Chapter VII: Front Matter (7)

The dipping of pralinés for the purpose of coating them was formerly carried out by means of a fork, the nucleus masses being dropped into the coating material, taken out with a fork, and placed upon metal plates. Various kinds of ornamentation were designed by the same instrument. In the preparation of the higher priced coated fondants, a similar method of procedure is still in vogue, although such manipulation presupposes a high degree of skill on the part of the mechanics are at the machine. For articles of more general consumption, whether ornamented or not, machines have been introduced for the purpose by divers manufacturers, some of which function excellently. Two of that kind which in every way respond to the calls made on them are here described, but we shall not waste time and labour over the more complicated and expensive machines.

The first method of coating fondants, patented by A. Reiche of Dresden-Plauen, is not based on mechanical principles, but rather relies on a series of small appliances, represented in fig. 77. The jacketed casing _a_, fig. 77 contains water, and into it the pan containing coating material can be placed: that is kept in a liquid condition by heating the water in the jacket by spirit lamps or gas jets underneath. The adjoining vessel _b_ is closed on all sides, filled with water, and also kept warm in the same manner; it serves for the preparatory warming of the objects to be coated, which are spread upon a wire network, and for that purpose two of these wire frames can be hung upon the hooks inside the box. The mass dropping from the wire frame is conveyed into the covering box _a_, by means of a sheet of metal placed above it; _c_ serves as an apparatus for turning, and we give it on a larger scale in fig. 78.

The tracings _h_ and _i_ in fig. 79 show the cross section and top view of the wire gratings, on which cylindrical and ball-shaped sugar goods are deposited. The other two kinds of grating are illustrated at _L_ and _M_ (fig. 80).

The size of the meshes of the sieve gratings depends on that of the centres to be coated.

The method of covering is as follows:

The centres for the pralinés etc. are placed in the cavities of the gratings, and, as soon as one of the gratings is full, the latter is covered up by the fine-meshed grating the half of the cross-section of which is shown in Fig. 79 and the full view in Fig. 80 (see K and N respectively), K representing the cover-grating.

Both gratings are held simultaneously by the operator at their handles and then dipped together in the liquid covering contained in the vessel a, Fig. 77, after which the superfluous covering mass is removed by knocking. The gratings are now deposited on the mechanism C, Figs. 77 or 78, as the case may be, the top sieve removed and a sheet of paper or a metal plate put in its place. It is then turned by hand to the opposite side, the grating with the impressions is removed and the cover centres are found lying in regular order, and at regular distances apart, on the metal plate. The object of the intervals between the covered centres is to prevent the running together of the latter.

Beans and rings are only dipped up to the middle, and the process repeated with the other half of the centre after the first half has cooled. This ensures a pleasing, round appearance, and has further the advantage that the cover grating need not be put on during the operation. When dipping cylindrical or ball-shaped centres, the grating K which has first been removed on dipping, is at once transferred to the heater, to prevent it cooling and withdrawing too much warmth from the covering material at the next immersion.

The dipping of pralinés etc. is exceedingly easy if the new type of dipping machine is used, a full view of which is given in Fig. 81 and which has the highly appreciable advantage of simultaneously cooling the dipped centres. All the parts are, in the main, worked by hand, only the shaking and stirring contrivances and the cooling fan requiring to be driven by motor power. The middle piece carries the actual dipping apparatus, underneath which the tank holding the covering chocolate is fixed, while the lefthand sidepiece serves for feeding; as many as four operators can be engaged simultaneously at the latter, the work consisting of laying the centres in the gratings corresponding to the mouldings desired. The construction of these gratings is, in the main, similar to the stamped trays of Anton Reiche, but they are not provided with handles and are despatched along the guide-rails by hand. The filled grating is then placed in a frame, which is dipped by means of a winch into the liquid chocolate. The top grating on the dipping frame is adjustable, and the object of this grating is to keep the centres down, as without this arrangement some of the centres might rise to the surface of the covering. The top grating is, before commencing to dip, pushed over the filled grating with the centres and is thus immersed with them. The frame having been removed, the shaker is put in action to remove the superfluous material from both the gratings and the centres. The grating is drawn out after use from below the top grating and transferred to a book-shaped ejector, on one side of which is a metal sheet covered with paper. The whole of the centres are then discharged on to the sheet, by reversing the two flap-sections.

The sheet containing the covered centres is then transferred to the cooling apparatus at the right, in which it is gradually lowered on a “paternoster” apparatus by turning round a handle. It is then conducted to the left by an endless band, and finally discharged in a cooled state by the machine. The ventilator should be supplied with air from the cellars and is arranged to blow it out in the opposite direction to the goods in the cooling apparatus.

The shape of the design-gratings is reproduced in high relief on the goods, and it will therefore be readily understood that further designs or fancy shapes can be made on the gratings. For the production of semi-dipped goods or such as are dipped round and remain uncovered at the bottom, a device is attached to the striking gear which renders it possible to regulate the depth of each immersion at will. The tank containing the covering material is surrounded by a water-jacket, which is heated by steam. The heat of the water is indicated by a thermometer. The receptacle containing the covering can easily be drawn out towards the front. In addition to this, the whole of the outside of the machine, which also constitutes a complete water-jacket, is heated by steam, and finally the ejector. The gratings containing the impressions are taken out of the ejector after use and transferred to the feeding side to be used again, so that, at the very most, four gratings are required for each design.

The daily output of the machine is 300-600 kilos, and the size of the gratings 280 by 400 millimetres, the output naturally depending on whether the machine is operated by two, three or more persons.

