Chapter XXIV: Ecclesiastes. Song of Songs

Two singular books remain, about the inspiration of both of which the straitest sect of the Pharisees in the first century of our era had grave difficulties, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs. Both are attributed to Solomon, the Song by title, Ecclesiastes by implication in the book itself, and doubtless the supposed authorship had much to do with finally securing the two books a place in the Jewish Bible.

ECCLESIASTES.--The title of Ecclesiastes runs, "The words of Koheleth the son of David, king in Jerusalem," under which pseudonym no one but Solomon can be meant; see also Eccl. i. 12, and especially ii. 1-11. In the body of the book, Koheleth is regularly used as a proper name; it is apparently coined for the nonce. Like many pseudonyms in other literatures, it is probably a mystification, piquant to the author's contemporaries but impenetrable to us. That it means "Preacher"--an ancient guess--is highly improbable; but even if the meaning were transparent, there is no more reason for translating a fictitious proper name than a real one.

The theme of this symphony of pessimism is stridently announced in the first notes of the overture: "Vanity of vanities, vanity of vanities! Everything is vanity." The world and its happenings, man and his strivings, pleasure, pain, wisdom, folly, good and evil--all is utterly empty; existence has no meaning and no worth. All is chance and change, in which things endlessly go round and round, but plan, purpose, progress is nowhere to be seen. And as all have one lot, even this senseless and inconstant fortune, so death sooner or later overtakes all alike and ends the strange play without plot we call human life.

Of a divine providence directed to any end or by any principle, of a justice above which requites men according to their deeds, long years and happiness to the wise and good, adversity and premature death to the wicked and foolish, Koheleth, looking on the world of things as they are with searching eyes, discovers no sign. Of another world and an immortal soul, with which some of his contemporaries consoled themselves, he, keeping his thinking within the bounds of experience, knows nothing. Man dies as the beast dies, the same vital breath is in them both, all are of dust and turn to dust again; nor has man any advantage over the beast, they all have the same end (iii. 19-21; ix. 4-6). There is consolation in this thought, when the misery of the world weighs too heavy on the heart. The dead are better off than the living, but happier still it would be never to be born to see the evils that are under the sun (iv. 2 f.).

When we look the facts squarely in the face, the only counsel of wisdom is to make the most of what capricious fortune gives us in its friendly moods, to enjoy the pleasures life offers while we can, with abandon, but without excess. For the "too much" is always evil, even too much wisdom and virtue! "Be not over righteous nor put on too much wisdom, why shouldest thou die before thy time?" (vii. 16 f.).

The author's religion makes God somehow the cause of what happens under the sun, the evil and the good. In one place he seems to express the belief that all that God does is fine and opportune, if man could only understand it; but God has denied man the intelligence to penetrate the secret of his ways. So there is nothing better for man to do than to be merry, and have a good time while he is alive!

It is easy to imagine what scandal all this gave to pious souls, and it was very natural that orthodox editors should try to neutralize Koheleth's scepticism and his epicurean counsels by notes in an opposite sense. A modern editor would have put his protests into footnotes, as for example to Gibbon's famous chapters on the spread of Christianity; an ancient editor, having no footnotes, put his incontinently into the text.

To these editorial improvements belong the last verses (Eccl. xii. 13 f.), with its conclusion, "Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the business of every man; for God will bring every deed into the judgment on all secrets, whether it be good or bad." The judgment after death is evidently meant. The warning against many books and much reading in xii. 12 is also a gloss, while xii. 9-11 appears to be written by an earlier editor of the book, commending it to reading and study. In the body of the book, also, several verses are obviously introduced to give an orthodox twist to the author's very heterodox utterances.

That Ecclesiastes belongs to the latest stratum of Hebrew Biblical literature is evident from both its matter and its style; but there is nothing in it by which its age can be exactly fixed.

SONG OF SONGS.--A verse already quoted (1 Kings iv. 32) tells that, besides three thousand proverbs, Solomon composed a thousand and five songs. We shall probably not err in assuming that this verse was in the mind of the editor who prefixed the title "The Song of Songs (that is, the very best of songs), by Solomon." There is nothing in the book to indicate that Solomon was the author or that the poet meant his productions to be attributed to him.

The one theme of the book, running through many variations, is the love of man and woman, passionate and sensuous. In the second century of our era its songs were warbled at banquets or wedding feasts, a profane abuse on which a scandalized rabbi denounced damnation. In the first century it was, in spite of Solomon's name, no Holy Scripture for the straitest sect, and was not finally admitted to the canon, we may be pretty sure, until an allegorical sense had been discovered in it, or rather imposed on it: it sang, under the figure of wedded love, of the relation of the Lord to Israel. The Fathers took over all the allegory, only making the lover Christ, the beloved the Church (as still in the running titles of the Authorized Version), or the soul. The mediæval church saw in the bride the Virgin Mary. The allegorical interpretation was a necessary corollary of the dogmatic assumption that the canon of inspired scripture could contain nothing but books of religious instruction and edification. Allegorical love poetry--usually the love of God and the soul--is not uncommon in mystical sects or circles of various creeds; and the ultra-spiritual poets often revel in an ultra-sensual imagery of passion and fruition; but nothing in the Song of Songs suggests such an origin, nor have we knowledge of a Jewish mysticism of this erotic type in the centuries from which it must come.

The literary criticism of the last century chiefly spent itself in endeavours to discover in the book a lyric drama with a moral tendency, on some such theme as the triumph of pure love over lust. Great ingenuity was expended in dividing the text into regular acts and scenes and assigning the speeches to the leading actors and the chorus. In its simplest form there were but two actors, the virtuous village maiden and the harem-jaded Solomon; a more plausible scheme gave the girl a rustic lover, which added much to the piquancy of the scenes with Solomon, and to the _dénouement_, in which the king, foiled by the maiden's constancy, confesses virtue triumphant, and sends her back to her shepherd swain. More recent supporters of the dramatic hypothesis have modified this scheme in a way to remove some of its plainest difficulties, but have complicated it in proportion.

