Chapter VI: Language

I propose, in this chapter, to deal only with Lushai, and to treat of the connection between the different dialects spoken in these Hills at the end of Part II.

Lushai or Dulien, which is the dialect of the Lushei clan, modified, doubtless, by contact with those of other clans, is now the lingua franca of the whole Lushai Hills, and is understood in many parts of the adjoining districts. A very complete grammar and vocabulary has been published by Messrs. Savage and Lorrain, now of the London Baptist Mission, and therefore I only propose to give a bare outline of the language here, which is largely borrowed from the above work.

Articles.--The indefinite article can generally be rendered by the numeral one.

The definite article is sometimes represented by demonstrative pronouns or relative particles.

Gender.--Inanimate objects have no gender. In nouns gender may be shown by use of different words, as "tlangval," a young man; "nula," a maiden. This system is only employed when speaking of human beings, by adding suffixes--"pa" and "chal" for males, "nu" and "pui" for females; thus "fa pa," son; "fa nu," daughter; "she chal," bull metna; "she pui," cow metna. "Chal" and "pui" are restricted to full-grown animals. All men's names end in "a," all women's in "i." Some words are the same in both genders--"u," elder brother or sister; "nao shen," a baby; "naupang," child. "I" is the feminine termination in Manipuri also.

Number.--The plural terminations are "te," "ho," and "zong"; sometimes these are combined or duplicated.

Mi zong zong = all mankind.
Lal te ho = chiefs.

These terminations are omitted when the number can be otherwise inferred.

Sakor paruk = six horses.
Puan tam tak ka pe = I gave many cloths.

When a suffix is added to a noun to denote case, the plural suffix follows the case suffix.

Zawng-a-te an lo changa.
Monkey into s they became changed.

Kan in-a-te an lo-lut-a.
Our house into s they entered.

Case.--Nouns are not inflected. The agent is denoted by the suffix "in."

Lal in a that = The chief killed (him).

The same suffix is used to distinguish the instrument.

Lal in fei in a shun = The chief speared (him) with a spear.

"In" is therefore exactly equivalent to "na" used in Manipuri to distinguish the agent or instrument.

The other cases can only be inferred from the position of the words.

The object immediately precedes the transitive verb governing it.

Lal-in puan a-pe = The chief gave a cloth.

The indirect object precedes the direct.

Suaka puan ka pe = I gave a cloth to Suaka.

Hnena (to) is sometimes used to give greater clearness.

Lal hnena ui pakhat ka pe ang = I will give a dog to the chief.

The thing possessed immediately follows the possessor.

Kawn bawl in a-kang = The minister's house caught fire.

The following construction is sometimes used:--

Kawn bawl a in a lian e = Minister his house it big is.

The other cases are rendered by suffixes.

Ka in a daraw. Ka in a tang in laraw. Aizawl a kalraw.
My house in put. My house from bring. Aijal to go.

Adjectives follow the words they qualify, but are not inflected in any way.

Mipa tha = a good man.
Hmaichhia tha = a good woman.
Nula-te tha = good girls.

When a noun is used as an adjective it precedes the noun it qualifies, as, "Lung in," stone house.

Adjectives are compared thus

Suaka Nela ai- in a chha k zawk.
Suaka Nela than he stronger.

Suaka is stronger than Nela.

When demonstrative adjectives are compared, "ai-in" is combined with them, thus:--

He sakor he saw ai sawn ashang zawk.
This horse here that than there is taller.

This horse is taller than that.
"Saw saw ai-in" being replaced by "Saw-ai sawn."

When no object of comparison is mentioned "ai-in" is omitted.

Nangma lo azao zawk.
Your jhum extensive more.

Your jhum is more extensive.

The superlative is formed thus:--

Lalzong zinga Khuma a vin ber.
Chiefs among Khuma he bad tempered most.

Khuma is the most bad-tempered of all the chiefs.

Khuma lalzong ai-in a vin ber.
Khuma chiefs than he ill-tempered more.

Khuma lalzong a a vin ber.
Khuma chiefs of he ill-tempered most.

Khuma a vin ber.
Khuma he ill-tempered most.

Khuma is the most ill-tempered.

The numerals are very simple:--

1 = pa khat 6 = pa ruk
2 = pa hnih 7 = pa sari
3 = pa thum 8 = pa riat
4 = pa li 9 = pa kua
5 = pa nga 10 = shom

11 = "shom leh pa khat," 12 = "shom leh pa hnih," and so on to 20 = "shom hnih"; then "shom hnih leh pa khat" &c., to "shom thum" = 30, "shom li" = 40, "shom nga" = 50, and so on to "za" = 100, "za leh pa khat" = 101, and so on to "shang" = 1000.

"Shing" = 10,000 and "nuai" for 1,000,000 are hardly ever used; 8,975 = "shang riat, leh za kua leh shom sari leh pa nga."

It will be seen that the real numerals are "khat," "hnih," "thum," &c., pa being equivalent to unit. It is usually omitted when animals or things are mentioned, but retained when speaking of human beings.

Lal pa sari = seven chiefs.
Sebong nga = five cows.