B. The Manufacture of Cocoa Powder and “Soluble” Cocoa.

a. The various methods of disintegrating or opening up the tissues of cacao.

The comparatively high fat content of pure cacao, which would deter certain persons, especially those suffering from stomach disorders, from taking it, has given rise to the now extensive demand for a cacao preparation containing a less amount of fat and the constituents of which are capable of being easily assimilated in the human organism. At the same time the desire to obtain a cacao preparation easily capable of complete and uniform suspension in milk or water may have played its part, as this quality, in consequence of which the preparation can rapidly and without difficulty be rendered ready for consumption, is obviously a great advantage. The best way to obtain this appeared to be the pulverisation of the cacao, which, when reduced to a powder, more readily satisfies the above conditions. As, however, it was not possible to pulverise cacao which still contained its full amount of natural fat, it became necessary to devote attention to the operation of extracting the cacao butter. It is many years since the first appearance of certain preparations in Germany which went under the name of “Cacogna”, and which had been deprived of their fat to the extent of 20-25 %. This problem, however, was recognised and attempts and all manner of experiments made to solve it at a much earlier period in Holland. The founder of the well-known Dutch firm of J. C. van Houten & Sons in Weesp, Mr. C. J. van Houten, was the first to attempt the expression of the fat from cacao (1828) and to treat it with chemical agents with a view to opening up or bringing about the disintegration of the tissues, in order to render the cacao a fit and welcome article of food, not only for healthy persons, but also for invalids and convalescent persons.

It was not until the Dutch cocoa thus manufactured had been introduced into England and Germany, where, as well as in Holland, it became very popular, that manufacturers in Germany and Switzerland began to devote their attention to the treatment with chemical agents. The consumption of so-called “soluble” cocoa has increased to such an extent of late years that it is now almost as large as that of chocolate goods.

The term “soluble”, as now generally applied to cocoa powders, is undoubtedly a misnomer, inasmuch as such preparations are practically not soluble at all. We have therefore termed cocoa for drinking purposes in this book “disintegrated” cacao, as the processes described in the following pages only render the elements of cacao, as, for instance, the cellulose, capable of suspension in liquids. It would be quite impossible to render cacao, by any special treatment, soluble in the real sense of the term, as is the case with salt or sugar. It will thus be readily understood that the expression “disintegrated” is correcter and more logical than the term “soluble The degree to which disintegration has been carried, i. e. the efficiency of the opening-up processes adopted, is marked by the absence of any sediment worth speaking of in the beverage prepared with boiling water, even after it has been left standing some time. The greater the power of suspension of the preparation, the less particles of cacao will settle to the bottom, and the higher the beverage will be esteemed.

The disintegrating agents are, in practice, applied either to the raw or roasted, but otherwise untreated beans, or to the more or less defatted cacao, as follows:

a) by treating the cacao with hot water, without or under pressure;

b) by treatment with alkalis, such as carbonate of kali or sodium, carbonate of magnesia (Dutch method), spirits of ammonia (sal-ammoniac) and carbonate of ammonia (German method).

The chemical and physical effects brought about by these agents consist chiefly in the swelling or steeping of the cellulose by the action of the alkalis, as a consequence of which they sink less rapidly in liquids than would be the case with untreated cacao. A further effect is the partial neutralisation of the acids present, besides which the cacao-red or pigment is also attacked, a result which may be regarded as less desirable, as the cacao-red is the secreter of the aroma, which naturally suffers with it. If the cacao is treated with steam or hot water, the starch is apt to gelatinise, and the acids to begin to ferment.

As the treatment with steam, for the reasons given above, is nowadays rarely practised, we will at once proceed to consider the method of disintegrating cacao most in use. Modifications of the methods of manufacture bearing on this point will be dealt with in their place under the corresponding heading later in this book.

b. Methods of Disintegration.

1. ~Preliminary Treatment of the Beans.~

The method of manufacture of disintegrated cocoa comprises the following operations:

a) The cleaning and sorting of the raw bean;
b) Roasting;
c) Shelling, breaking and grinding;
d) Treatment with alkalis or water;
e) Expression of the fat or cacao butter;
f) Pulverising.

The order of the above processes is subject under certain conditions to various modifications arising from the fact that the alkalis are applied at various stages in the course of manufacture, i. e.:

I. before roasting;
II. during roasting;
III. after roasting,

and further

a) before pressing;
b) after pressing (treatment of the defatted beans).

The cleaning and sorting of the raw beans, or, in short, the complete treatment to which the raw cacao is subjected (a to c) is in all methods effected by the same machines, a description of which has been given on pages [Transcriber’s Note: Rest of line missing]

Some manufacturers proceed at once to treat the cacao with alkali on completion of the above operations.

C. Stähle[122] effects the disintegration of cacao by subjecting the beans to the chemical action of a mixture of ammonia and steam, at a temperature not exceeding 100 Deg. C. The next process (roasting) is then supposed to draw out the ammonia introduced into the material, which, being volatile, easily escapes, and enables the flavour to develop.

Pieper[123] moistens the raw beans with water, to which alkali has been added, and this has the effect of neutralising the acids present in the bean; afterwards the beans are fermented, dried and roasted. The fermentation is described as rendering the particles of albumin or protein bodies easily digestible and further imparts to the beans a fine, reddish brown colour. This process is therefore nothing but an after-fermentation of the cacao under the influence of alkalis. From a scientific point of view, the process does not possess the advantages which Pieper claims for it, with the exception of the really evident improvement in colour. This effect can, however, be obtained equally well by suitable treatment with water alone.

