Chapter XVIII: Part 18

[28] The Welch laws of Howel Dha, that is, Howel the Good,
are published by Dr. Wotton, in folio, 1735.

[29] See Inett, History of the Church of England, t. 1.

[30] Rosweide, Vit. Patr. l. 5, lib. 4, n. 38.

[31] Ibid. l. 6, lib. 2, n. 14.

[32] Cotelier, Monum. Gr. p. 675.

[33] Cotelier, ib. p. 670, Rosweide, l. 3, p. 103.

[34] Cotelier, ib. p. 672.

[35] Rosweide, Vid. Patr. l. 5, lib. 15, n. 47.

[36] Rosweide, Vit. Patr. l. 5, lib. 1, n. 17.

[37] Rosweide, Vit. Patr. l. 5, lib. 15, n. 44.

[38] Ibid. n. 46.

[39] Ibid. l. 5, lib. 8, n. 15.

[40] Ibid. l. 6, lib. 9, n. 5.

[41] Cotelier, ibid. p. 669.

[42] Rosweide, Vit. Patr. l. 5, lib. 4, n. 39, et l. 6,
lib. 3, n. 6.

[43] Cotelier, p. 671.

[44] Rufin. ap. Rosw. l. 3, n. 162.

[45] Rosweide, Vit. Patr. l. 5, lib. 16, n. 10.

[46] Cotelier, t. 1, p. 678.

[47] The monastery of Blangy was founded in 686. Having
been destroyed during the incursions of the Normans,
it was rebuilt in the eleventh century, and given to
the religious of the Order of St. Benedict. It is still
in being.

[48] She was widow of Guy of Chatillon, count of St. Pol,
brother to Maud.

[49] St. Cypr. l. de Oper. et Eleem.

[50] L. 1, de Offic. c. 30.

[51] The abbé Ma-Geoghegan, in his history of Ireland,
published in Paris in 1758, asserts that the Scots
were originally Scythians, or properly Celto-Scythians,
of Spanish original. Foreign writers of repute bear
witness to this extraction: the native historians of
Ireland have at all times been unanimous in recording
it, and have adduced testimonies in support of it,
which cannot be easily overthrown, as some moderns, who
made the attempt, have experienced. The ancient Fileas
of Ireland have indeed (like the old poets of all other
European nations) shrouded real facts in a veil of
pompous fables. Thus they pretended the leaders of this
Spanish colony were the descendants of a celebrated
Breogan, and that a grandson of this Breogan was
married to an Egyptian heroine named Scota, from whom
the Irish took the name of Kinea-Scuit or Scots, as
they took the appellation of Clan-Breogan or Brigantes,
from the former. But such inventions, acceptable to
the credulity and flattering to the pride of nations,
cannot discredit any fact otherwise well attested.
The British Brigantes were probably descendants of the
Irish Brigantes, as the Scots of Britain were certainly
descendants from those of Ireland. Tacitus, in the
first age of the Christian era, has thought from the
difference of complexion and frame of body observable
among the British tribes of his time, that some were of
Spanish original; and an earlier writer, Seneca, in his
satire on the emperor Claudius, makes mention of the
Scuta-Brigantes, which Scaliger, by needless correction,
makes Scoto-Brigantes, as the Irish wrote Scuit and
Scoit indifferently. This testimony of Seneca is a
proof that the name Scots or Scuits, was known to
some Roman writers so early as the first century; and
the Irish appellations of Kinea-Scuit and Clan-Breogan
plainly point out the proper country of those
Scuta-Brigantes in the time of the emperor Nero.

Mr. Geoghegan looks upon the Irish to be a mother
tongue; and it may justly be so denominated,
notwithstanding the adoption of some foreign terms,
and some variations of construction introduced by time
in all languages, before they arrive at their classical
standard. Some writings of the fifth century show
that this language was at its full perfection before
the introduction of the gospel by Roman missionaries
in the fourth and fifth centuries. The notion that
this language is a dialect of the modern Biscayan is
undoubtedly groundless. The latter tongue owes its
original to some nation of those barbarians who settled
in Guipuscoa and other parts of the Pyrenean regions,
on the decline of the Roman empire, nor are the few
words common in the Basque and Irish tongues any
proof that the one is descended from the other. This
observation will hold good relatively to the Welsh and
Irish languages. They differ entirely in syntax, and
show that the two nations speaking those tongues have
different Celtic originals.

Bollandus says that St. Patrick taught the first
alphabet to the Irish: he means the Roman alphabet,
and should not forget that it was taught very near an
age before, by earlier missionaries in the parts of
Ireland which they converted to the faith. In the
antecedent times the Fileas or ancient Irish writers,
inscribed their ideas on tablets of wood, by the means
of seventeen cyphers, of which their ancestors learned
the use before their arrival in Ireland; nor is this
fact obscured, but is rather enlightened by a fable of
the Fileas, setting forth that some of those ancestors
were instructed in letters by a celebrated Phenius,
famous for literary knowledge in the East. Through this
poetical veil we plainly discern the Phenicians, who
first instructed the Europeans (the Greeks, Lybians,
Italians, and Spaniards particularly) in the use of
letters and other arts. Spain, according to Strabo,
had the use of letters in a very early period; and
that a colony from that country should import into,
and cultivate also, those elements of knowledge in
Ireland, is not improbable: the perfection of the Irish
language before the introduction of Christianity is an
incontrovertible proof of the fact.

* * * * *

The Scots are represented as a rude and barbarous
people in the fourth and fifth ages, even by some
eminent ecclesiastical writers. But these as well as
other foreign historians have not, if at all, been
resident long enough in Ireland to pronounce the
natives barbarous, if those writers took that epithet
in the worst sense it can bear. St. Jerom avers that
when an adolescentulus, he saw a Scot in Gaul feeding
upon human flesh, but the child, in this case, might
impose upon the man, or if otherwise, a nation is not
to be characterised from the barbarity of an individual,
or even of a single tribe in an extensive country. That
some barbarous customs prevailed in Ireland during the
ages mentioned, cannot be denied; and that some prevail
at this day in most of the modern states of Europe,
called enlightened, is a matter of fatal experience. In
the documents still preserved in the native language of
the ancient Irish, we learn that after the reform made
of the order of Fileas in the first century, houses
and ample landed endowments were set apart for those
philosophers, who, in the midst of the most furious
civil wars, were by common consent to be left
undisturbed; that they were to be exempt from every
employment but that of improving themselves in abstract
knowledge, and cultivating the principal youths of the
nation in their several colleges; that in the course
of their researches they discovered and exposed the
corrupt doctrines of the Druids; and that an enlightened
monarch called Cormac O’Quin took the lead among the
Fileas in the attack upon that order of priests, and
declared publicly for the unity of the Godhead against
Polytheism, and for the adoration of one supreme,
omnipotent, and merciful Creator of heaven and earth.
The example of that monarch, and the disquisitions of
the Fileas relating to religion and morality, paved
the way for the reception of the gospel; and as the
doctrines of our Saviour made the quickest progress
among civilized nations, the conversion of Ireland
in a shorter compass of time than we read of in the
conversion of any other European country, brings a
proof that the natives were not the rude barbarians
some ancient authors have represented them to be.