With numbers above ten the name of the thing enumerated if a monosyllable, is often repeated. Thus:--

Ni shom hnih leh ni nga.
Days twenty and days five.

Ordinals are formed by adding "na" to the cardinals, thus:--

In shom na lutrawh.
Enter the tenth house.

But--

Ni thum ni a lo-kalraw.
Day three day on come.

Every other day = Ni khat dan a.
Every third day = Ni hnih dan a,
and so on.

Numeral adjectives are formed thus:--

Voi nga, voi shom leh voi khat.
Times five, times ten and times one,

eleven times.

Demonstrative adjectives are:--

He or hehi } This = near Heng, henghi = these.
Hei hei hi } the speaker.
Saw = that. Sawng = those.
Kha = that near you. Khang = those near you.
Khu = that down there. Khung = those down there.
Khi = that up there. Khing = those up there.
Chu = that. Chung = those.

They are generally repeated, thus:--

Khu sava khu kadu e.
That bird down there I want.

Khi zawng khi a liane.
That monkey up there he big is.

When a noun qualified by one of these adjectives is an agent, the agent suffix "in" is combined with the second part of the adjective thus:--

Khu ui khu-an min a sheh = That dog down there bit me instead of Khu
ui in khu.

The personal pronouns have several forms, which are the same for both genders.

Nominative { Keima, kei, ka = I.
{ Keimani, keine, kan = we.

Possessive { Keima, keiia, ka = my.
{ Keimani, keini, kan = our.
{ Keimata, keiata, kata = mine.
{ Keimanita, &c. = ours.

Objective { Keimamin, kei min min = me.
{ Keimani min, &c. = us.

The second person is "nangma" and "nangmani"; the third "ama," "anmani."

The possessive of the second person, when used as nominative of verbs, has a curious irregular form "i" in the singular and "in" in the plural.

The pronominal particles "ka" (I), "i" (thou), "a" (he), "kan" (we), "in" (you), "an" (they) must be used with verbs in addition to the pronouns, thus:--

Nangma i kal ang em? = Will you go?
Keimani chaw kan ei mek = We are just eating our rice.

The particle can never be omitted, whereas the true pronoun is generally left out except when required for emphasis.

Reflexive action is denoted in several ways.

The particle "in" is prefixed to the verb in all cases. The following are a few examples:--

Ka in vel }
Mani leh mani ka in vel } I hit myself.
Mani in ka in vel }
Keimani theoh vin kan in vel = We hit ourselves.

Relative Pronouns are:--

Kha, chu, a piang = who, which, what, that.
A piang, a piang kha, a piang chu = whoever, &c.

Lekha i ziak kha a tha e.
Letter you wrote that it good is.

The pronouns are sometimes omitted, the idea being conveyed by the use of relative participles or verbal nouns.

I lekha ziak a tha e
Your letter written it good is.

The letter you wrote is good.

Interrogative Pronouns are:--

Tu-nge? Tu? Tu-maw? Eng-nge? Zeng-nge? Eng? Eng-maw? = What?
Hhoi-i-nge? = Which?

They are used thus:--

Tu-nge a lo kal? = Who has come?

Tu-in-a nge i riak? =
(house in =) you stay
Whose

Tu ar nge i lei? Tu-in-nge vel che?
(fowl) = you buy? Who hit you?
Whose

Tu-nge i vel? =
Whom did you hit?

Tu and Tu-maw are only used thus:--

A lo kal Tu-Maw? or Tu? =
He has come Who?

Eng-nge i duh? Khoi-i lekha buh nge i duh? =
What you want? (book) you want?
which

Which book do you want?

Eng tui nge i choi?
(water) = you draw?
What

The particle "a" preceding an interrogative pronoun has a partitive force.

A tu-nge i ko? = Which of them did you call?

Verbs.

The same form is used for all persons and in singular and plural, the pronominal particles marking person and number.

Shoi = to say

Pres: Ka shoi = I say. Ka shoi mek = I am saying.

Past: Ka shoi or } I said. { Ka shoi mek a ni = I
Ka shoi or tawh } { was saying.

Fut: Ka shoi ang } I will { Ka shoi mek ang
Ka shoi dawn } say { = I shall be saying.

Ka shoi tawh ang = I shall have said.

Conditional Mood.

Ka shoi tur = I would say, or, I ought to say.
Ka shoi tawh tur = I would have said, or, ought to have said.

The future terminations are often used in a conditional sense.

Subjunctive Mood.

Ka shoi chuan = If I say, said or had said.

The following forms are peculiar and appear to me of foreign origin. The pronominal prefixes are absent, the person and number being indicated by different forms.

Shoi i la or i lang = If I say or said.
Shoi la, or lang = If thou sayest or saidst.
Shoi shela or shelang = If he say or said.
Shoi i la or i lang = If we say or said.
Shoi u la or lang = If you say or said.
Shoi shela or shelang = If they say or said.

The pluperfect tense is formed by inserting "ta."

Shoi ta i la = If I had said.
Shoi ta u lang = If you had said.

By inserting "ma" the meaning "although" or "even if" is given.

Shoi ma she lang = Even if he says.
Shoi ta ma u la = Although you say.