G. Wendt[124] has patented a method of improving the colour and facilitating the disintegration of cacao, in which the beans are treated, before roasting, with lime water and milk of lime (lime solutions) and further washed with the solution during roasting.

We now turn to the methods of disintegration by means of fixed alkalis (carbonate of magnesia, potash and sodium) first employed by the Dutch, concerning which the following description will be useful.

The cleaned beans are first very superficially roasted, to facilitate winnowing, and the cacao thus treated (half roasted cacao) broken as small as possible, which is an equally important factor in the shelling and winnowing processes. It should be observed here that the less the cacao has been roasted, the finer it should be broken. The material is then impregnated by one of the above-mentioned alkaline solutions, which is sprayed on to the beans. The chief agent employed is potash (carbonate of potassium) in the proportion of 1½-2 (3 at the outside) parts of potash to 20-30 parts of water, for every hundred parts of the defatted material to be treated. Some manufacturers use sodium or a mixture of sodium and carbonate of magnesia in place of the potash. As soon as the cacao has been uniformly impregnated by the alkaline solution, the roasting process should be completed. Still more care should be devoted to the roasting of cacao for pulverising than is required in the case of eating chocolates, as taste and smell play a more important part and the point of complete roasting is not so easily recognised. The cacao being roughly broken and the shells removed, the second roasting process must of course be conducted over a low fire. The most suitable machines for this purpose are the large roasting machines illustrated on page 93, Fig. 14, as in these machines there is little possibility of over-roasting, even when dealing with large quantities and the machine is intensely heated; another advantage is the easy accessibility of the roasting drum, which can be immediately exposed by removing the front cover, for cleaning; cleaning is very necessary in roasting machines. Broken and moistened cacao chars much more readily than raw beans which have not been deprived of their shells. If it is not possible to thoroughly clean the interior of the roasting drum, as is often the case with spherical roasters, the particles of cacao remaining in the drum continually undergo re-roasting, finally falling in a completely charred state into the cacao, thereby greatly prejudicing its taste.

If necessary, the cacao can now be passed through the breaking machine again, from which it is transferred to the triple cacao mill, which provides for fine grinding. The material is then deposited in heated pans (see page 117, Fig. 27) where it remains until ready for the next process, the expression of the fat. The object of the fine grinding in the mill is to render the cacao on being ground again after the defatting process, easily capable of being sifted, and to obtain a preparation which, on being mixed with hot water, leaves as little sediment as possible.

2. ~Expression of the Fat.~

Hydraulic presses are nowadays exclusively used for this most important operation in the manufacture of “soluble” cocoa. The methods of pressing have, in common with the other operations in the course of manufacture, undergone considerable modification and improvement.

According to Macquer (see Mitscherlich, S. 58) the butter was extracted during the last century by pulverising the seeds, boiling them in water and cleansing the fat, which, on cooling, congealed on the surface of the water, by re-melting. According to Desprez (see Mitscherlich, S. 58), burned, shelled and finely pulverised beans were spread to a height of 12-15 inches on coarse linen or canvas, which was spanned across a vessel containing boiling water, to expose the fine powder thoroughly to the action of the hot vapour. The powder was then pressed, in linen bags, between two tin plates, whereby some 50% of pure cacao butter was obtained. At a later period the heatable hydraulic pot-presses came into use. The mass had, however, to be introduced into these pots tied up in a cloth or sack, to facilitate which it was previously treated with water, forming a thickish syrup very convenient for pressing. All these methods, however, were attended with the great disadvantage that the cocoa, after being stored some time, acquired a grey colour, or became mouldy. To avoid these undesirable results presses were constructed which rendered it possible to liquefy the mass without any further treatment in the receptacle in which the pressing was conducted. Such a press, likewise acting hydraulically, is shown in Fig. 82 on the opposite page.

This machine exerts a total pressure of 320000 kilogrammes and works with 400 atmospheres. The construction of the machine is similar to that of the well-known types of presses used by oil manufacturers for the preparation of vegetable oils. When pressing, however, the pots containing the cacao must be rendered water-tight both at the top and bottom, to prevent the liquid cacao from escaping, while such provision is not necessary in the case of the oil presses. The stopping up of the press-pots is effected by means of a side-handle, and arrangements are provided for heating the pots both from above and below. The machine illustrated has 4 pots, arranged one above the other, which can be drawn out on guide-rails towards the front of the machine. During pressing, they close telescopically with the piston arranged underneath each pot. The pump which supplies the water for the hydraulic pressure, works perfectly automatically, increases the pressure according to the quantity of fat which has run off and keeps the pressure at its maximum or at any degree required. With these presses it is possible to extract, without difficulty, 85 % and even more of the total fat of the cacao bean. If pressing is carried on at too high a temperature, a pale, whitish grey butter is the result. If, however, a little attention is paid by the operator at the press, the butter obtained is usually perfectly clear, as it is first conducted through a horse-hair pad covered with linen, or a camel-hair cushion 15 millimetres in thickness. Sufficient attention is not always paid to the operation of pressing, so that it often happens that some of the cacao escapes with the butter, which is especially the case if the pressure has been increased too rapidly at the beginning. If the butter is extracted for use in the factory itself, the escape of the cacao with it is of no serious consequence; if, however, the butter is intended for sale for commercial purposes, its appearance is a most important factor, wherefore it is advisable to filter the impure fat immediately after pressing. It is true that, in most factories, the butter is in such cases merely remelted to allow the impurities to settle to the bottom, this part being then submitted again to the same treatment, while the rest of the butter is disposed of on the market. If filtering is necessary, the butter filter should be used, which, first constructed in Holland, has been in use for a long time there. The principle of these filters is to pass the butter through hanging tubes made of a filtering material similar to flannel.