[52] Antiq. Brit. Eccl. c. 16, p. 408, 412.

[53] Prosp. Contra Collat. c. 44.

[54] See the note on the life of St. Patrick in this work;
also Ware’s Antiq. by Harris, with his remarks on
Dempster, c. 1, p. 4.

[55] Usher, p. 418.

[56] Certain ancient principal Scottish saints are
commemorated in an ancient Scottish calendar published
by Mr. Robert Keith, as follows:

January
8. St. Nethalan, B. C. An. 452.
21. St. Vimin, B. An. 715.
29. St. Macwoloc, B. An. 720.
30. Saint Macglastian, B. An. 814.

February
7. St. Ronan, B. C. An. 603.

March
1. St. Minan, archdeacon, C. An. 879.
Also St. Marnan, B. An. 655.
4. St. Adrian, B. of St. Andrew’s, M. He was
slain by the Danes in 874, and buried in
the isle of Man.
6. St. Fredoline, C. An. 500.
11. St. Constantine, king of Scotland, a monk
and M. An. 556.
17. St. Kyrinus or Kyrstinus, surnamed Boniface,
B. of Ross, An. 660.

April
1. St. Gilbert, B. of Caithness, An. 1140.
12. St. Ternan, archbishop of the Picts, ordained
by Saint Palladius, about the year 450.
16. St. Manus or Mans, M. in Orkney, An. 1104.
19. Translation of St. Margaret’s body to
Dunfermline.

July
6. St. Palladius, apostle of Scotland.

August
10. St. Blanc, B. C.
27. St. Malrube, hermit, martyred by the Danes,
in Scotland, in 1040.

September
16. St. Minian, B. C. in 450, or according to
some, a whole century later.
22. St. Lolan, B. of Whithern or Galloway.

October
25. St. Marnoc, B. C. died at Kilmarnock in the
fourth or fifth century.

November
2. Saint Maure, from whom Kilmaures is named,
An. 899.
12. St. Macar, B. of Murray, M. 887.

St. Germanus, B. C. said to have been appointed bishop
of the isles by St. Patrick. Under his invocation the
cathedral of the isle of Man is dedicated. St. Macull
or Mauchold, in Latin Macallius, bishop in the same
place from 494 to 518. In his honor many churches are
dedicated in Scotland, and one in the isle of Man. He
is honored on the 25th of April. St. Brendan, from whom
a church in the isle of Man is called Kirk-Bradan, was
bishop of the isles in the ninth century.

N. B. The isle of Man has had its own bishop from the
time it came into the hands of the English in the days
of Edward I. of England, and David II. of Scotland. It
was anciently subject to the bishop of the Isles, who
always resided at Hy-columbkill till the extinction
of episcopacy in Scotland, in 1688. The bishops both
of the isles and of Man took the title of Episcopus
Sodorensis; which Mr. Keith (p. 175) derives (not from
any towns), but from the Greek word Soter or Saviour,
because the cathedral of Hy-columbkill is dedicated to
our Saviour. See Mr. Robert Keith, in his new Catalogue
of bishops in Scotland, printed at Edinburgh, in 4to.
An. 1755.

Le Neve supposes with Spotiswood that the isle of Man
had its bishops after Amphibalus, who lived in the
fourth age, that they were called bishops of Soder
from a village of that name in the island, and that the
title was transferred to the island of Hy-columbkill
in the eighth age, when the two sees were united into
one. But the succession of bishops in the isle of Man
is not sufficiently clear.

Matthew Paris says that Wycomb was first bishop of Man,
in the twelfth age, and that he was consecrated by the
archbishop of York. See Le Neve. Fasti Anglic.

[57] Hect. Boet. l. 7, fol. 128.

[58] Sozom. l. 3, c. 14.

[59] Rufin. b. 5, c. 10.

[60] Socrates, in all things he said, used to add this form
of speech, “By my Dæmon’s leave.” And just upon the
point of expiring, he ordered a cock to be sacrificed
to Esculapius (Plato’s Phædo sub finem). And in his
trial we read one article of his impeachment to have
been a charge of unnatural lust. Thales, the prince
of naturalists, being asked by Crœsus what God was,
put off that prince from time to time, saying, “I
will consider on it.” But the meanest mechanic among
the Christians can explain himself intelligibly on
the Creator of the universe. Diogenes could not be
contented in his tub without gratifying his passions.
And when with his dirty feet he trod upon Plato’s
costly carpets, crying that he trampled upon the pride
of Plato, he did this, as Plato answered him, with
greater pride. Pythagoras affected tyranny at Thurium,
and Zeno at Pyrene. Lycurgus made away with himself
because he was unable to bear the thought of the
Lacedæmonians correcting the severity of his laws.
Anaxagoras had not fidelity enough to restore to
strangers the goods which they had committed to his
trust. Aristotle could not sit easy till he proudly
made his friend Hermias sit below him; and he was as
gross a flatterer of Alexander for the sake of vanity,
as Plato was of Dionysius for his belly. From Plato
and Socrates the stoics derived their proud maxim, “The
wise man is self-sufficient.” Epictetus himself allows
“to be proud of the conquest of any vice.” Aristotle
(Ethic. ad Nicom. l. 10, c. 7) and Cicero patronize
revenge. See B. Cumberland of the Laws of Nature, c. 9,
p. 346. Abbé Batteux demonstrates the impiety and vices
of Epicurus mingled with some virtues and great moral
truths. (La Morale d’Epicure, à Paris, 1758.) The like
blemishes may be found in the doctrine and lives of
all the other boasted philosophers of paganism. See
Theodoret. De curandis Græcor. affectibus, &c.