Other interpreters take the book for a collection of love songs, or, more specifically, of wedding songs, such as are sung to-day at village weddings in Syria and Palestine. A certain dramatic quality in the songs, and their relation to successive stages of the festivities, would give the appearance of a progressive action which has been urged for the dramatic theory. The Syrian peasant to-day, in the region of Damascus, is for his bride-week in song and salutation a king or prince; a sledge on the village threshing-floor is his throne, and the bride is queen. Through the week the royal pair are honoured by the villagers with songs and dances. If in the Hebrew songs the bridegroom-king is sometimes called Solomon, it is because Solomon was the richest and most splendid of kings. This view of the nature of the book is simpler and more probable. The several poems are not distinguished by titles, and there is room for difference of opinion about the divisions; but this is a small difficulty compared with the partition into roles in the supposed play.

The songs are fine examples of popular poetry, with traditional subjects, forms, and imagery. Nothing requires us to suppose that they are the production of one poet; we may think of them rather as an anthology of love songs, not necessarily all composed for wedding festivities, but all appropriate for use on such occasions.

The language of the songs proves that they belong to a very late period in Hebrew literature, though the type is doubtless old enough. Such popular poetry has no motive for preserving or imitating archaism, as hymn writers do, but modernizes itself from generation to generation. The wedding songs of old Israel may have been like enough to these in character, but they were in another speech.

It was a fortunate misunderstanding that has preserved them; but the accidental preservation of these few pages emphasizes the loss of almost every other vestige of Hebrew secular poetry.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. =General.=--SMITH, W. ROBERTSON. _The Old Testament in the Jewish Church._ 1892.--These lectures, first published in 1881, were meant to give to laymen an account of the problems and methods of criticism. They are a remarkably lucid exposition of the subject, and may still be read with profit as a general introduction to criticism.

2. =The Canon.=--RYLE, H. E. _The Canon of the Old Testament._ 1892; 2nd ed. 1895.--A history of the growth of the Old Testament rather than a history of the canon. In that growth there were, according to the author, three stages; in the first, which began with the ratification of Deuteronomy in 621 B.C., the Law (Pentateuch) was the only recognized collection of Sacred Scripture; in the second the Law and the Prophets; and in the third the Law, the Prophets, and the "Writings." The latter part of the volume, which treats of the history of the canon in the usual meaning of the term, is a convenient but not very accurate compilation.

The article "Canon" (of the Old Testament) in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, by Karl Budde, and the article "Old Testament Canon" in Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_, by F. H. Woods, are concise presentations of generally accepted opinions by competent scholars.

3. =Literature of the Old Testament.=--DRIVER, S. R. _Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament._ 6th ed., revised, 1897. A volume of the _International Theological Library_, designed primarily for ministers and students of theology. The technical matter (lists of Hebrew words and the like) is, however, set off from the body of the text, and the work can therefore be used with profit by laymen for purposes of study. The synopses of the contents of Biblical books will be found helpful. The author is a scholar of conservative temper and cautious about accepting new or radical theories.

CORNILL, CARL. _Introduction to the Canonical Books of the Old Testament._ Translated by G. H. Box. New York. 1907.--Originally one of a German series of theological handbooks, this volume is on a smaller scale than Driver's and goes less into details which are of interest only to the professional student. The author's criticism is much less conservative than Driver's and more original.

KENT, C. F. _The Student's Old Testament._ 1904-1910.--I. _Narratives of the Beginnings of Hebrew History_, 1904; II. _Israel's Historical and Biographical Narratives_, 1905; III. _The Sermons, Epistles, and Apocalypses of Israel's Prophets_, 1910; IV. _Israel's Law and Legal Precedents_, 1907. (Two volumes on the Poetical Books will complete the series.) The sources of the Pentateuch and the Historical Books are separated, and where the narratives are parallel they are printed in parallel columns with headings indicating their origin. The analysis is also set out in tabular form, and maps and chronological charts are added. The oracles of the prophets are arranged, so far as possible, in chronological order, additions and interpolations being set in smaller type. The author is an experienced teacher and book-maker, and has a fine talent for exposition.

CARPENTER, J. ESTLIN, and HARFORD-BATTERSBY, G. _The Hexateuch according to the Revised Version._ 2 vols. 1900.--The first volume (separately reprinted, 1902) contains an excellent history of criticism, and develops fully and very clearly the evidence for the prevailing theory concerning the sources and composition of the Hexateuch. Tabular appendices exhibit the linguistic evidence in a form which makes it available, as far as possible, to the reader who does not know Hebrew; they also give a synopsis of the laws and institutions, and an analysis and conspectus of the several codes. The second volume presents in the text of the Revised Version the analysis of the Pentateuch and Joshua in an extremely ingenious typographical scheme.

The articles on the Books of the Old Testament, from Genesis to Judges inclusive, in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, by the author of the present volume, may be referred to for a fuller statement of the reasons for his views and a more detailed analysis. The article "Historical Literature" in the same Encyclopaedia gives a comprehensive survey of the Hebrew historiography from its beginnings down to the time of Josephus. The article on "Prophecy and Prophets" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, by A. B. Davidson, though not dealing primarily with critical questions, may be strongly commended, and the article on "Psalms," by W. T. Davison, in the same volume, is good. An excellent article on "Proverbs" in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ should also be mentioned.

INDEX

Abomination, Dan. 8, 186

Acrostics, 229 f.

Alexander and successors in Dan., 185 f.

Allegory, in Song of Songs, 247

Amos, Book, 196 ff.

Annals, royal and temple, 100

Antiochus Epiphanes, 186, 187 f.

Apocalypses, character of, 188
----age, how determined, 188

Apocrypha, older use of the name, 18
----Jerome, 17 f.
----Luther, 21 f.
----_See_ Canon

Aramaic, in Ezra, 130
----in Daniel, 189 f.