The firm of Volkmar Hänig & Co. constructs special cocoa butter filters which can be obtained through the firm of J. M. Lehmann. Figs. 83 and 83a show this type of filter (cross and vertical section), the manner of working with it being the following:

As soon as the butter has passed through the hair sieve in the upper part of the apparatus, which removes larger objects such as pieces of wood etc., it enters the hanging filter tubes, which, to facilitate cleaning, are interchangeable. The filter butter accumulates in the large space provided for the purpose and is withdrawn through a tap. An observing glass is attached to the apparatus for the purpose of watching the height of the butter, and the whole filter is water-jacketed, the water being heated by a steam coil fixed in the bottom of the apparatus. A thermometer is fixed to the side of the filter, for regulating the temperature.

The degree to which cocoa powders should be defatted is an important question which, some years ago, formed the subject of much controversy. The relation between the percentage of fat contained in the original cacao kernel, the expressed butter and the defatted cacao mass is shown in tables 19 and 20.

The taste of defatted cacao is, as is well known, all the better for being defatted to a low degree, and it is this which constitutes the great advantage of cocoa prepared according to the Dutch method, the remaining cacao content of which is some 24-33 percent, so that, taking 50 percent as the average quantity of fat contained in the cacao, only about 34-52 percent of the whole is removed from the mass.

If the expression of the butter is carried to a further degree, the cacao will certainly become more easily capable of suspension in liquids[125], but such treatment is detrimental to its flavour[126], which is apt to become woody or bitter. The

~Table 19.~

Percentage of butter to be extracted.

========================================================================
Percentage of fat |
to remain in the | Fat content of kernel
finished cocoa |
powder | 50% | 51% | 52% | 53% | 54% | 55% | 56%
=======================+======+======+======+======+======+======+====
| Weight of butter to be expressed
| (in proportion to the whole mass)
{33% |25·4 |26·9 |28·4 |29·8 |31·3 |32·8 |34·4
| | | | | | |
{32% |26·5 |27·8 |29 |30·9 |32·4 |33·3 |35·3
{ | | | | | | |
{31% |27·5 |29 |30·4 |31·9 |33·3 |34·8 |36·2
{ | | | | | | |
{30% |28·6 |30 |31·4 |32·9 |34·3 |35·7 |37·1
{ | | | | | | |
Fatty Cacao {29% |29·6 |31 |32·4 |33·8 |35·2 |36·6 |38
{ | | | | | | |
{28% |30·6 |31·9 |33·3 |34·7 |36·2 |37·5 |38·9
{ | | | | | | |
{27% |31·5 |32·9 |34·2 |35·6 |37 |38·4 |39·7
{ | | | | | | |
{26% |32·4 |33·8 |35·1 |36·5 |37·8 |39·2 |40·5
{ | | | | | | |
{25% |33·3 |34·7 |36 |37·3 |38·7 |40 |41·3
——————————————————————-+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+————
{24% |34·2 |35·5 |36·9 |38·2 |39·5 |40·8 |42·1
{ | | | | | | |
{23% |35·1 |36·4 |37·7 |39 |40·3 |41·6 |42·9
{ | | | | | | |
{22% |35·9 |37·2 |38·5 |39·8 |41 |42·3 |43·6
{ | | | | | | |
{21% |36·7 |38 |39·2 |40·5 |41·8 |43 |44·3
Non-fatty Cacao { | | | | | | |
{20% |37·5 |38·8 |40 |41·3 |42·5 |43·8 |45
{ | | | | | | |
{19% |38·3 |39 |40·7 |42 |43·2 |44·5 |45·7
{ | | | | | | |
{18% |39 |40·2 |41·5 |42·7 |43·9 |45·1 |46·3
{ | | | | | | |
{17% |39·7 |41 |42·2 |43·4 |44·6 |45·8 |47
——————————————————————-+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+————
Diminution {(16%)|(40·4)|(41·7)|(42·9)|(44) |(45·2)|(46·4)|(47·6)
in { | | | | | | |
value K. {(15%)|(41·1)|(42·4)|(43·5)|(44·7)|(45·9)|(47·1)|(48·2)
——————————————————