[61] King Ina ruled the West-Saxons thirty-seven years
with great glory, from the abdication of Ceadwalla
who died at Rome. Ina vanquished the Welsh, several
domestic rebels, and foreign enemies; made many pious
foundations, and rebuilt in a sumptuous manner the
abbey of Glastenbury. Ralph or Ranulph Higden in
his Polychronicon, and others say this king first
established the Rome-scot or Peter-pence, which was a
collection of a penny from every house in his kingdom
paid yearly to the see of Rome. By considering the
vanities of the world and moved by the frequent
exhortations of the queen his wife, he renounced the
world in 728 in the highest pitch of human felicity,
and leaving his kingdom to Ethelheard his kinsman,
travelled to Rome, was there shorn a monk, and grew old
in that mean habit. His wife accompanied him thither,
confirmed him in that course, and imitated his example:
so that living not far from each other in mutual love,
and in the constant exercises of penance and devotion,
they departed this life at Rome not without doing
divers miracles, as William of Malmesbury and H.
Huntingdon write. In 696 Sebbi, the pious king of the
East-Saxons, preferred also a private life to a crown,
took the monastic habit with the blessing of bishop
Whaldere, successor to St. Erkenwald in the see of
London, after bestowing a great sum of money in charity,
and soon after departed this life in the odor of
sanctity. See Bede b. 4, c. 11.

[62] Spelman Conc. Brit. t. 1.

[63] B. 5, ch. 19.

[64] Bede, p. 3, c. 6.

[65] On St. Edelburga see Solier the Bollandist, ad diem
7 Julij, t. 2, p. 481. She is called in French St.
Aubierge. See on her also Du Plessis, Hist. de Meaux.

[66] Published by Dom. Martenne, Anecdot. t. 4.

[67] Urban VIII. Constit. 58. _Cum sicut._ An. 1626, Bullar.
Roman. t. 5, p. 120.

[68] Grotius and others demonstrate the Greek language to
have been, in the first ages of Christianity, common
in Palestine; but this cannot be extended to all
the country people, as this passage and other proofs
clearly show. Hence Eusebius wrote his Acts of the
Martyrs of Palestine in Syro-Chaldaic, but abridged the
same in Greek, in the eighth book of his Church History.

[69] The old Latin Acts write his name Flavian, and some
Fabian, by mistaking the Syriac name, which is written
without vowels.

[70] Anglia Sacra, t. 1, p. 613, published by Wharton.

[71] Ibid. p. 606.

[72] Sozom. l. 3, c. 16.

[73] T. 3, p. 23.

[74] On this genuine work see Assemani, Op. t. 1, p. 119,
ib. Proleg, c. 1, et t. 2, p. 37. Item Biblioth. Orient.
t. 1, p. 141. The disciples of St. Ephrem committed
to writing this same history, as they had often heard
it from his mouth. Hence we have so many relations
of it. One formerly published by Gerard Vossius, is
republished by Assemani (t. 3, p. 23). But the most
complete account is that given us in the saint’s
confession, extant in the new Vatican edition.

[75] See Appendix on St. Ephrem’s Works, at the end of the
life.

[76] Serm. Ascetic. 1, p. 4.

[77] In encomio Basilij, t. 2.

[78] From his conversing with St. Basil by an interpreter
it is clear that St. Ephrem never understood the Greek
language. The old vicious translation of the life of
St. Basil, under the name of St. Amphilochius, pretends
that St. Basil obtained for him miraculously the
knowledge of the Greek tongue, and ordained him priest.
But this is a double mistake, though the latter was
admitted by Baillet. Saint Jerom, Palladius, and other
ancients always style him deacon, never priest. Nor
does Pseudo Amphilochius say, that St. Basil raised
St. Ephrem, but only his disciple and companion to the
priesthood, as the new translation of this piece, and an
attentive inspection of the original text, demonstrate.

[79] T. 4, b. 1, ed. Vaticanæ.

[80] Necrosima, can. 81, p. 335, t. 6.

[81] St. Ephrem in Testam. p. 286, 395, and St. Greg. Nyss.
p. 12.

[82] Testam. t. 2, p. 230, &c.

[83] Greg. M. Moral. l. 23, c. 21.

[84] Cant. ii. 12.

[85] John Oosterwican was director to a convent of nuns of
the same order in Gorcum; he was then very old, and
often prayed that God would honor him with the crown of
martyrdom.

The names of the eleven Franciscans were Nicholas
Pick, Jerom, a native of Werden, in the county of
Horn, Theodoric of Embden, native of Amorfort, Nicaise
Johnson, native of Heze, Wilhade, native of Denmark,
Godfrey of Merveille, Antony of the town of Werden,
Antony of Hornaire, a village near Gorcum, Francis
Rodes, native of Brussels. These were priests and
preachers. The other two were lay-brothers, namely,
Peter of Asca, a village in Brabant, and Cornelius of
Dorestate, a village now called Wick, in the territory
of Utrecht.--The three curates were Leonand Vechel,
Nicholas Poppel, and Godfrey Dunen. This last was
a native of Gorcum, who having been rector of the
university of Paris, where he had studied and taught,
was some time curate in Holland near the French
territories, but resigned his curacy and lived at
Gorcum.

The other martyrs were John Oosterwican mentioned
above; John, a Dominican of the province of Cologne,
curate of Hornaire; Adrian Hilvarenbeck, a Norbertin of
Middleburge, who served a parish at Munster, a village
near the mouth of the Meuse; James Lacop of the same
order and monastery, an assistant in a neighboring
parish to Munster; and Andrew Walter, a secular priest,
curate of Heinort, near Dort.

[86] Julij, t. 2, p. 823.

[87] De Canoniz. lib. iii. cap. 12.

[88] The reader will observe that this word is used in the
Saints’ writings in the sense of elevated, and almost
ecstatic, union with God, in prayer and contemplation.

[89] Pius VI. Decree approving the virtues of the Ven.
Veronica Giuliani. April, 1796.