Asa, king, 123

Assyria, Greek kingdom (Syria), 155, 215

Astruc, analysis of Genesis, 32

Athanasius, 16

Augustine, 19 f.

Baal, Tyrian, 111

Baals and Astartes, 83, 192

Babylon, destruction, prophesied, 152
----taken by Cyrus, 153

Babylonian myths in Genesis, 43 f.

Baruch, scribe of Jeremiah, 166 f., 168

Bible, Jewish, _see_ Old Testament

Calvin, on Maccabæan Psalms, 226

Canaan, conquest, in Jos., 77 f., 88 f.

Canon, Jewish, formation of, 11
----of Greek-speaking Jews, 13
----Jewish, in Church Fathers, 14 ff.
----of Greek Church, 13 ff.
----Latin Church, 17 ff.
----Syrian churches, 20
----in the Middle Ages, 20
----the Reformation, 21
----Reformed churches, 22
----Council of Trent, 23
----_See_ also Apocrypha

Chaldæans, in Hab., 205
----in Dan., 189

Cherubim car, 178

Chron.--Ezra--Neh., one book 118

Chronicles, Book, 118 ff.
----sources, 124 f.
----genealogies, 119
----historical value, 124

Chronology in Judg., 82
----in Kings, 101

Commandments, Ten, 49 f.

Criticism, historical, 25 f.
----of Pentateuch, 31 ff.

Cyrus, edict of, 128
----deliverer, messiah, 160

Daniel, Book, 180 ff.
----two languages in, 189
----Nebuchadnezzar's dream, 183 f.
----the four beasts, _c. 7_, 184 f.
----ram and he-goat, _c. 8_, 185
----Seleucids and Ptolemies, _c. 11_, 187 f.
----age of the book, 188

Darius Hystaspis, 209 f.

David, history, 96 f., 109
----Psalms of, 223

Day of the Lord, in Zeph., 207
----in Joel, 195
----in Mal., 217 f.

Deborah, Song of, 89

Decalogue, 49 f.

Deluge, Babylonian myth, 43 f.

Deuterocanonic Books, 24

D (Deuteronomy, Deuteronomist), 35, 84

Deuteronomists, historians, 84
----_See_ also Jos., Judg., Kings

Deuteronomy, 58 ff.
----programme of a reform, 62
----age of the book, 64 f.

Dragon of the sea, 156

E (Elohist), 35
----characteristics, 39 ff.
----origin, 41
----age, 67 f.
----Horeb constitution in, 50
----in Jos. _1-12_, 75 ff.
----in Judg., 86

Ecclesiastes, Book, 243 ff.

Ecclesiastes, interpolations, 246 f.
----age, 246
----inspiration, 8 ff., 245

Ecclesiastical Books, 17, 24

Ecclesiasticus, in the Church, 15 f.

Eden, Garden in, 43

Eden, Prince of Tyre in, 177

Edom, prophecies against, 158 f., 177, 197, 199
----Obad., 200

Egypt, Ezekiel's prophecy, 177

Eli, a judge, 90

Elihu, in Job, 240 f.

Elijah, 110 f., 145

Elisha, 112 f.

Esther, Book, 135 ff.
----mythical interpretation, 137
----age, 138, 139 f.
----inspiration, 8, 138
----additions in Greek, 138

Exile, theory of the return, 122

Exodus, Book, 47 f.

Ezekiel, Book, 174 ff.
----against foreign nations (_cc. 25-32_), 176 f.
----state of the text, 180

Ezra, 129 ff.
----Priests' Code, 56 f.
----two languages in, 130

Ezra and Neh., sequel of Chron., 118
----contents, 128 ff.
----sources, 131 f.
----historical value, 133
----derangement, 132 (_cf._ 128-131)

Fast, the true, 212

Feasts, agricultural, 69

Fool, in Proverbs, 232 f.

Foreign nations, oracles against, 142, 152 ff., 158 f., 171 f.,
176 ff., 195, 197, 200, 204 f., 206, 214 f.

Genesis, Book, 33 ff.

Gerizim, temple on, 121

God, national idea, 146
----moral idea, 145
----in J, 37 f.
----in E, 39 f.
----in P, 47
----in Amos, 198 f.
----in Hosea, 193, 199
----in Deuteronomy, 59 f.
----in Isaiah _40-66_, 161

Gog and his hordes, 178, 200
----echo in Zech., 214

Golden age, prophecies of, 151, 157, 158, 169 ff., 176, 179,
193, 198 f., 213 f.

Golden calves, 104

Gospels, inspiration of, 10

Greek versions of O. T., 11

Greeks, kingdom doomed, 215

Habakkuk, Book, 205 ff.

Hadrach, 215

Haggai, Book, 209

Heavenly bodies, judgment on, 156

Hezekiah, king, 114 f.

High places, 65 f., 95, 103, 117
----untouched by good kings, 107
----Hezekiah's measures, 114 f.
----Josiah, 61 f., 116

Historical literature, 98 ff.
----oldest, 99 _cf._ 96 f.

History, religious lessons, 104

Holiness, Law of, Lev. _17-26_, 54 f.

Horeb, Mount of God, 48

Hosea, Book, 190 ff.

Idolatry, satire on, 161

Idols, _see_ Golden Calves, Serpent

Immortality, denied in Eccles., 244

Inspiration, cessation of, 10
----of Eccles. and Cant., 8 ff.
---of Gospels, 10

Isaiah, prophet, 115, 147
----genius of, 150
----earlier utterances, 150
----rejection of sacrifice, 151

Isaiah, Book, 147 ff.
----main divisions, 147 f.
----_cc. 1-12_, 149 f.
----_cc. 13-23_, 152 ff.
----_cc. 24-27_, 156 f.
----_cc. 28-33_, 157 f.
----_cc. 34-35_, 158 f.
----_cc. 36-39_, 147
----_cc. 40-66_, 159 ff.