~Table 20.~

=Percentage of butter remaining in the finished cocoa powder.=

=================++================================================
Weight of butter ||
to be expressed, || Fat content of kernel
in proportion to || | | | | | |
the whole mass || 50% | 51% | 52% | 53% | 54% | 55% | 56%
=================++======+======+======+======+======+======+======
||
{ 30% || 28·6 | 30 | 31·4 | 32·9 | 34·3 | 35·7 | 37·1
Fatty { 31% || 27·5 | 29 | 30·4 | 31·9 | 33·3 | 34·8 | 36·2
Cacao { 32% || 26·5 | 27·9 | 29·4 | 30·9 | 32·3 | 33·8 | 35·3
{ 33% || 25·4 | 26·9 | 28·4 | 29·9 | 31·3 | 32·8 | 34·3
{ 34% || 24·2 | 25·8 | 27·3 | 28·8 | 30·3 | 31·8 | 33·3
====++======+ | | | | |
{ 35% || 23·1 | 24·6 | 26·2 | 27·7 | 29·2 | 30·8 | 32·3
{ || +======+ | | | |
{ 36% || 21·9 | 23·4 | 25 | 26·6 | 28·1 | 29·7 | 31·3
Non- { || | +======+ | | |
fatty { 37% || 20·6 | 22·2 | 23·8 | 25·4 | 27 | 28·6 | 30·2
Cacao { 38% || 19·4 | 21 | 22·6 | 24·2 | 25·8 | 27·4 | 29
{ || | | +======+ | |
{ 39% || 18 | 19·7 | 21·3 | 23 | 24·6 | 26·2 | 27·9
{ || | | | +======+ |
{ 40% || 16·7 | 18·3 | 20 | 21·7 | 23·3 | 25 | 26·7
====++======+ | | | +======+
{ 41% ||(15·3)| 16·9 | 18·6 | 20·3 | 22 | 23·7 | 25·4
{ || +======+ | | | +======
{ 42% ||(13·8)|(15·5)| 17·2 | 19 | 20·7 | 22·4 | 24·1
{ || | +======+ | | |
{ 43% ||(12·3)|(14) |(15·8)| 17·5 | 19·3 | 21·1 | 22·8
Diminu- { || | | +======+ | |
tion in { 44% ||(10·7)|(12·5)|(14·3)|(16) | 17·9 | 19·6 | 21·4
value K. { 45% || — |(10·9)|(12·7)|(14·5)| 16·4 | 18·2 | 20
{ || | | | +======+ |
{ 46% || — | — |(11·1)|(13) |(14·8)| 16·7 | 18·5
{ || | | | | +======+
{ 47% || — | — | — |(11·3)|(13·2)|(15·1)| 17
{ || | | | | | +======
{ 48% || — | — | — | — |(11·5)|(13·5)|(15·4)

statement, made by certain manufacturers and would-be connoisseurs, that the bitter taste peculiar to the acid produced in cacao during fermentation is the real aroma of the cacao, is undoubtedly erroneous. It could, in the same way, be said of tea and its acids, the bitterer, the better; which would of course end in the destruction of the true flavour. Equally erroneous is the theory that bitter cacao is more consistent. Such cacao must, previous to consumption, either be more sweetened than usual or, if the same quantity of sugar is put in, less of the beverage can be taken. When, for instance, very thin coffee is made, the beans, on colouring an abnormally large quantity of water, are said to be stronger, i. e. to yield more. The consistency of all such beverages is, however, only a matter of taste, and it would therefore be useless to discuss the subject in detail; some persons prefer strong tea, which has been brewed a quarter of an hour, others simply pour boiling water over the tea leaves and then drink the beverage immediately. It may, however, safely be taken that the highest amount of butter which can be expressed from cacao without prejudicing the flavour of the finished powder is 66 percent of the total fat content. Manufacturers nowadays try as a rule to express as much butter as possible, as the butter has a high price on the market, and this tendency naturally has the effect of lowering the quality of the cocoa. We thus come across cocoa powders containing only 20, 17, 15 percent of fat and even less. Of course nothing can be said against the production of such cocoas, provided they are sold at a lower price than cocoas more rich in fat and the public are aware that they are purchasing a non-fatty preparation, besides which the expression of so high a percentage of the fat alone rendered cocoa a fit regular beverage for certain classes of invalids and persons suffering from disorders of the stomach. The only serious drawback in this case is the great variability of the fat content, which fluctuates between 13 and 35 percent. Such fluctuations are absolutely impossible in the case of any other article of food which is manufactured and sold wholesale, or, at any rate, buyers know in all such cases exactly what they are purchasing; this is a point to which serious attention must be called. It is very much to be regretted that the Association of German Chocolate Makers[127] has declined to follow up this matter, while the Union of German Food Chemists, after considerable controversy, advocated a distinct legal classification of non-fatty cocoa powders containing up to 20 percent of fat.[128] We would prefer the Dutch preparations, which have remained the same up to the present day, so-called fatty cocoas containing more than 25 percent of fat, to be classified specially and those preparations which contain less than this percentage of fat to be termed “highly defatted” or “dry” cocoas, the names applied to both kinds being of little importance as long as the public has the means of clearly recognising the distinction (see tables 19 and 20). Some 17 percent must be taken as the minimum permissible butter value, which would mean the expression of about 80 percent of the total fat content, or two-thirds of the cacao mass itself; cocoa powders with only 15 percent or less of butter are to be regarded as inferior in quality and should not be produced. Unfortunately, however, these suggested limits are, at any rate for the present, not likely to be realised.

The pressure obtained by means of the pressing devices above described is naturally not sufficient for the production of such highly defatted cocoas. Stronger presses are therefore necessary, one of which, a very powerful apparatus, is shown in Fig. 84.

This machine, at the present time the most powerful cocoa butter press in the world, brings a pressure of over one million kilos to bear on the cacao mass, working with 400 atmospheres, and thus renders it possible to express as much as 90 percent of the total fat content of the bean. The construction of this press is exactly the same as that shown in Fig. 82, the pump Fig. 84a having, however, three pistons or plungers instead of one; it works, like the other machine, automatically, i. e., after the large quantity of water required at the commencement has been fed into the press, the large plunger is put out of gear at a pressure of 5 atmospheres; the two smaller pistons are then put into action together, and produce the enormous pressure of 400 atmospheres.