[90] Ceillier and some others think this emperor to have been
M. Aurelius Antoninus Philosophus, who was a persecutor,
and reigned with Lucius Verus; the latter was absent
from Rome in the Parthian war from 162 to 166; on which
account, say these authors, he did not appear in this
trial. See Tillemont, t. 2, p. 326. But that these
martyrs suffered under Antoninus Pius, in the thirteenth
year of his reign, of Christ 150, we are assured by an
old inscription in several ancient MS. copies of their
acts mentioned by Ruinart. That this emperor put several
Christians to death whilst he was governor of Asia
before his accession to the empire, Tertullian testifies
(ad Scapul.). And that towards the end of his reign,
notwithstanding his former mildness towards them, he
again exercised the sword and torments on them, we
have an undoubted proof in the genuine epitaph of
St. Alexander, martyr, produced by Aringhi, Diss. 2,
l. 3, c. See Berti in Sæc. 2.

[91] Quæ in viduitate permanens Deo suam voverat castitatem.
Ruin. Act. Sincer. p. 21.

[92] Omnes qui non confitentur Christum verum esse Deum, in
ignem æternum mittentur. Ruin. p. 23.

[93] In Cyclum Pasch. p. 268.

[94] Nisibis was the Assyrian name of this city, which was
called by the Greeks Antiochia Mygdoniæ, from the river
Mygdon, on which it was situated, which gave name to the
territory. The ancient name of this city was Achar or
Achad, one of the seats of the empire of Nimrod. “He
reigned in Arach, that is, Edessa, and in Achad, now
called Nisibis,” says St. Jerom. (qu. in Gen. c. 10,
n. 10). St. Ephrem had made the same observation before
him. “He reigned in Arach, which is Edessa, and in Achar,
which is Nisibis, and in Calanne, which is Ctesiphon,
and in Rehebot, which is Adiab.” St. Ephrem, Comm. in
Gen. See Sim. Assemani, Bibl. Orient. t. 2, Diss. de
Monophysitis.

[95] Philoth. seu Hist. Relig. c. 1, p. 767.

[96] F. Cuper thinks the account of this event in Theodoret’s
Religious History to be an addition inserted from
other places, t. 4. Jul. in Comment. prævio ad Vitam,
S. Jacobi, n. 12 et 17.

[97] Philost. Hist. l. 3, c. 23.

[98] Chron. Alex. p. 287, S. Hieron. In Chron. and Theophan.
p. 28. See Le Beau, Hist. du Bas Empire, l. 6, n. 11,
t. 2, p. 22.

[99] Wisdom xvi. 9.

[100] Theodoret, Hist. Relig. in vit. S. Jacobi, et in Hist.
Eccl. l. 2. c. 30. Philost. l. 3, c. 32. Theophan. p. 33.
Chron. Alex. Zozim. l. 3. Zonar. t. 2, p. 44. Le Reau,
l. 7, p. 127, t. 2.

[101] Tillemont, Hist. des. Emp. t. 4, p. 674, places the
second siege of Nisibis to 346, and the third in 350.
But the dates above mentioned are more agreeable to
history, and adopted by the suffrage of most modern
critics.

[102] The two elder Assemani place the death of St. James in
338, soon after the first siege of Nisibis, of which
they understand the circumstances which are usually
ascribed to the second siege; for Theodoret confounds
them together, as Garnier, (in hunc Theodoreti locum),
Petau, (in Or. l. Juliani) Henricus Valesius, (in
Hist. Eccl.). Theodoret, Ammian. Marcell. l. 18. Pagi,
Tillemont, and others observe. Simon Assemani confirms
this chronology by the express testimony of the authors
of two Syriac Chronicles, that of Dionysius, patriarch
of the Jacobits, and that of Edessa. See Simon Assemani,
Biblio. Orient. t. 1, c. 5, p. 17, and Stephen Evodius
Assemani in Op. S. Ephrem, t. 1. But neither of
these Chronicles seems of sufficient authority to
counterbalance the testimony of the Greek historians,
and the circumstances that persuade us that St. James
survived the second siege of Nisibis, upon which
Tillemont, Ceillier, &c., place the death of St. James
in 350; and Cuper the Bollandist between the years 350
and 361, in which Constantius died.

[103] Ammian. Marcelli. l. 18, c. 7. Zonaras, t. 2, p. 20.
Monsignor Antonelli in vit. St. Jacobi, p. 26.

[104] See on him Galanus in parte 1. Historiali Concil.
Armen. cum Roman. p. 239, and F. James Villotte, S. J.
in serie Chronol. Patriarcharum Armeniæ, printed in
the end of his Latin-Armenian Dictionary.

[105] These are extant, addressed not to St. Gregory the
apostle of Armenia, surnamed the Illuminator, as some
copies have mistaken, but probably to his nephew,
another St. Gregory, who, being consecrated bishop
preached the faith in Albania, a province of Greater
Armenia, near the Caspian sea, where he was crowned
with martyrdom among the infidel barbarians in the
very country where Baronius places the Martyrdom of
the apostle St. Bartholomew. See Galanus, Hist. Eccl.
Armenorum, c. 5, et Not. ib. Also Antonelli, not. in
ep. S. Gregorii ad S. Jacobum Misib. p. 1.

[106] These eighteen discourses of St. James are mentioned by
Gennadius, who gives their titles, (t. 2, p. 901, Op.
S. Hier. Veron. an. 1735,) commended by St. Athanasius
(who calls them monuments of the simplicity and candor
of an apostolic mind. Ep. encyclic. ad episcopos
Egypti et Lybiæ) and by the Armenian writers quoted
by Antonelli, who demonstrates from the discourses
themselves that they are a work of the fourth century.

St. James, in the first, On Faith, demonstrates this
to be the foundation of our spiritual edifice, which
is raised upon it by hope and love, which render
the Christian soul the house and temple of God, the
ornaments of which are all good works, as fasting,
prayer, chastity, and all the fruits of the Holy Ghost.
He commends faith from the divine authority of Christ,
who everywhere requires it, from its indispensable
necessity, from the heroic virtues which it produces,
the eminent saints it has formed, and the miracles it
has wrought. The subject of his second discourse is
Charity, or the Love of God and our Neighbor, in which
the whole law of Christ is comprised, and which is the
most excellent of all virtues, and the perfection of
all sanctity, admirably taught by Christ both by word
and example; the end of all his doctrine, mysteries,
and sufferings being to plant his charity in our hearts.
In the third discourse he treats on fasting, universal
temperance, and self-denial, by which we subdue and
govern our senses and passions, die to ourselves, and
obtain all blessings of God, and the protection of the
angels, who are moved to assist and fight for us, as he
proves from examples and passages of holy writ (pp. 60,
61, 62). In his fourth he speaks on Prayer, on which he
delivers admirable maxims, teaching that its excellence
is derived from the purity, sanctity, and fervor of the
heart, upon which the fire descends from heaven, and
which glorifies God even by its silence. “But none,”
says he, “will be cleansed unless they have been washed
in the laver of baptism, and have received the body
and blood of Christ. For the blood is expiated by this
Blood, and the body cleansed by this Body. Be assiduous
in holy prayer, and in the beginning of all prayer
place that which our Lord hath taught us. When you pray,
always remember your friends, and me a sinner, &c.”