J and E, characteristics of, 35 ff.
----in Gen., common tradition, 40 f.
----diversity of tradition, 70
----combined in one book (J E), 71
----in Jos., 78
----in Judg., 85

J (Jahvist), 35

J, literary quality, 36
----in Gen. _1-11_, two strands, 41 f.
----anthropomorphism, 37 f., 42
----religious element, 37 ff.
----origin, 41
----age, 67 f.
----fundamental law in, 50 f.
----in Jos., 74 ff.
----in Judg., 86
----in Sam., 99

Jehoash, king of Israel, 113

Jehoiakim, king, 165

Jehu, king, 112, 118

Jeremiah, prophet, 164
----his hard lot, 171 f.
----"confessions," 172
----not author of Lam., 230

Jeremiah, Book, 164 ff.
----later additions, 168 f., 171, 173
----Hebrew and Greek texts, 172 f.

Jericho, taking of, 75 f.

Jeroboam I., 104, 108

Jeroboam II., 114

Jerome, 17, 18

Jerusalem, two sieges, 117 f., 174
----in Chron., 121

Joash, king of Judah, 113

Job, mention of in Ezek., 241

Job, Book, 235 ff.
----prologue and epilogue, 241
----structure of the poem, 236 f.
----purpose of author, 239 f.
----age, 242 f.
----later additions, 240 ff.

Joel, Book, 194 ff.

Jonah, Book, 140 ff.

Joshua, Book, 73 ff.

Josiah, king, 116
----his reforms, 62
----reaction, 103 f.

Judas Maccabæus, 187

Judges, Book, 81 ff.
----stories of deliverance, 84 ff.
----interpretation of history, 81, 83
----original close of the Book, 91

Judgment, last, in Isa. _24-27_, 156 f.

Julius Africanus, 15

Kadesh, 70

Kingdom, founding, two accounts, 92
----division of, 108

Kings, Books, 100 ff.
----2 Kings _18-20_ = Isa. _36-39_, 114

Koheleth, the name, 243

Lamentations, Book, 229 ff.

Latin Bible, 17

Laws, given at Sinai, 49
----Ezra's, ratification of, 130

Legends, rise of, 98

Leviathan, 156

Levites, choice of, in Num., 55 f.
----in Chron., 123

Leviticus, Book, 52 ff.

Little Horn, Dan. 8, 185

Love, principle of religion in Hos., 192 f.

Malachi, Book, 215 f.

Manasseh, king, his sins, 104

Medes, 152

Merodach Baladan, 116, 153

Messianic prophecy, _see_ Golden Age

Micah, Book, 201 ff.

Micaiah ben Imlah, 112, 145

Midrash, of Kings, 124, 127

Minor Prophets, 190 ff.

Mixed marriages, 129, 130, 217

Myths, Babylonian, in Gen., 177 f.

Moloch, 104

Monotheism, in Deut., 59
----in Isa. _40-66_, 161

Naboth's vineyard, 111

Nahum, Book, 204 f.

Nehemiah, mission to Jerusalem, 129 f.
----Memoirs, 129, 131, 183
----Book, 118, 128 ff.

New Year, 48

Nineveh, prophecy against, Zeph., 208
----Nah., 204 f.

Numbers, Book, 55 ff.

Obadiah, Book, 200

Old Testament, the name, 7
----Jewish, divisions, 8
----order of books, 8
----sacred scriptures, 25
----a national literature, 26 ff.
----literary quality, 28 f.

Omri, king, 109 f.

Origen, 16

P (Priestly authors), 35 f.
----Origins of Religious Institutions, 44 f.
----in Gen., contents, 45 ff.
----diction and style, 46
----conception of God, 47
----the revelation at Sinai, 51
----age of the laws in, 66 f.
----age and origin of P, 56 f., 65 f.
----united with J E D, 72
----in Jos., 78

Passover, 48

Patriarchs, in J and E, 35 ff.

Pentateuch, 29 ff.
----the law of Moses, 31
----names of the books, 29
----contents, 29-31
----beginnings of criticism, 32 ff.
----main sources, 33 ff.
----method of the author, 72 f.
----composition, 65 ff.
----age of, as a whole, 72 f.
----_See_ under the several Books, also, J, E, D, P.

Peoples of the land, 122

Porphyry, 187

Priesthood, in Chron., 121, 122 f.

Priests' Code, 56 f., 130, 134

Priests and levites, cities, in Jos., 78

Priests, invective in Mal., 216

Primeval History, sources, 41
----ultimate sources, 42 f.

Prophets, Former and Latter, 8
----in old Israel, 144 f.
----societies, or orders of, 145 f.
----popular, 202 f.
----bad repute of, 196, 214
----ninth century, 110 ff.
----eighth century, 146 f., 190, 199

Proverbs, Book, 231 ff.

Providence, scepticism in Eccles., 243, 244

Psalms, Book, 218 ff.
----older hymn books, 220
----liturgical and devotional use, 218 f.
----titles, 219
----Elohistic book (Ps. _42-82_), 220, 224
----Davidic, 223, 224, 225, 226
----Asaphite and Korahite, 221, 224
----Songs of Ascents, Hallels, 222
----Maccabæan, 226 f.
----age of the Book, 223 ff.
----religious conceptions, 227 f.

Purim, 139

Religion, idea of, in Hos., 191 f.
----in Deut. 59
----in Mic., 203
----in Isa. _40-66_, 161 f.
----in Proverbs, 232
----true, among the heathen, 216

Restoration, in Ezek., 179
----in Isa., 148 ff.
----_See_ Golden Age

Retribution, orthodoxy of Job's friends, 237

Ruth, Book, 139 ff.