After defatting, the expressed cacao cakes are allowed to cool down, for which purpose they are transferred to flat trays or other suitable receptacles, and pulverising and sifting the powder thus obtained commenced.

3. ~Pulverising and Sifting the Defatted Cacao.~

There are several methods of proceeding with these operations, such as treating the expressed cacao in the melangeur already described in an earlier part of this book (cf. 30-32 figs.) or passing it through the centrifugal sifting machine (cf. 84b and 88 figs.) with which we are now acquainted. At a time when the melangeur was to a certain extent the universal machine of the manufacturer, it was almost exclusively utilised for pulverisation, that up-to-date division of labour whereby this machine is limited to mixing (and very properly so limited, as its name implies) and the preparation of cacao powders on the contrary assigned to more efficient constructions having then not as yet been adopted. We annex a description of one or two specially constructed arrangements for the pulverisation and sifting of cacao, as manufactured by J. M. Lehmann and already repeatedly tested.

First there is the cacao cake crusher (figs. 85a and 85b), which reduces the pressed cake into rather large pieces about the size of a walnut, previous to its being pulverised either in the melangeur, centrifugal sifting machine or some similar apparatus. It has been furnished with one (fig. 85a) and in some cases even with two (fig. 85b) pair of toothed or cogged rollers, and the cacao in this latter type of construction is crushed as small as a pea, which reduction, although it is by no means essential, considerably relieves the strain on the pulverising machine and is also in some sort a protection against unnecessary waste of material.

Then again, there is the so-called pulveriser shown in fig. 86. This is in principle an edge-mill with revolving bed-stone and runners, both made of granite. The coarsely broken press cakes are fed into the mill through a hopper provided with a slide, and are reduced to a loose powder of firmly fixed colour, escape of dust being prevented by the hood fitted to the mill. By turning a crank, a lateral sliding door is opened, and an arrangement inside is set in motion, by which the ground cacao is turned out of the mill. The pressure of the runners can be diminished and even completely nullified.

For cacao that has been thoroughly defatted (“dry” cocoa), the hardness of which demands a more efficient treatment than is possible in these machines, they being only calculated to press or at the most exert a rubbing effect, there are the crushers proper, called mills built in pulverising plants for dry cocoas as illustrated on fig. 87.

The pressed cacao, already broken up to some extent in a preliminary crusher (cf. figs. 85a and b), is systematically conducted through the mill by an elevator provided with hopper and feeding apparatus. On the interior of the machine, which is completely plated with steel-plates, there is a cross-arm as on a windmill, which passes through a large number of revolutions per minute. Chiefly owing to its thrashing effect, the cacao in the mill is fine ground, without any rubbing or exertion of pressure as in the melangeur and other machines. The outer part of the frame consists of a grating with various widths of hole, which can be readily changed. The whole of the powder which has attained a certain degree of fineness falls through these meshes and is so despatched from the machine at once, an additional advantage when comparing this mill with the melangeur, in which all the powder, even that sufficiently ground, must remain till the final discharging, much to the detriment of its flavour and aroma.

The powdered cacao next succeeds to the sifting operations, after it has first cooled a little, and for these the centrifugal sifting machines are used in the main. Special care must be taken that such apparatus as is used is not too diminutive to deal with the quantities of cacao introduced, as this is extremely injurious to the machine. It is further to be noted that no type of sifter whatever can yield good results if it has not been especially constructed for dry cacaos.

We have before us in fig. 88 centrifugal sifting machine constructed on one of the largest scales. In this cacao is introduced in the floor of the sieve through a feeder, and by means of an elevator. The sifting cylinder is spanned with silk or bronze gauze, and conceals in its interior a rough sort of preliminary sieve, the purpose of which is to prevent the larger unpowdered pieces penetrating to the silk gauze. There is a ventilator inside this rough sieve, which produces and transmits an air current, so that the meshes are kept open. Under proper guidance it is practically impossible for the machine to break down, although the sieve must be cleansed twice daily, an operation scarcely requiring more than two or three minutes, as it is not necessary first to remove the part under consideration. Because of this easy manner of cleaning, the centrifugal sifter far excels all others, as the plan sifter, the latter generally having to be dismounted before this operation can be proceeded with.

The powder issues from the first outlet of the sieve. There is a second, where both preliminary and cylinder sieve transmit their overflow, and this is then again conducted to the pulveriser in order to be worked up once more. Pulverisers and sifting apparatus can be so combined by means of conveyors and elevators that they work automatically, which is always of immense advantage where a large daily output is in question. But pressed cakes which are to be conducted through the machine in broken pieces must first be treated in a preliminary crusher (cf. figs. 85a and b).

Fig. 88a shows one of the plansieves of the firm Baumeister, and protected by patent, which also finds employment for the sieving of cacao powder.

This machine possesses four round sieves lying one upon another, on which the material to be sieved is moved by a crank driving power just as on a hand sieve, so that the surface of the sieve is fully employed. The sieves possess neither projection nor hauling gear, the sieving is effected without pressure or friction, and the powder is therefore loose and woolly. A brushing arrangement revolves without any mechanism, driven solely by the peculiar movement of the plansieve, under the wholly flat sieves, and this brushing arrangement any cacao powder which may adhere to the sieve and so prevents a displacement of the tension, as far as possible.

In the following illustration we give as an example the arrangement of a pulverising plant with pulverisers (cf. fig. 86) for a second time.