His fifth discourse, On War, is chiefly an invective
against pride, in vanquishing which consists our
main spiritual conflict. The sixth discourse is most
remarkable. The title is, On Devout Persons, that is,
Ascetes. The Armenian word _Ugdavor_ signifies one
who by vow has consecrated himself to God. From this
discourse it is manifest that some of these Ascetes
had devoted themselves to God in a state of continency
by vow, others only by a resolution. The saint most
pathetically exhorts them to fervor and watchfulness,
and excellently inculcates the obligation which every
Christian lies under of becoming a spiritual man formed
upon the image of Christ, the second Adam, in order
to rise with him to glory. He inveighs against some
Ascetes who kept under the same roof a woman Ascete
to serve them: a practice no less severely condemned
by St. Gregory Nazianzen (Carm. 3, p. 56, and Or. 43,
p. 701). St. Basil (Ep. 55, p. 149). St. Chrysostom,
the council of Nice, that of Ancyra, &c. St. James was
himself an Ascete from his youth, St. Gregory, to whom
he sends these discourses, was also one, and it is
clear from many passages in St. Gregory Nazianzen,
St. Basil, and others, that they were very numerous
in Cappadocia, Pontus, and Armenia before St. Basil
founded there the monastic life. See Antonelli’s note,
ib. p. 203. Saint James, in his seventh discourse, On
Penance, strongly exhorts sinners to confess speedily
their crimes; to conceal which through shame is final
impenitence. He adds, the priests cannot disclose
such a confession (p. 237). The infidels and several
heretics in the first ages of the Church denying the
general resurrection of bodies, St. James proves that
mystery in his eighth discourse, On the Resurrection
of the Dead. His ninth, On Humility, is an excellent
eulogium of that virtue, by which men are made the
children of God, and brethren of Christ; and it is
but justice in man, who is but dust. Its fruits are
innocence, simplicity, meekness, sweetness, charity,
patience, prudence, mercy, sincerity, compunction, and
peace. For he who loves humility is always blessed,
and enjoys constant peace; God, who dwelleth in the
meek and humble, abiding in him.

The tenth discourse, On Pastors, contains excellent
advice to a pastor of souls, especially on his
obligation of watching over and feeding his flock.
In the eleventh, On Circumcision, and in the twelfth,
On the Sabbath, he shows against the Jews, that those
laws no longer oblige, and that the Egyptians learned
circumcision from the Jews. In the thirteenth, On the
Choice of Meats, he proves none are unlawful of their
own nature. In the fourteenth, On the Passover, that
the Paschal solemnity of Christ’s resurrection has
abolished that Jewish festival: he adds that the
Christian, in honor of Christ’s crucifixion, keeps
every Friday, and also, at Nisibis, the fourteenth
day of every month. In the fifteenth he proves the
Reprobation of the Jews. In the sixteenth the Divinity
of the Son of God. In the seventeenth the Virtue of
holy Virginity, which both the Ascetes and the clergy
professed, and which he defends against the Jews
only; for he wrote before the heretics in the fourth
age calumniated the sanctity of that state. In the
eighteenth he confutes the Jews, who pretended that
their temple and synagogue would be again restored at
Jerusalem.

The long letter to the priests of Seleucia and
Ctesiphon against schisms, and dissensions, when Papas,
the haughty bishop of those cities, had raised there
a fatal schism, is in some MSS. ascribed to St. James;
but was certainly a synodal letter sent by a council
held on that occasion, nine years after the council of
Nice: on which see the life of St. Miles, and the notes
of the archbishop of Apamea, Evodius Assemani, ib.
Act. Mart. Orient. t. 1, p. 72, and Jos. Assemani Bibl.
Orient. t. 1, p. 86, &c.

Among the oriental liturgies, one in Chaldaic, formerly
in use among the Syrians, bears the name of St. James
of Nisibis. Gennadius mentions twenty-six books written
by this holy doctor in the Syriac tongue, all on pious
subjects, or on the Persian persecution. They were
never translated into Greek.

The letters of St. James and St. Gregory are published
by Assemani, Bibl. Orient. t. 1, p. 552, 632.

[107] Ps. xxxiii. 16, Prov. iii. 23, Zach. ii. 8, Gen. xv. 1,
Lev. xxxvi. 3.

[108] S. Chrys. Hom. 51, in Act. Hom. 15, in Rom. et 91, in
Matt.

[109] Ose. i. 2, Zach. xi. 9, Isa. v. 5.

[110] Amos ix. 4.

[111] Molanus in Auctario Martytol. Menard, in Martyr. Bened.
Bucelin, &c.

[112] Some have imagined that St. Hidulph was only
chorepiscopus or vicar, probably with episcopal orders,
for the administration of part of the diocess. But the
most judicious critics agree with the original writers
of his life, that he was himself archbishop of Triers.

[113] Sulpic. Sever. Dial. 1, c. 26, ol. 18, p. 94, ed. nov.
Veron. an. 1741.

[114] Heraclides ap. Cotel. Monum. Eccl. Gr. t. 3, p. 172.
See St. Chrys. contra oppugn. vitæ monast. t. 1. S. Gr.
Naz. St. Basil, &c.