Sacrifice, patriarchal, 51 f.
----ritual laws, in Lev. _1-7_, 52
----prophetic rejection, 151 f., 198

Samaria, Omri's new capital, 110
----fall of, 114

Samaritan sect, in Jewish eyes, 122

Samuel, last of the judges, 90 f.

Samuel, Books, 91 ff.

Sanballat, 130

"Scriptures," class of sacred books, 8
----disputed, 9

Scythians, 170 f., 207

Seers, 144

Sennacherib, siege of Jerusalem, 115

Septuagint, _see_ Greek Version

Serpent, idol, in temple, 114 f.

Servant of Jehovah, in Isa., _40_ ff., 164

Sheol, imagery, 152, 156, 177 f.

Shishak, invasion by, 109

Siloam tunnel, 116

Sinai, 48

Sirach, Book, _see_ Ecclesiasticus

Scepticism, 217

Solomon, 97
----character of his reign, 100
----his wealth and wisdom, 105
----reputation for wisdom, 234
----Proverbs ascribed to, 234 f.
----Eccles. ascribed to, 243
----Psalms ascribed to, 223 f.

Song of Deborah, 89

Song of Songs, 246 ff.
----allegorized, 247
----age, 249
----inspiration, 8, 247

Story books, Jewish, 134 ff.

Suffering of the good, in Job, 237 ff.

Susanna and the Elders, 15, 189.

Symbolical actions in Ezek., 178

Syria ("Assyria"), 155, 215

Syriac Bible, contents of O. T., 20

Syrian wars, 110

Tabernacle, in P, 51

Temple, dedication of, 106
----abode of Jehovah, 103
----no protection to the city, 166
----rebuilding of, 209

Theodicy, in Job, 237 ff., 242

Tyre, prophecy against, Ezek., 176

Uncanonical books, Hebrew and Greek, 12
----_See_ also Apocrypha

Valley of dry bones, 179

Visions, in prophets, 149, 178, 183 ff., 197, 211

Wedding songs, 248

Wisdom, in Proverbs, 232
----personified, 233
----divine, in Job _28_, 241 f.

Worship, prophetic attitude, 151 f.
----_See_ Sacrifice

Zechariah, Book, 211 ff.

Zech., _9-11, 12-14_, age, 214, 215

Zedekiah, king, 175 f.

Zephaniah, Book, 207 ff.

Zerubbabel, Messianic hopes, 210 f.

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_25. THE CIVILISATION OF CHINA_

By H. A. GILES, LL.D., Professor of Chinese at Cambridge.
"In all the mass of facts, Professor Giles never becomes
dull. He is always ready with a ghost story or a street
adventure for the reader's recreation."--_Spectator._

_29. THE DAWN OF HISTORY_

By J. L. MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., Wykeham Professor of Ancient
History, Oxford. "There is not a page in it that is not
suggestive."--_Manchester Guardian._

_33. THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND_

_A Study in Political Evolution_

By Prof. A. F. POLLARD, M.A. With a Chronological Table. "It
takes its place at once among the authoritative works on
English history."--_Observer._

_34. CANADA_

By A. G. BRADLEY. "The volume makes an immediate appeal to
the man who wants to know something vivid and true about
Canada."--_Canadian Gazette._

_37. PEOPLES & PROBLEMS OF INDIA_

By Sir T. W. HOLDERNESS, K.C.S.I., Permanent Under-Secretary
of State of the India Office. "Just the book which newspaper
readers require to-day, and a marvel of
comprehensiveness."--_Pall Mall Gazette._

_42. ROME_

By W. WARDE FOWLER, M.A. "A masterly sketch of Roman
character and of what it did for the world."--_The
Spectator._

_48. THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR_

By F. L. PAXSON, Professor of American History, Wisconsin
University. (With Maps.) "A stirring study."--_The
Guardian._

_51. WARFARE IN BRITAIN_

By HILAIRE BELLOC, M.A. "Rich in suggestion for the
historical student."--_Edinburgh Evening News._

_55. MASTER MARINERS_

By J. R. SPEARS. "A continuous story of shipping progress
and adventure.... It reads like a romance."--_Glasgow
Herald._

_61. NAPOLEON_

By HERBERT FISHER, LL.D., F.B.A., Vice-Chancellor of
Sheffield University. (With Maps.) The story of the great
Bonaparte's youth, his career, and his downfall, with some
sayings of Napoleon, a genealogy, and a bibliography.

_66. THE NAVY AND SEA POWER_

By DAVID HANNAY. The author traces the growth of naval power
from early times, and discusses its principles and effects
upon the history of the Western world.

_71. GERMANY OF TO-DAY_

By CHARLES TOWER. "It would be difficult to name any better
summary."--_Daily News._

_82. PREHISTORIC BRITAIN_

By ROBERT MUNRO, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Illustrated.)

_Literature and Art_

_2. SHAKESPEARE_

By JOHN MASEFIELD. "The book is a joy. We have had
half-a-dozen more learned books on Shakespeare in the last
few years, but not one so wise."--_Manchester Guardian._

_27. ENGLISH LITERATURE: MODERN_

By G. H. MAIR, M.A. "Altogether a fresh and individual
book."--_Observer._

_35. LANDMARKS IN FRENCH LITERATURE_

By G. L. STRACHEY. "It is difficult to imagine how a better
account of French Literature could be given in 250 small
pages."--_The Times._

_39. ARCHITECTURE_

By Prof. W. R. LETHABY. (Over forty Illustrations.) "Popular
guide-books to architecture are, as a rule, not worth much.
This volume is a welcome exception."--_Building News._
"Delightfully bright reading."--_Christian World._

_43. ENGLISH LITERATURE: MEDIÆVAL_

By Prof. W. P. KER, M.A. "Prof. Ker, one of the soundest
scholars in English we have, is the very man to put an
outline of English Mediæval Literature before the
uninstructed public. His knowledge and taste are
unimpeachable, and his style is effective, simple, yet never
dry."--_The Athenæum._

_45. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE_

By L. PEARSALL SMITH, M.A. "A wholly fascinating study of
the different streams that went to the making of the great
river of the English speech."--_Daily News._

_52. GREAT WRITERS OF AMERICA_

By Prof. J. ERSKINE and Prof. W. P. TRENT. "An admirable
summary, from Franklin to Mark Twain, enlivened by a dry
humour."--_Athenæum._

_63. PAINTERS AND PAINTING_

By Sir FREDERICK WEDMORE. (With 16 half-tone illustrations.)
From the Primitives to the Impressionists.