The preliminary crusher receives the cakes, and then a conveyor brings the broken pieces along to the elevator, which in its turn feeds the filling box of the pulveriser, the connection between the two being established by a sliding platform. The discharged material succeeds on a landing where it is cooled down a little. A second conveyor brings it to the elevator of the sifting machine. Whilst the fine powder is taken up in barrels collectively introduced under the apparatus, the remainder of the cacao passes along to the conveyor first mentioned, is mixed with other broken pieces of cacao cake, and so returns to the pulveriser.

In reference to the Dutch method of disintegration, mention must be made of the process adopted by Moser & Co. in Stuttgart[129], where the cleansed, shelled and moistened beans are enclosed in a rotating drum, so that they can be subjected to the influence of ammonia and water vapour, produced from a solution of ammonium carbonate, which is passed through the hollow interior of the drum. The beans are then roasted and so freed of superfluous ammonia, after which follow in regular order the processes of grinding, defatting and pulverising.

After this description of the Dutch and other well-known methods of disintegration obtaining in the manufacture of cocoa powder, we shall now proceed to describe such of the remaining processes as seem to deserve mention.

c. Disintegration after Roasting.

The chief difference between the following methods of procedure and the Dutch and other processes previously referred to is that in the former the beans are neither impregnated with alkalis before nor during the roasting, but after it has been carried out, and the impregnation occurs sometimes prior, and at other times subsequent, to the expression of the fat. The several stages of treatment which proceed this process succeed each other in the same order as in the preparation of chocolate, cleansing, sorting, roasting, crushing, shelling and trituration following one after the other. But if the treatment with alkali is to take place before the fat is expressed, the cacao passes from the grinding mill direct to the apparatus in which it is subjected to the action of a solution of potash or some other alkali.

1. ~Disintegration prior to Pressing.~

The system of impregnating the ground but as yet undefatted beans with alkali was first introduced into Germany by Otto Rüger, Lockwitzgrund. The principle features of the Rüger process are similar to those of other methods at present frequently met with, so that a detailed description would seem to be rather superfluous. Melangeurs may be conveniently employed in the treatment of cacao mass in a liquid state with alkalis, such as we have previously described, and illustrated in fig. 86 on page 210.

As preparing machines for disintegration, the kneading and mixing apparatus shown in working position in fig. 28, page 118, and in fig. 90 a with tilted trough for emptying are specially constructed and patented and quite deserve the popularity they have acquired.

Their construction and method of working are described on page 118. Other well-known machines for the purpose are the “Universal” mixing and kneading machines patented by Werner & Pfleiderer, which are shown in figs. 90 b and 90 c. As regards the general outlines of their construction, it will suffice to refer to the excellent descriptions of the machines which occur in the catalogues issued by this firm. Mention cannot fail to be made, however, of the circumstance that in these machines the evaporation of the alkaline solvent is also effected. The working of the kneading arms facilitates the escape of vapour from the mass and prevents overheating from contact with the walls of the apparatus. Underneath, the trough is provided with a double jacket, that is heated by steam.

To maintain connection of the steam and water pipes whilst the trough is reversed there are two flexible metal tubes. Both are screwed to the fixed pipes. For carrying away the vapour given off there is a tin plate cover to the trough, provided with a charging aperture and a channel inside to catch the moisture collecting on the cover and discharge it. When the machine is to be emptied, the cover is raised and a receiver adapted to the size and form of the machine is so placed that the charge can be diverted into it. The tilting of the machine is effected mechanically, and depends on the working of a lever. So as to prevent spurting of the liquid material when discharging, the stirring arms can be stopped for a time.

From this “Universal” Kneader and Mixer the special type “Vacuum Kneader”, system Werner-Pfleiderer, is distinguished, as its name implies, by a vacuum arrangement. As seen on illustrations 91 a and b, this comprises a pyramid-like cover made of cast iron, and shutting down air-tight, which is provided with indiarubber caulking, and binding screws, and is fitted up for steam heating. It moves on the frame of the machine and is counterpoised with weights, so as to facilitate its raising and lowering. On the front part of the lid there is a small aperture paned in with glass, and opposite on the interior in a specially protected compartment occurs an electric light arrangement, which admits of the continual observation of the material during the working up processes. In addition, small quantities of cacao mass can be introduced on removal of the glass pane without lifting up the lid; so that the advantages of the aperture are twofold. The upper part of the cover tapers off into a suction pipe, which itself terminates in a flanged support intended as a finish to the conduit from the airpump.

The kneading trough of the machine is made of cast iron, provided with a false bottom, and fitted up for heating with hot water or steam to a pressure of 7 atmospheres, or for cooling down with cold water. By way of rapid discharging, the trough is counterpoised with weights, and can easily be tilted over by means of a hand winch. Its interior, as also the kneading shovels, are clean scoured, and the bearings of the shovels stopped with easily adjustable stuffing boxes. These stuffing boxes (German Patent) are so fitted in that no greasing substances whatever can penetrate to the cacao mass, which is of the highest importance, as in the case of the ordinary stuffing boxes grease is sucked up into the kneading trough by the action of the air pumps and the material contained in this so rendered impure. The steam and water conduit to and fro is effected by means of supple metallic hose, which follow the movement of the trough as it is tilted.

The vacuum kneading machines have acquired great importance in the manufacture of milk chocolates, where it is chiefly a question of reducing mixtures of cacao, sugar, and condensed milk to a requisite thickness. Lately the value of the machine has been regarded as consisting in the main of the possibility of preparing cacao under vacuum which it affords.