Imperative Mood.

The imperative has several forms:--

Singular: Shoi rawh, shoi ang che, shoi ta che, shoi te, shoi che,
all mean "say." The last four forms have a somewhat
persuasive meaning.
Plural: I shoi ang, i shoi ang u = Let us say.

The second person plural is formed by adding "u" to the singular form.

Infinitive Mood.

The infinitive or verbal noun is the same as the root shoi = to say.

Ka shoi lai in } When I was saying.
I say time at }

A verbal noun can also be formed by the suffix "na."

Ka riak na in
My staying house.

The suffixes "tur," "tur-in," "na-tur," "nan," "an," "in," denotes infinitive of purposes.

Tui in tur ka duh.
Water to drink I want.

Chaw lei tur ka nei lo } I have nothing wherewith
Rice to buy I have not. } to buy rice.

The suffix "tu" changes the verb into noun of agency.

Veng-tu = a watchman. Hril-tu = an informant.

Participles: Shoia, shoi-ing = saying.

Negative.

There are two negative particles:--lo and shu.

The first is used except in the conditional and the imperative, when the latter is used.

The particles are placed after the root except in the past tense, when they follow the tense termination.

Ka kal lo = I do not go.
Ka kal ta lo = I did not go.
Ka kal lo vang = I will not go } The "v" is inserted for
Ka kal lo ve = I do not go } sake of euphony.
Kal rawh = Go.
Kal shu = Don't go.
Kal shu se = Do not let him go.
Shoi shu u = Do not say (plural).
Shoi shu i la = If we do not say.

"Nem" and "nang" are used as negative particles and intensify the meaning.

Ka hre lo = I don't know.
Ka hre nem = I don't know. How should I?
Lal in a ka kal nang = I am not going to the chief's house. Why
should I be?

Interrogative Particles.

These are as a rule placed at the end of a sentence. They are "em" and "em ni."

I kal ang em = Will you go?

"Em ni" sometimes implies that the answer is expected in the same form as the question.

I lo-kal em ni = You have come, have you?
A lo-kal lo vem ni = He has come, has not he?

"Maw"--This particle is used when the person asked, instead of replying at once, repeats part of the question--a pernicious and vexatious habit much indulged in by the Lushais.

I dam em? = Are you well?
Keima maw? Ka dam e = Do you mean me? I am well.

The Passive Voice.

The verb when used in the passive voice is pronounced slightly differently. The construction is as follows:--

Lal in min kap = The chief shot me.
Lal ka ka ni = I am shot by the chief.

Verbal Prefixes.

These are a very noticeable peculiarity. They are:--

Zuk = motion downwards. Zuk la ro = Bring it down.
Han = motion upwards. Han en rawh = Come up and see.
Han = motion towards the A han la ta = He brought it.
speaker.
Lo = motion towards the Lal a lo kal = The chief arrives.
speaker.
Ron = motion towards the
indirect object.
Lal hnena ron hril rawh = Go and tell the chief.
Min ron pe rawh = Come and give it to me.
Va = motion from. Va la zo = Go and bring.

Adverbs.

There is a peculiar series of adverbs in Lushei, which, besides denoting the manner in which a thing is done, also convey some idea of the appearance of the agent, thus:--

Lal a kal buk buk = The chief goes.

"Buk buk" shows that the chief is a big, heavy man and is walking slowly.

"Bak bak" similarly used would mean that the chief was medium-sized and walking slowly, whereas "bik bek" could only be used of a small person proceeding slowly.

There are over a hundred such adverbs in Lushei.

Interjections.

The most common are "Ie" = I say! "Khai" = Come! "Ku" = Ho! "Chei chei" denoting disapproval and surprise. There are certain interjections, such as "Karei, Karei!" = Alas! Alas! which are only used by women.

The Lushais are very fond of piling up adverbs to intensify the meaning:--

Ava mak em em mai!
How wonderful very very very!

Ava mak em veleh!
How wonderful very indeed!

Literal Translation of an Account of the Thimzing.

Hman lai hian thim a lo-zing-a; chutichuan mi zawn zawn Former time in darkness it collected; then mankind all all

an in-khawm mur mur chutichuan zawng they themselves collected (untranslatable adverb) then monkey

hmul a lo lenga an hgum a thak an hiat hair it began to grow their spine ends they itched they scratched

thin-a zawng a te an changa tin lal te chu always monkeys into (plural suffix) they changed their chiefs indeed

va-pual a an lo changa mi chhia e-raw chu horn-bill into they became changed people poor on the other hand

zawng a te ngau-va te an lo changa. Tin sa lu ro monkey into grey monkeys they became changed. Then flesh head dry

nei chuan an tuah a thing ai-in a tha zawh a had those who they put on fire wood than it good more was

chu-te-chuan an dam rei thei zawk an ti. Tin mei-ling therefore they lived long could more they say. Then embers

tlaivar lem-in puan tial shin in sakeia
watched all night more than others cloth striped wearing tigers into

an changa thei tin pitar te hian puanpui an sin-a they changed may be then old women quilts they were wearing

sai a an lo changa.
elephants into they became changed.