_64. DR JOHNSON AND HIS CIRCLE_

By JOHN BAILEY, M.A. "A most delightful essay."--_Christian
World._

_65. THE LITERATURE OF GERMANY_

By Professor J. G. ROBERTSON, M.A., Ph.D. "Under the
author's skilful treatment the subject shows life and
continuity."--_Athenæum._

_70. THE VICTORIAN AGE IN LITERATURE_

By G. K. CHESTERTON. "The book is everywhere immensely
alive, and no one will put it down without a sense of having
taken a tonic or received a series of electric
shocks."--_The Times._

_73. THE WRITING OF ENGLISH_

By W. T. BREWSTER, A.M., Professor of English in Columbia
University. "Sensible in its teaching, and not over-rigidly
conventional in its manner."--_Manchester Guardian._

_75. ANCIENT ART AND RITUAL_

By JANE E. HARRISON, LL.D., D.Litt. "Charming in style and
learned in manner."--_Daily News._

_76. EURIPIDES AND HIS AGE_

By GILBERT MURRAY, D.Litt., LL.D., F.B.A., Regius Professor
of Greek at Oxford. "A beautiful piece of work.... Just in
the fulness of time, and exactly in the right place....
Euripides has come into his own."--_The Nation._

_Science_

_7. MODERN GEOGRAPHY_

By Dr MARION NEWBIGIN. (Illustrated.) "Geography, again:
what a dull, tedious study that was wont to be!... But Miss
Marion Newbigin invests its dry bones with the flesh and
blood of romantic interest."--_Daily Telegraph._

_9. THE EVOLUTION OF PLANTS_

By Dr D. H. SCOTT, M.A., F.R.S., late Hon. Keeper of the
Jodrell Laboratory, Kew. (Fully illustrated.) "The
information is as trustworthy as first-hand knowledge can
make it.... Dr Scott's candid and familiar style makes the
difficult subject both fascinating and easy."--_Gardeners'
Chronicle._

_17. HEALTH AND DISEASE_

By W. LESLIE MACKENZIE, M.D., Local Government Board,
Edinburgh. "Dr Mackenzie adds to a thorough grasp of the
problems an illuminating style, and an arresting manner of
treating a subject often dull and sometimes
unsavoury."--_Economist._

_18. INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS_

By A. N. WHITEHEAD, Sc.D., F.R.S. (With Diagrams.) "Mr
Whitehead has discharged with conspicuous success the task
he is so exceptionally qualified to undertake. For he is one
of our great authorities upon the foundations of the
science."--_Westminster Gazette._

_19. THE ANIMAL WORLD_

By Professor F. W. GAMBLE, D.Sc., F.R.S. With Introduction
by Sir Oliver Lodge. (Many Illustrations.) "A delightful and
instructive epitome of animal (and vegetable) life.... A
fascinating and suggestive survey."--_Morning Post._

_20. EVOLUTION_

By Professor J. ARTHUR THOMSON and Professor PATRICK GEDDES.
"A many-coloured and romantic panorama, opening up, like no
other book we know, a rational vision of
world-development."--_Belfast News-Letter._

_22. CRIME AND INSANITY_

By Dr C. A. MERCIER. "Furnishes much valuable information
from one occupying the highest position among medico-legal
psychologists."--_Asylum News._

_28. PSYCHICAL RESEARCH_

By Sir W. F. BARRETT, F.R.S., Professor of Physics, Royal
College of Science, Dublin, 1873-1910. "What he has to say
on thought-reading, hypnotism, telepathy, crystal-vision,
spiritualism, divinings, and so on, will be read with
avidity."--_Dundee Courier._

_31. ASTRONOMY_

By A. R. HINKS, M.A., Chief Assistant, Cambridge
Observatory. "Original in thought, eclectic in substance,
and critical in treatment.... No better little book is
available."--_School World._

_32. INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE_

By J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., Regius Professor of Natural
History, Aberdeen University. "Professor Thomson's
delightful literary style is well known; and here he
discourses freshly and easily on the methods of science and
its relations with philosophy, art, religion, and practical
life."--_Aberdeen Journal._

_36. CLIMATE AND WEATHER_

By Prof. H. N. DICKSON, D.Sc.Oxon., M.A., F.R.S.E.,
President of the Royal Meteorological Society. (With
Diagrams.) "The author has succeeded in presenting in a very
lucid and agreeable manner the causes of the movements of
the atmosphere and of the more stable winds."--_Manchester
Guardian._

_41. ANTHROPOLOGY_

By R. R. MARETT, M.A., Reader in Social Anthropology in
Oxford University. "An absolutely perfect handbook, so clear
that a child could understand it, so fascinating and human
that it beats fiction 'to a frazzle.'"--_Morning Leader._

_44. THE PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGY_

By Prof. J. G. MCKENDRICK, M.D. "It is a delightful and
wonderfully comprehensive handling of a subject which, while
of importance to all, does not readily lend itself to
untechnical explanation.... Upon every page of it is stamped
the impress of a creative imagination."--_Glasgow Herald._

_46. MATTER AND ENERGY_

By F. SODDY, M.A., F.R.S. "Prof. Soddy has successfully
accomplished the very difficult task of making physics of
absorbing interest on popular lines."--_Nature._

