a continuous cut against a straight edge.

_Soldering._--The long lines of the design are in one piece; and there is a strip around the entire outside edge. To solder the pieces together, the glass and lead strips are laid in position on a board, and brads (about 1 inch long) are driven part way into the board close against the outside strips, so as to hold the pieces in position. A small bead of soldering paste is placed on each joint. A small soldering "iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are used. The copper may be "tinned" by filing the point bright, heating it, dipping it in the soldering paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder wire. The point will become coated with the solder, or, as we say, "tinned." The iron will need frequent heating. A quick, light touch of the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the best result.

The two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by driving the brass into a groove in a piece of oak with a hard wood wedge. The piece of oak was revolved around the dial by means of a nail driven through the centre of the dial into the oak piece. When a short arc of the ring had been raised, the grooved piece was swung around about 1 inch and the groove continued.

The length of the pendulum depends upon the number of teeth in the escape wheel. It was necessary in the case of this clock to take out the escape wheel, which had 32 teeth, and substitute one of 22 teeth to accommodate the length of pendulum desired.

OUTDOOR FURNITURE

The greatest charm of home life in the summer season is rarely found within the house. This is especially true in the village or in the country, where nature is at her best; but even in city homes that are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings a small yard, a bit of garden, or any means of connecting the home with "God's great out-of-doors," though it be but a sheltered balcony or a window garden, the touch of nature is not lost. It is possible, however, for art to assist nature; and in many cases her assistance is very much needed. It is certainly true that nature cannot be left wholly to herself in the neighbourhood of the village or city home. If there be a garden, as much forethought must be exercised in planning it and as much pains taken in developing and caring for it as is called for in working out any form of interior decoration. There are problems of design and construction suggested by the need of suitable chairs and settles for the piazza, comfortable hammocks and couches for the balcony, awnings for the windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture, perhaps, for an out-door dining-room. The more decorative features are found in the rose arbours, the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent, the pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer problems that easily come within the reach of enterprising and capable young craftsmen.

_General Types._--In the designing of out-door furniture there are two suggestions from nature that may appropriately find expression. On the one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks, suggest solidity, weight, and permanence. This idea is embodied in walls of masonry, stone posts, iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or in some other kind of heavy construction. On the other hand, there are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy, and growth, seen in the growing vines, shrubbery, and small trees, which are carried out in the so-called rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden screens.

_An Example of Heavy Furniture in Wood._--A settle designed for comparatively permanent use in some cool or retired corner of the garden may be made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well protected by several coats of paint. A suggestion is here given for such a design, laid out on substantial lines. Ordinary 4 × 4 spruce, planed, may be used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest of the construction, 2-inch stock being used for the back pieces and arms, and 7/8-inch boards for the rails and seat. Mortise and tenon joints should be used in the framing. The illustration shows also a simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated in the two front posts. It is a decorative feature which seems to counteract, somewhat successfully, the general severity of the lines on which the settle is designed to be built.

_Concrete Furniture._--Still more substantial out-door furniture may be made of concrete cement. This material has come into use for sidewalks and pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone masonry in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in a great variety of heavy building construction. Concrete is, in fact, an artificial stone, made by mixing Portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in the right proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture with water, and allowing it to harden. It is so commonly associated with heavy, crude work that it is not easy to believe that it may be also fashioned into anything of an artistic or decorative character; and yet it is capable of a wide range of out-door decorative uses. Gate posts, pedestals, fountains, window boxes, urns, and other forms of garden pottery in great variety, tables, and garden seats, have been successfully moulded in this material. Its natural stone gray colour and surface are well suited to many of these uses; but it may be given a variety of colour effects in bold design if occasion requires it. In weight and durability it leaves nothing to be desired.

_The Wire Form._--Concrete cement cannot be modelled like clay. In its formative state it is too soft for such manipulation. It must be supported in some way while it is being worked into the desired shape and until it has hardened. In general there are two methods of giving the necessary support: _viz._, by employing an interior framework or skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently encased in the cement; or by using a plaster or wooden mould into which the material in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which it is removed when hardened. The latter method has been elaborated quite extensively for commercial purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite number of marketable results from the same moulds. The simpler wooden moulds may be easily made by a clever boy; and after a little experience he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly and mould a form successfully. For single pieces of concrete work, however, the wire forms are to be preferred. A suggestive illustration of this method is found in the following problem:

A CYLINDRICAL GARDEN VASE

The dimensions called for in this design are a diameter of 10 inches and a height of 8 inches. The wire form must therefore be made to approximate quite closely to these dimensions. A good material for the form is galvanized wire lath of 1/2-inch mesh. This problem will require a piece about 8 inches wide and 34 inches long for the convex side, and a piece about 10 inches square for the base. From the square piece a circle 10 inches in diameter should be cut out. A strong pair of tinners' shears will be needed for this purpose. In bending the long piece into the cylindrical form it is well to proceed slowly in order to produce an evenly curved surface--_i. e._, one free from angular bends. A good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece down on a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical wooden block. If nothing better is available a rolling pin will serve this purpose. When the bending is nearly complete, the two ends of the piece should be brought together, lapped over about an inch, and bound together with free ends of the strands of wire. A pair of pliers will be of great assistance. If this part of the process has been carefully done, there will result a cylindrical form 10 inches in diameter. The circular piece should now be attached to one end of this form by means of the free ends of the strands found there, bending the projecting wires over and clinching them at convenient points on the circumference of the circular piece where there are uncut meshes of the wire. The form is now ready for covering with the cement.