[115] Among the heathen emperors of Rome, Titus, the two
Antonines, and Alexander deserved the best of their
subjects, and the three last gained a great reputation
for moral virtue. The Antonines were eminent for
their learning, and devoted themselves to the Stoic
philosophy. Arrius Antoninus, who had distinguished
himself by his moderation and love of justice in
several magistracies, was adopted by the emperor Adrian
in 138, and upon his death in the same year ascended
the imperial throne. He was truly the father of his
people during a reign of twenty-two years, and died
in 161, being seventy-seven years old. He obtained the
surname of Pius, according to some, by his gratitude to
Adrian; but, according to others, by his clemency and
goodness. He had often in his mouth the celebrated
saying of Scipio Africanus, that he would rather save
the life of one citizen than destroy one thousand
enemies. He engaged in no wars, except that by his
lieutenants he restrained the Daci, Alani, and Mauri,
and by the conduct of Lollius Urbicus quieted the
Britons, confining the Caledonians to their mountains
and forests by a new wall. Yet the pagan virtues of
this prince were mixed with an alloy of superstition,
vice, and weakness. When the senate refused to enrol
Adrian among the gods, out of a just detestation of
his cruelty and other vices, Antoninus, by tears and
entreaties, extorted from it a decree by which divine
honors were granted that infamous prince, and he
appointed priests and a temple for his worship. He
likewise caused his wife Faustina to be honored after
her death as a goddess, and was reproached for the most
dissolute life of his daughter Faustina the younger,
whom he gave in marriage to his adopted son, Marcus
Aurelius Antoninus.

Xiphilin writes that the Christians shared in the
mildness of his government. Yet though he did not raise
by fresh edicts any new persecution, it is a notorious
mistake of Dodwell and some others, who pretend that
no Christians suffered death for the faith during his
reign, at least by his order. Tertullian informs us
(l. ad Scapul. c. 4), that Arrius Antoninus, when he
was only proconsul of Asia, put in execution the old
unjust rescript of Trajan; and having punished some
Christians with death, dismissed the rest, crying out
to them, “O wretches, if you want to die, have you
not halters and precipices to end your lives by?” St.
Justin, in his first apology, which he addressed to
Antoninus Pius, who was then emperor, testifies that
Christians were tortured with the most barbarous
cruelty without having been convicted of any crime.
Also St. Irenæus (l. 3, c. 3), Eusebius (l. 4, c. 10),
and the author of an ancient poem which is published
among the works of Tertullian, are incontestible
vouchers that this emperor, whom Capitolinus calls a
most zealous worshipper of the gods, often shed the
blood of saints. By the acts of St. Felicitas and her
sons, it appears what artifices the pagan priests made
use of to stir up the emperors and magistrates against
the Christians. At length, however, Antoninus Pius,
in the fifteenth year of his reign, of Christ 152,
according to Tillemont, wrote to the states of Asia,
commanding that all persons who should be impeached
merely for believing in Christ, should be discharged,
and their accusers punished according to the laws
against informers, adding, “You do but harden them in
their opinion, for you cannot oblige them more than by
making them die for their religion. Thus they triumph
over you by choosing rather to die than to comply with
your will.” See Eusebius, l. 4, c. 26, where he also
mentions a like former rescript of Adrian to Minutius
Fundanus. Nevertheless, it is proved by Aringhi (Roma
Subterran. l. 3, c. 22), that some were crowned with
martyrdom in this reign after the aforesaid rescript,
the pusillanimous prince not having courage always to
protect these innocent subjects from the fury of the
populace or the malice of some governors.

[116] St. Minias was a Roman soldier who suffered martyrdom
at Florence under Decius. See Mart. Rom., 13 Oct.

[117] In Luc. l. 7, c. 13.

[118] Though Pliny and Procopius pretend that the Vandals
were of the same extraction with the Goths, the
contrary is demonstrated by the learned F. Daniel
Farlati (Illyrici Sacri, t. 2, p. 1308, Venetiis 1753),
and by Jos. Assemani (in Calend. de Orig. Slavor.
par. 2, c. 5, t. 1, p. 297). And their language,
manners, and religion, were entirely different. The
same arguments show that they differed also from the
Slavi, Huns, and original Winidi or Venedi, this last
being a Sarmatian, and the two others Scythian nations.
The Vandals are placed by Jornandes and Dio (l. 55)
on the German coast of the Baltic sea, in the present
Prussia and Pomerania; they thence extended themselves
to the sources of the Elbe, in the mountains of Silesia.
They were afterward removed near the Danube, in the
neighborhood of the Marcomanni, in the reigns of
Antoninus, Aurelian, and Probus. In the fifth century
they made an excursion into Gaul; and being there
repulsed, crossed the Pyrenæan mountains with the
Alani, who were the original Massagetæ from mount
Caucasus, and beyond the Tanais, as Ammianus
Marcellinus testifies. About the year 400, in the reign
of Honorius, the Alani settled themselves in Lusitania,
and the Vandals under king Gunderic, in Gallicia
(which then comprised both the present Gallicia and
Old Castile), and in Bætica, which from them was called
Vandalitia, and corruptly Andalusia. (See St. Isidore
and Idatius, in their chronicles, Salvian, l. 7,
p. 137, St. August. ep. 3, ad Victor.) The Vandals
were baptized in the Catholic faith about the time when
they crossed the Rhine; but were afterward drawn into
Arianism, probably by some alliance with the Arian
Goths, and out of hatred to the Romans. Idatius says,
that common fame attributed the Arian perversion of
the Vandals to king Genseric, who succeeded his brother
Gunderic in 428, and was a man experienced in all the
arts of policy and war. Count Boniface, lieutenant of
Africa, seeing his life threatened by Aëtius (who, with
the title of Magister Militiæ, governed the empire for
the empress Placidia, regent for her son Valentinian),
invited the Vandals out of Spain to his assistance.
Genseric, with a powerful army, passed the strait which
divides Africa from Spain, in May, 429, and though
Boniface was then returned to his duty, the barbarian
everywhere defeated the Romans, besieged Hippo during
fourteen months; and though he was obliged by a famine
to retire, he returned soon after and took that strong
fortress. The emperor Valentinian, in 435, by treaty
yielded up to him all his conquests in Africa. Genseric
soon broke the truce, and in 439 took Carthage, and
drove the Romans out of all Africa. In 455, being
invited by the Empress Eudoxia to revenge the murder
of Valentinian on Maximus, he plundered Rome during
fifteen days. Though that city had been ravaged by
Alaric the Goth in 400, whilst Honorius was emperor,
the Vandal found and carried off an immense booty;
and among other things, the gold and brass with which
the capitol was inlaid, and the vessels of the Jewish
temple at Jerusalem, which Titus had brought to Rome.
These Justinian, when he had recovered Africa, caused
to be brought to Constantinople, whence he caused
them to be removed and placed in certain churches at
Jerusalem, as Procopius relates. Rome was again twice
plundered by Totila, in 546 and 549. The Vandals, by
their transmigrations into Spain and Africa, soon after
ceased to be a nation in Germany, as Jornandes and
Procopius testify. Euricus, king of the Visigoths, in
Languedoc, in 468, invading Spain, conquered most of
the territories which the Romans still possessed there,
and all the provinces which the Vandals had seized.
So that by the extinction of the empire of the Vandals
in Africa under Justinian, the name of that potent and
furious nation was lost: though Frederic, the first
king of Prussia, in 1701, was for some time very
desirous rather to take the title of king of the
Vandals. The cavalry of the ancient Vandals fought
chiefly with the sword and lance, and were unpractised
in the distant combat. Their bowmen were undisciplined,
and fought on foot like the Gothic. See Procopius.