_49. PSYCHOLOGY, THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOUR_

By Prof. W. MCDOUGALL, F.R.S., M.B. "A happy example of the
non-technical handling of an unwieldy science, suggesting
rather than dogmatising. It should whet appetites for deeper
study."--_Christian World._

_53. THE MAKING OF THE EARTH_

By Prof. J. W. GREGORY, F.R.S. (With 38 Maps and Figures.)
"A fascinating little volume.... Among the many good things
contained in the series this takes a high place."--_The
Athenæum._

_57. THE HUMAN BODY_

By A. KEITH, M.D., LL.D., Conservator of Museum and
Hunterian Professor, Royal College of Surgeons.
(Illustrated.) "It literally makes the 'dry bones' to live.
It will certainly take a high place among the classics of
popular science."--_Manchester Guardian._

_58. ELECTRICITY_

By GISBERT KAPP, D.Eng., Professor of Electrical Engineering
in the University of Birmingham. (Illustrated.) "It will be
appreciated greatly by learners and by the great number of
amateurs who are interested in what is one of the most
fascinating of scientific studies."--_Glasgow Herald._

_62. THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF LIFE_

By Dr BENJAMIN MOORE, Professor of Bio-Chemistry, University
College, Liverpool. "Stimulating, learned,
lucid."--_Liverpool Courier._

_67. CHEMISTRY_

By RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Finsbury Technical College, London. Presents clearly,
without the detail demanded by the expert, the way in which
chemical science has developed, and the stage it has
reached.

_72. PLANT LIFE_

By Prof. J. B. FARMER, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Illustrated.)
"Professor Farmer has contrived to convey all the most vital
facts of plant physiology, and also to present a good many
of the chief problems which confront investigators to-day in
the realms of morphology and of heredity."--_Morning Post._

_78. THE OCEAN_

A General Account of the Science of the Sea. By Sir JOHN
MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S. (Illus.) "A life's experience is
crowded into this volume. A very useful feature is the ten
pages of illustrations and coloured maps at the
end."--_Gloucester Journal._

_79. NERVES_

By Prof. D. FRASER HARRIS, M.D., D.Sc. (Illustrated.) A
description, in non-technical language, of the nervous
system, its intricate mechanism and the strange phenomena of
energy and fatigue, with some practical reflections.

_Philosophy and Religion_

_15. MOHAMMEDANISM_

By Prof. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.Litt. "This generous
shilling's worth of wisdom.... A delicate, humorous, and
most responsible tractate by an illuminative
professor."--_Daily Mail._

_40. THE PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY_

By the Hon. BERTRAND RUSSELL, F.R.S. "A book that the 'man
in the street' will recognise at once to be a boon....
Consistently lucid and non-technical
throughout."--_Christian World._

_47. BUDDHISM_

By Mrs RHYS DAVIDS, M.A. "The author presents very
attractively as well as very learnedly the philosophy of
Buddhism as the greatest scholars of the day interpret
it."--_Daily News._

_50. NONCONFORMITY: Its ORIGIN and PROGRESS_

By Principal _W. B. Selbie_, M.A. "The historical part is
brilliant in its insight, clarity, and proportion; and in
the later chapters Dr Selbie proves himself to be an ideal
exponent of sound and moderate views."--_Christian World._

_54. ETHICS_

By G. E. MOORE, M.A., Lecturer in Moral Science in Cambridge
University. "A very lucid though closely reasoned outline of
the logic of good conduct."--_Christian World._

_56. THE MAKING OF THE NEW TESTAMENT_

By Prof. B. W. BACON, LL.D., D.D. "Professor Bacon has
boldly, and wisely, taken his own line, and has produced, as
a result, an extraordinarily vivid, stimulating, and lucid
book."--_Manchester Guardian._

_60. MISSIONS: THEIR RISE and DEVELOPMENT_

By Mrs CREIGHTON. "Very interestingly done.... Its style is
simple, direct, unhackneyed, and should find appreciation
where a more fervently pious style of writing
repels."--_Methodist Recorder._

_68. COMPARATIVE RELIGION_

By Prof. J. ESTLIN CARPENTER, D.Litt., Principal of
Manchester College, Oxford. "Puts into the reader's hand a
wealth of learning and independent thought."--_Christian
World._

_74. A HISTORY OF FREEDOM OF THOUGHT_

By J. B. BURY, Litt.D., LL.D., Regius Professor of Modern
History at Cambridge. "A little masterpiece, which every
thinking man will enjoy."--_The Observer._

_84. LITERATURE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT_

By Prof. GEORGE MOORE, D.D., LL.D., of Harvard. A detailed
examination of the books of the Old Testament in the light
of the most recent research.

_Social Science_

_1. PARLIAMENT_

Its History, Constitution, and Practice. By Sir COURTENAY P.
ILBERT, G.C.B., K.C.S.I., Clerk of the House of Commons.
"The best book on the history and practice of the House of
Commons since Bagehot's 'Constitution.'"--_Yorkshire Post._

_5. THE STOCK EXCHANGE_

By F. W. HIRST, Editor of "The Economist." "To an
unfinancial mind must be a revelation.... The book is as
clear, vigorous, and sane as Bagehot's 'Lombard Street,'
than which there is no higher compliment."--_Morning
Leader._

_6. IRISH NATIONALITY_

By Mrs J. R. GREEN. "As glowing as it is learned. No book
could be more timely."--_Daily News._

_10. THE SOCIALIST MOVEMENT_

By J. RAMSAY MACDONALD, M.P. "Admirably adapted for the
purpose of exposition."--_The Times._

_11. CONSERVATISM_

By LORD HUGH CECIL, M.A., M.P. "One of those great little
books which seldom appear more than once in a
generation."--_Morning Post._

_16. THE SCIENCE OF WEALTH_

By J. A. HOBSON, M.A. "Mr J. A. Hobson holds an unique
position among living economists.... Original, reasonable,
and illuminating."--_The Nation._