The first step is the mixing of the cement for what is known as the scratch coat. This is made by mixing Portland cement with fine, clean sand in the proportion of one part cement to two of sand. These ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, and then there should be added a small quantity of goats' hair, well picked apart. For the problem at hand about five pounds of cement will be needed and as much goats' hair as can be held in the hand. The whole should be thoroughly wet down with just the right amount of water. It is important that the mixture should not be made too soft. A scratch coat should be given a consistency that will enable it to be easily spread over the wire form and, at the same time, to hang well together.

When a sufficient amount of the right mixture has been obtained, it should be spread upon the wire form by means of a small mason's trowel or a large knife. It is well to begin at the bottom of the convex side of the cylinder, working upward, taking no pains to make this first coat smooth, since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting to see that the cement is forced well through the meshes so that the whole mass will be held together firmly when dry. The inside is given a smooth coat as a part of the later finishing process. When the convex surface has been well covered, the form should be turned bottom up and the cement spread upon the base of the cylinder in the same way. After the wire has been completely covered, the form, which is likely to be somewhat distorted, should be corrected by careful manipulation till a true cylinder has been obtained. This is allowed to stand for about five hours until the cement has thoroughly hardened. It is then ready for the finishing coat.

The next step in the process is to make the cement for the finishing coat. Considerable variety is possible here, depending upon the colour and other surface effects that are desired. In this design a light, sparkling surface when finished is required. To produce this effect a mixture of one part Portland cement and two parts marble dust will be needed. This should be mixed without hair to a consistency like that used for the scratch coat.

Before applying the finishing coat the surfaces should be thoroughly moistened by means of a brush well filled with water. There are various methods of applying this coat. The simplest is carefully spreading it on with a trowel and smoothing it with the moistened hand. When the surface has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible to improve the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper or a coarse file. It is not possible to produce perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet the method has the characteristic freedom of handwork in general, and yields very satisfactory results.

_The Decoration._--A great variety of decorative effects may be obtained in concrete pottery and in other articles made of this material for out-door use. In pottery these decorations may take the form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or designs cut in the surface, and of inlays in colour. Whatever the form of design, the necessary cutting for it is best made when the cement has become well set but not very hard--_i. e._, from 6 to 10 hours after the finishing coat is applied. A stout, sharp, pointed knife blade is all the tool that will be required. A narrow chisel, however, may be found desirable for deepening the cuts. The knife should be guided by means of a ruler, which should be flexible if used on curved surfaces; and the depth of the cut will depend somewhat upon the size of the piece. In work similar to that described in the problem just given, a depth of 3/16 or 1/4 of an inch is sufficient. This cutting, of course can be made after the cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and chisel; but it will be much more difficult.

_The Colours._--Colour cement for inlaid designs is made by using the best quality of white Portland cement as a base, colouring it with dry mineral pigments which are sold by dealers under the name of lime or cement-proof colours. Among the pigments suitable for this purpose are red oxide of iron, which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces yellow; carbonate of copper, which gives a good dark green; and burnt umber, which yields a good brown. These come as dry powders and should be mixed with the dry cement and marble dust, making a mixture of uniform colour, before the water is applied. In order to determine the right colour it is well to experiment with a small quantity of the various ingredients until a satisfactory shade has been found. Then with this as a guide a sufficiently large quantity should be mixed, in the same proportions, to the consistency of a thick paste, and applied to the design, which has been previously cut in the surface to be decorated. To insure thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete, the cutting should be well moistened with a wet brush. A number of suggestive designs are shown in the accompanying drawings.

_Rustic Furniture._--The lighter out-door furniture can be easily made up in a great variety of designs. The form of rustic settles and chairs is determined largely by the material which is available. Very useful and ornamental effects are produced by using sticks cut from the tops or from branches of small trees. Birch saplings, easily found in the second growth of some wood lots, afford a good supply of material. It is not necessary that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks and notches are often very useful in bracing the framework. Chairs, settles, tables, standards for flower boxes, and other articles of furniture may be made out of this rough and unfinished material.

_Lattice Work._--Trellises and garden screens have been made in an almost endless variety of forms. Among the most satisfactory is the plain lattice work in squares and rectangles. Its simplicity and evident durability are points in its favour. Experience proves also that vines and other plants needing support are readily adjusted to this form of trellis. The size of the stock required in making the right-angled lattice work depends upon the uses to be made of it. For a garden screen the uprights need to be of 2 × 2 inch stock and of any convenient length. End posts of 3 × 3 inch stock will be required, to give necessary stiffness; and, if the screen be a long one, intermediate posts of the same size should be placed at intervals of ten or twelve feet. The horizontal pieces may be strips of 7/8-inch stock, 2 inches wide, set their full thickness into the uprights. Spruce furring, which lumber dealers supply in 2-inch widths, is suitable for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the uprights it is well to use the same wood for the rest of the construction. The top and bottom rails should be of heavier stock, not less than 2 by 3 inches. The best foundation is a line of concrete posts, firmly set into the ground at intervals of 6 feet, to which the bottom rail or the uprights are fastened by means of irons set into the cement when the posts are formed. Two coats of dull green paint will protect the wood and properly subordinate the lattice work to the trailing branches which it supports.