[119] Tinuzudæ tempore quo sacramenta Dei populo
porrigebantur, introeuntes cum furore (Ariani) Corpus
Christi et Sanguinem pavimento sparserunt, et illud
pollutis pedibus calcaverunt. St. Vict. Vitensis,
l. 1, p. 17.

[120] Qui nobis pœnitentiæ munus collaturi sunt, et
reconciliationis indulgentiâ obstrictos peccatorum
vinculis soluturi? A quibus divinis sacrificiis
ritus est exhibendus consuetus? Vobiscum et nos libeat
pergere, si liceret. S. Victor Vit. l. 2, p. 33.

[121] Scribam ego fratribus meis ut veniant coëpiscopi mei,
qui vobis nobiscum fidem communem nostram valeant
demonstrare, et præcipue ecclesia Romana, quæ caput
est omnium ecclesiarum. Victor Vit. l. 2, p. 38.

[122] In it the Catholics appealed to the tradition of the
universal Church. “Hæc est fides nostra; evangelicis
et apostolicis traditionibus atque auctoritate firmata,
et omnium quæ in mundo sunt Catholicarum ecclesiarum
societate fundata, in qua nos per gratiam Dei
omnipotentis permanere usque ad finem vitæ hujus
confidimus.” Victor Vit. l. 3, p. 62.

[123] L. 5, p. 76.

[124] Æneas, Gaz. Dial. de Animarum Immortaliiate et Corporis
Resurrectione, p. 415.

[125] Procop. de Bello Vandal. l. 1, c. 8.

[126] Hist. Franc. l. 2, p. 46.

[127] Ruin. Hist. Persec. Vandal. part. 2, c. 8, Notit. Afric.

[128] Hæc sunt linteamina quæ te accusabunt cum majestas
venerit judicantis. Vict. Vit. l. 5, c. 78.

[129] He closes this work by the following supplication to
the angels and saints: “Succor us, O angels of my God;
look down on Africa, once flourishing in its numerous
churches, but now left desolate and cast away.
Intercede, O patriarchs; pray, O holy prophets; succor
us, O apostles, who are our advocates. You, especially,
O blessed Peter, why are you silent in the necessities
of your flock? You, O blessed apostle Paul, behold
what the Arian Vandals do, and how your sons groan in
captivity. O all you holy apostles, petition for us.
Pray for us though wicked; Christ prayed even for his
persecutors,” &c. Adeste angeli Dei mei, et videte
Africam totam dudum tantarum ecclesiarum cuneis
fultam, nunc ab omnibus desolatam, sedentem viduam et
abjectam--Deprecamini patriarchæ; orate sancti prophetæ;
estote apostoli suffragatores ejus. Præcipue tu Petre,
quare siles pro ovibus tuis?--Tu S. Paule, gentium
magister, cognosce quid Vandali faciunt Ariani, et
filii tui gemunt lugendo captivi. Victor Vit. Hist.
Pers. Vandal. sub finem. The history of St. Victor
is written with spirit and correctness, in a plain
affecting style, intermixed with an entertaining
poignancy of satire, and edifying heroic sentiments
and examples of piety. The author is honored in the
Roman Martyrology among the holy confessors on the 23d
of August, though the time and place of his death are
uncertain. He flourished in the middle of the fifth
century. His history of the Vandalic persecution has
run through several editions: that of Beatus Rhenanus
at Basil in 1535, is the first: Peter Chifflet gave one
at Dijon in 1664: but that of Dom. Ruinart at Paris, in
1694, is the most complete. It was published in English
in 1605. The best French translation is that of Arnau
d’Andilly.

[130] L. de. Glor. Conf. c. 13.

[131] The Roman provinces, in Africa, soon after sunk again
into barbarism and infidelity, being overrun in 668
by the Saracens from Arabia and Syria, who in 669 took
also Syracusa, and established a kingdom in Sicily and
part of Italy. They planted themselves in Spain in 707.
Muhavia, a general of the Sultan Omar, having routed
Hormisdas Jesdegird, king of Persia, in 632, translated
that monarchy from the line of Artaxerxes to the
Saracens. This Omar conquered Egypt in 635. He was
second caliph after Mahomet, and successor of Abubeker;
and from his time the caliphs of Bagdat or Babylon
were masters of Syria, Persia, and Egypt, till the
two latter revolted; but notwithstanding various
revolutions, all those countries still retain the
Mahometan superstition. The Mahometans in Egypt shook
off the yoke of the caliphs of Bagdat, and set up
their own caliphs at Cairo in 870, to whom the Moors in
Africa adhered till the Turks became masters of Egypt.

[132] 2 Peter i. 9.

[133] S. Ambros. in Ps. 40.

[134] L. 3, de Virgin. See S. Aug. Serm., 38. de Temp.

[135] Hebr. x. 34, xi. 37.

[136] The exact number of years that some of the popes sat
before Victor in the year 200, cannot be determined with
any degree of certainty, partly on account of faults of
copies and the disagreement of later pontificals. (See
Pagi, the Bollandists, Tillemont, Orsi, Berti, &c.)
St. Peter sat twenty-five years; St. Linus seems
to have held the see about eleven years, St. Cletus
twelve years, St. Clement about eleven years, and St.
Anacletus nine, dying about the year 109. The tradition
and registers of the Roman church show Anacletus and
Cletus to have been two distinct popes, as is manifest
from the Liberian Calendar and several very ancient
lists of the first popes quoted by Schelstrate (Diss. 2,
Ant. Eccl. c. 2.) and the Bollandists (ad 26 Apr.) from
the old poem among the works of Tertullian, written
about the time that he lived; from the very ancient
Antiphonaries of the Vatican church, published by
cardinal Joseph Thomasius, and the old Martyrology
which bore the name of St. Jerom, and was printed at
Lucca by the care of Francis-Maria-Florentinius, a
gentleman of that city; which original authorities
were followed by Ado, Usuard, &c. The pontificals
call Cletus a Roman by birth, Anacletus a Grecian,
and native of Athens.