It is easy to understand that the treatment of the cacao under vacuum demands a much lower temperature and takes place in about half the time requisite for open machines, where it must be carried out against the constant and contrary influence of the atmosphere, apart from the fact that the vacuum kneader preserves the aroma far better.

The alkali solution used in disintegration may be prepared in vats fitted with draw-off cocks, or, in small factories, in glass carboys such as are used for the conveyance of acids. Of the fixed alkalis, potash is preferable, since it is a natural constituent of terrestrial plants and therefore of the cacao bean, and so its employment introduces no foreign ingredient. Magnesium carbonate seems to find favour in many quarters, but we consider it less suitable as being insoluble in water, and therefore can only be incorporated with the cacao mass in a state of suspension. It is sufficient to have a potash solution some 90 or 95 % strong, answering to the requirements of modern medical treatises.[130] The salt is soluble in an equal quantity of water.

In preparing the solution, the best plan is to dissolve a known quantity in from 3 to 4 times as much water at the temperature of the room and then by diluting with water reduce this composition to the required strength. As for each 100 kilos of cacao still undefatted from 2 to at the most 3 kilos of potash and from 15 to 20 kilos of water are required, this 2 or 3 kilos of the salt should be dissolved in about 10 litres of water and the solution after diluted with the remainder of the water.

In using volatile alkalis, which are nevertheless falling into disuse more and apparently no longer maintain their reputation, ordinary ammonium carbonate which may be easily obtained in powder form at any chemist’s, or a solution of ammonia, such as spirits of sal-ammoniac, may be used. The former is easily soluble in about five parts of water. From ½ to 3 kilograms of ammonium carbonate are generally reckoned for every 100 kilos of undefatted cacao material, and this amount is dissolved in water, the whole of the salt being at once introduced into from 15 to 30 litres, as when smaller quantities are used there ensues a decomposition of the salt and one of the products of decomposition, the carbonate of ammonium, remains undissolved.

The spirits of sal-ammoniac operate much more effectively than the ammonium carbonate on account of their high percentage of ammonia, and so only a third as much of this substance may be employed, and generally even smaller quantities prove quite sufficient. Consequently 100 kilos of defatted cacao should be mixed with 0·5-1 kilo of ammonia solution (specific gravity 0·96), previously diluted with 20 or at the most 29 litres of water. The mixture should be prepared in glass carboys immediately before use, because of the volatility of ammonia.

In the treatment of the cacao, salt solution and cacao are together introduced into a melangeur, or better into the kneading and mixing machine, and the apparatus being set in working order, steam enters, and removes the quantities of water which have been added, as well as the volatile alkalis. Whether all the water has been driven off or no can only be judged from the consistency of the mass after treatment, and it is just this that renders the process of little value. The cacao material issuing from the machine must be just as liquid as when it comes out of the triturating mills, and so long as it appears as a glucose substance, which very often happens where unsuitable mixing machines are employed, so surely will it contain water, and this may lead to the growth of mould or to the cacao developing a grey colour when packed in boxes. If the cacao cannot be sufficiently dried in these machines, it must be transferred to some sort of drying plant (where the temperature is about 48 ° C.), and there deprived of its still remaining moisture.

When volatile alkali is used, kneading and mixing machines cannot very well be dispensed with, as they work up the cacao material much more thoroughly and admit of a better distribution of the ammonia than the melangeur or incorporator. In this case it is advisable that the entire process be carried out in some apartment separated from the other rooms of the factory, in order that the pungent smell of ammonia may not be communicated to other products, a further evil connected with this method of disintegration. At the same time provision must be made for the escape of the discharged gas through flues leading out into the open air.[131]

The treated cacao, when perfectly free from water and volatile alkali, then passes on to the press, pulveriser and sifting machine successively, the several operations being proceeded with exactly as described. In the original process of Rüger’s, the defatted and disintegrated cacao is dried after it has been reduced to smaller pieces, and then mixed with fat in such proportions as seem requisite and desirable, so that it is possible in this method to re-imbue a disintegrated cacao with its original percentage of fatty contents.

2. ~Disintegration after Pressing.~

In this process, which may no longer be adopted as far as we can ascertain the mechanically prepared beans are roasted, crushed and decorticated, then ground in mills, defatted, and finally the cakes are broken up into a rough powder and treated with alkali in the manner above described. Care must here be taken to use as little water as possible in dissolving the alkali. It is best to employ potash exclusively, for it has been found that the last traces of volatile alkali are extremely difficult to remove from defatted cacaos as decomposed by the solution, and there is no means of neutralising the ammonia without at the same time causing material damage to the flavour and aroma of the product treated.

The concentrated solution of alkali may be conveniently sprayed on the powder while the latter is subjected to a constant stirring, an operation best effected in the melangeur. The final drying is carried out in hot closets, provided with an effective ventilator suitable to the purpose. After it has been thoroughly dried, the cacao next succeeds to the pulverising and sifting processes.

Some methods of rendering cacao soluble remain to be mentioned, wherein no alkali whatever is used, and in which the disintegration is effected by means of either water or steam. The first process of the kind was invented by Lobeck & Co of Dresden[132] in the year 1883. The cacao beans, either raw, roasted, decorticated, ground or otherwise mechanically treated are exposed to heat and the action of steam under high pressure in a closed vessel, then subsequently powdered and dried. The process has little to recommend it and has not been able to establish itself accordingly, for hereby the starch in the cacao is gelatinised, and acid fermentation is introduced, such as does not fail to damage the final product. Then again, there is a danger of the cacao becoming mouldy in the store rooms, after being treated by this process.