_21. LIBERALISM_

By L. T. HOBHOUSE, M.A., Professor of Sociology in the
University of London. "A book of rare quality.... We have
nothing but praise for the rapid and masterly summaries of
the arguments from first principles which form a large part
of this book."--_Westminster Gazette._

_24. THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRY_

By D. H. MACGREGOR, M.A., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Leeds. "A volume so dispassionate in terms
may be read with profit by all interested in the present
state of unrest."--_Aberdeen Journal._

_26. AGRICULTURE_

By Prof. W. SOMERVILLE, F.L.S. "It makes the results of
laboratory work at the University accessible to the
practical farmer."--_Athenæum._

_30. ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH LAW_

By W. M. GELDART, M.A., B.C.L., Vinerian Professor of
English Law at Oxford. "Contains a very clear account of the
elementary principles underlying the rules of English
Law."--_Scots Law Times._

_38. THE SCHOOL: An Introduction to the Study of Education._

By J. J. FINDLAY, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Education in
Manchester University. "An amazingly comprehensive
volume.... It is a remarkable performance, distinguished in
its crisp, striking phraseology as well as its inclusiveness
of subject-matter."--_Morning Post._

_59. ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY_

By S. J. CHAPMAN, M.A., Professor of Political Economy in
Manchester University. "Its importance is not to be measured
by its price. Probably the best recent critical exposition
of the analytical method in economic science."--_Glasgow
Herald._

_69. THE NEWSPAPER_

By G. BINNEY DIBBLEE, M.A. (Illustrated.) The best account
extant of the organisation of the newspaper press, at home
and abroad.

_77. SHELLEY, GODWIN, AND THEIR CIRCLE_

By H. N. BRAILSFORD, M.A. "Mr Brailsford sketches vividly
the influence of the French Revolution on Shelley's and
Godwin's England; and the charm and strength of his style
make his book an authentic contribution to
literature."--_The Bookman._

_80. CO-PARTNERSHIP AND PROFIT-SHARING_

By ANEURIN WILLIAMS, M.A.--"A judicious but enthusiastic
history, with much interesting speculation on the future of
Co-partnership."--_Christian World._

_81. PROBLEMS OF VILLAGE LIFE_

By E. N. BENNETT, M.A. Discusses the leading aspects of the
British land problem, including housing, small holdings,
rural credit, and the minimum wage.

_83. COMMON-SENSE IN LAW_

By Prof. P. VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L.

_85. UNEMPLOYMENT_

By Prof. A. C. PIGOU, M.A.

IN PREPARATION

_ANCIENT EGYPT._ By F. LL. GRIFFITH, M.A.
_THE ANCIENT EAST._ By D. G. HOGARTH, M.A., F.B.A.
_A SHORT HISTORY OF EUROPE._ By HERBERT FISHER, LL.D.
_THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE._ By NORMAN H. BAYNES.
_THE REFORMATION._ By President LINDSAY, LL.D.
_A SHORT HISTORY OF RUSSIA._ By Prof. MILYOUKOV.
_MODERN TURKEY._ By D. G. HOGARTH, M.A.
_FRANCE OF TO-DAY._ By ALBERT THOMAS.
_HISTORY OF SCOTLAND._ By Prof. R. S. RAIT, M.A.
_LATIN AMERICA._ By Prof. W. R. SHEPHERD.
_HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF SPAIN._ By J. FITZMAURICE-KELLY, F.B.A.,
Litt. D.
_LATIN LITERATURE._ By Prof. J. S. PHILLIMORE.
_THE RENAISSANCE._ By Miss EDITH SICHEL.
_ITALIAN ART OF THE RENAISSANCE._ By ROGER E. FRY.
_LITERARY TASTE._ By THOMAS SECCOMBE.
_CHAUCER AND HIS TIME._ By Miss G. E. HADOW.
_WILLIAM MORRIS AND HIS CIRCLE._ By A. CLUTTON BROCK.
_SCANDINAVIAN HISTORY & LITERATURE._ By T. C. SNOW.
_THE MINERAL WORLD._ By Sir T. H. HOLLAND, K.C.I.E., D.Sc.
_SEX._ By Prof. J. A. THOMSON and Prof. PATRICK GEDDES.
_THE GROWTH OF EUROPE._ By Prof. GRENVILLE COLE.
_BETWEEN THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS._ By Canon R. H. CHARLES, D.D.
_A HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY._ By CLEMENT WEBB, M.A.
_POLITICAL THOUGHT IN ENGLAND: From Bacon to Locke._ By G. P. GOOCH, M.A.
_POLITICAL THOUGHT IN ENGLAND: From Bentham to J. S. Mill._ By Prof.
W. L. DAVIDSON.
_POLITICAL THOUGHT IN ENGLAND: From Herbert Spencer to To-day._ By
ERNEST BARKER, M.A.
_THE CRIMINAL AND THE COMMUNITY._ By Viscount ST. CYRES.
_THE CIVIL SERVICE._ By GRAHAM WALLAS, M.A.
_THE SOCIAL SETTLEMENT._ By JANE ADDAMS and R. A. WOODS.
_GREAT INVENTIONS._ By Prof. J. L. MYRES, M.A., F.S.A.
_TOWN PLANNING._ By RAYMOND UNWIN.

London: WILLIAMS AND NORGATE

_And of all Bookshops and Bookstalls._

* * * * *

Transcriber's note:

Minor typographical errors and inconsistencies have been silently normalized except for the following:

Page 27: "eighth century and Judah in the beginning of the sixth". "of" has been added.

Page 100: "saying much more that the facts warrant". "that" has been changed to "than".

Page 139: "the festiva of Purim". "festiva" has been changed to "festival".

Page 224: "the editor thought that Ps. cxxv i. 1 referred to the building of the temple". "cxxv i" has been changed to "cxxvii" which according to the context appears to be intended.