[137] Baillet in S. Bonav. Wadding, &c.

[138] Haymo, who had taught divinity at Paris, and been sent
by Gregory IX. nuncio to Constantinople, was employed
by the same pope in revising the Roman breviary and
its rubrics. He is not to be confounded with Haymo,
the disciple of Rabanus Maurus, afterward bishop of
Halberstadt, in the ninth age, whose Homilies, Comments
on the Scriptures, and Abridgment of Ecclesiastical
History are extant. His works are chiefly Centos,
compiled of scraps of fathers and other authors patched
and joined together; a manner of writing used by many
from the seventh to the twelfth age, but calculated to
propagate stupidity and dullness, and to contract, not
to enlarge or improve the genius, which is opened by
invention, elegance, and imitation; but fettered by
mechanical toils, as centos, acrostics, &c.

[139] Alexander of Hales, a native of Hales in
Gloucestershire, after having gone through the course
of his studies in England, went to Paris, and there
followed divinity and the canon law, and gained in them
an extraordinary reputation. He entered into the Order
of Friars Minors, and died at Paris in 1245. His works
discover a most subtle penetrating genius; of which the
principal is a Summ or Commentary upon the four Books
of the Master of the Sentences, written by order of
Innocent IV. and a Vumm of Virtues.

[140] Specul. Discipi. p. 1, c. 3.

[141] Gerson, Tr. De libris quos religiosi legere debent.

[142] Gerson, l. de Examine Doctrinar.

[143] See Du Pin, Biblioth. Cent. 13, p. 249, t. 14.

[144] Soliloqu. Exercit. 4, c. 1, 2.

[145] The psalter of the Blessed Virgin is falsely to scribed
to St. Bonaventure, and unworthy to bear his name. (see
Fabricius in Biblioth. med. ætat. Bellarmin and Labbe
de Script. Eccl. Nat. Alexander, Hist. Eccl. Sæc. 13.)
The Vatican edition of the works of St. Bonaventure was
begun by an order of Sixtus V. and completed in 1588.
It consists of eight volumes in folio. The two first
contain his commentaries on the holy scriptures: the
third his sermons and panegyrics: the fourth and fifth
his comments on the Master of the Sentences: the sixth,
seventh, and eighth, his lesser treatises, of which
some are doctrinal, others regard the duties of a
religious state, others general subjects of piety,
especially the mysteries of Christ and the Blessed
Virgin. Most of these have run through several separate
editions. All his works have been reprinted at Mentz
and Lyons; and in 4to. in fourteen volumes at Venice,
in 1751.

[146] B. Giles was a native of Assisio, and became the third
companion of St. Francis in 1209. He attended him
in the Marche of Ancona, and made a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem, whither he was sent by St. Francis to preach
to the Saracens; but upon their threats of raising a
persecution he was sent back to Italy by the Christians
of that country. He afterward lived some time at Rome,
some time at Reati, and some time at Fabriano; but the
chief part of the remainder of his life he spent at
Perugia, where he died in the night between the 22d
and the 23d of April, in the year 1272, not in 1262, as
Papebroke proves against the erroneous computation of
certain authors. (p. 220, t. 3, Apr.) Wading and others
relate many revelations, prophecies, and miracles of
this eminent servant of God; his tomb has been had in
public veneration at Perugia from the time of his death,
and he was for some time solemnly honored as a saint
in the church of his order in that city, as Papebroke
shows; who regrets that this devotion has been for
some time much abated, probably because not judged
sufficiently authorized by the holy see. The public
veneration at his tomb and the adjoining altar
continues, and the mass is sung, on account of his
ancient festival, with great solemnity, but of St.
George, without any solemn commemoration of this
servant of God. Nevertheless, from proofs of former
solemn veneration, Papebroke honors him with the title
of Blessed.

None among the first disciples of St. Francis seems to
have been more perfectly replenished with his spirit
of perfect charity, humility, meekness, and simplicity,
as appears from the golden maxims and lessons of piety
which he gave to others. Of these Papebroke has given
us a large and excellent collection from manuscripts:
some of which were before printed by Wading and others.
A few will suffice to show us his spirit.

B. Giles always lived by the labor of his hands. When
the cardinal bishop of Tusculum desired him always
to receive his bread as a poor man an alms, from his
table, B. Giles excused himself, using the words of the
psalmist: _Blessed art thou, and it shall be well with
thee, because thou shalt eat by the labor of thy hands._
Ps. cxxvii. “So brother Francis taught his brethren to
be faithful and diligent in laboring, and to take for
their wages not money, but necessary subsistence.”
(Papebroke, p. 224.) If any one discoursed with him
on the glory of God, the sweetness of his love, or
Paradise, he would be ravished in spirit, and remain so
great part of the day unmoved. Shepherds and children
who had learned this from others, sometimes for
diversion or out of curiosity, cried out after him,
Paradise, Paradise; upon hearing which, he through
joy fell into an ecstasy. His religious brethren in
conversing with him took care never to name the word
Paradise or Heaven for fear of losing his company by
his being ravished out of himself. (ib., p. 226, and
Wading.)

An extraordinary spiritual joy and cheerfulness
appeared always painted on his countenance; and if any
one spoke to him of God, he answered in great interior
jubilation of soul. Once returning to his brethren out
of close retirement, he praised God with wonderful joy
and fervor, and sung,--“Neither tongue can utter, nor
words express, nor mortal hearts conceive how great the
good is which God hath prepared for those who desire to
love him.”

Pope Gregory IX., who kept his court at Perugia from
1234 to autumn in 1236, sent one day for the holy man,
who, in answer to his holiness’s first question about
his state of life, said,--“I cheerfully take upon me
the yoke of the commandments of the Lord.” The pope
replied,--“Your answer is just; but your yoke is
sweet and your burthen light.” At these words B. Giles
withdrew a little from him, and, being ravished in
spirit, remained speechless and without motion till
very late in the night, to the great astonishment of
his holiness, who spoke of it to his cardinals and
others with great surprise.

This pope on a certain occasion pressed the holy man
to say something to him on his own duty; Giles after
having long endeavored to excuse himself said, “You
have two eyes, both a right and a left one, always
open; with the right eye you must contemplate the
things which are above you; and with the left eye you
must administer and dispense things which are below.”